TELESCOPIC BOOM CRANES

Telescopic boom cranes are typically called hydraulic cranes. The booms are composed of a series
of rectangular, trapezoidal, or other shape of symmetrically cross-sectional segments, fitting into
each other. The largest segment, at the bottom of the boom, is called the base section or boom
butt. The smallest section, at the top of the boom, is called the tip section or boom tip. In
between there can be one or more sections called the first, second, and so forth, sections. With
the boom fully retracted, the telescopic boom crane is highly maneuverable and easy to transport
to jobsites. Telescopic boom crane nomenclature is shown in figure 12-27.

Figure 12-27.-Telescopic boom crane nomenclature.

Sections

Telescopic booms may be a pinned boom, full-powered boom, or a combination of both. A

"pinned boom" means sections are pinned in the extended or retracted position. A "full-powered
boom" means sections extend or retract hydraulically. Some models have a full-powered main
boom with a pinned boom tip section. Read the operator's manual for the proper operation of
the type of boom that is equipped on the crane you are assigned to operate.

On a full-powered boom, the sections are extended and retracted (except for the base section) by
hydraulic cylinders, called extension cylinders. The cylinders are mounted parallel to the boom
center line within each section. The boom extension cylinders on most telescopic booms have

1
sequencing valves that allow the sections to extend (telescope) by equal amounts. These cranes
usually have a single telescope control lever in the cab. However, on cranes not equipped with
sequencing valves, the operator will have to extend each section equally. (The crane will have
two or three boom telescope control levers in the cab, each controlling only a single boom
section.) If the boom sections are extended unequally, the most fully extended section of boom
could bend to uneven stresses. Additionally, the load chart will be invalidated for determining
rated capacity of the crane. Boom sections that are marked off in equal increments, as shown on
the boom in figure 12-27, make it easier for the operator or signalman to make sure each section
is extended equally.

When a load is placed on a telescopic boom, the load weight on the boom causes the hydraulic
rams within the boom to stiffen up and slightly curve. As the load is removed from the boom, the
rams return straight. Because of this, do not extend the boom while it is under load. Read the
operator's manual for boom extension information.

Hoisting Mechanism

The hoisting mechanism for a telescopic crane is a hydraulically powered hoist drum. The hoist
drum is mounted behind the boom on the crane house or revolving turntable. Some hydraulic cranes
are equipped with two hoist drums: one for the main hoist and the second for the auxiliary or
whip line.

House Assembly

The house assembly is a revolving unit that supports the boom. Some small hydraulic cranes have
the operator's cab and counterweight attached to the revolving unit.

OPERATOR'S CAB.- The telescopic crane will have hoist, swing, and boom control levers similar to
the cab of the lattice boom crane. Control lever(s) is/are also provided to extend and retract the
boom. The hoist system does not require foot-controlled brakes. When the hoist control lever is
returned to the neutral position, the hydraulic system holds the load in place.

POWER SOURCE.- The power for a telescopic crane comes from hydraulic fluid. In most cases, the
main carrier engine drives the hydraulic pump that supplies the hydraulic fluid to hydraulically
controlled components. Power is diverted to hydraulic motors or cylinders by the valve body at
the operator's control station. The hydraulic power provides positive control of all crane
functions.

COUNTERWEIGHT.- The counterweight on a telescopic crane provides greater stability when

lifting loads. When you are performing near-capacity lifts at high boom angles using a telescopic
crane, about 60 percent of load weight is placed on the outriggers away from the load. When you
are performing the same lift with a lattice boom crane, about 60 percent of the load is placed on
outriggers close to the load.

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CRANE ATTACHMENTS
The crane is a versatile piece of equipment that can be equipped with various attachments to
perform a number of different operations. These attachments include a hook block, a clamshell,
and a dragline.

HOOK BLOCK

A crane that is rigged with a hook block is the primary unit for lifting an objector load,
transferring it to a new place by swinging or traveling and then placing the load. Figure 12-28
shows an eight-part line rigged hook block.

The number of parts of a line rigged on the hook block is important for figuring the capacity of
the crane. Most crane load charts show the rated capacity of the crane for different parts of the
line; for example, a crane that is capable of being rigged with a eight-part line is rigged with a six-
part line. The eight-part line gives the crane a greater lifting capacity; therefore, you must check
the load chart for the six-part line capacity to avoid overloading the crane.

Figure 12-28.-Hook block.

CLAMSHELL

A clamshell consists of hoist drum lagging, clamshell bucket, tag line, and wire ropes to operate
holding and closing lines. On some crane models, the hoist drum lagging (hoist drum diameter)

3
can be changed to meet the speed or pull requirements for clamshell operations. Once a crane is rigged
with a clamshell, the crane is referred to by the name of the attachment.

When changing attachments from a hook block to a clamshell, check the operator's manual for
the correct length of wire rope reeving; for example, some crane models require 300 to 400 feet
of wire rope for hook block operations and only 100 to 200 feet of wire rope for clamshell
operations. Too much wire rope on the hoist drum during clamshell operations will cause the
wraps of wire rope to loosen on the hoist drum and cross wind, resulting in crushed wires and
kink spots in the wire rope. This is very expensive, because the wire rope is usually no longer
useful for hook block operations.

Changing the length of rope requires unreeving the hook block wire rope and reeving the correct
length of wire rope for the clamshell. This may be a time-consuming effort, but saves you from
having to replace 300 to 400 feet of wire rope when the crane is rigged for hook block operations.

The clamshell bucket (fig. 12-29) is two scoops hinged together in the center with counterweights

Figure 12-29.-Clamshell bucket.

bolted around the hinge. The two hoist drum wire ropes on the crane are rigged as the holding
and closing lines for controlling of the bucket. An example of a clamshell rigging configuration is
shown in figure 12-30.

The tag line winder (fig. 12-31) controls the tension on the tag line that helps prevent the
clamshell from twisting during operations. Like the clamshell bucket, the tag line winder will
exchange with most makes or models of cranes in the same-size range.

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DRAGLINE
The dragline component (fig. 12-32) consists of a dragline bucket and fairlead assembly. The wire
rope components of the dragline are the drag cable, the bucket hoist, and the dump. Once a
crane is rigged with a dragline, the crane is referred to by the name of the attachment,

When you are loading the bucket, the fairlead (fig. 12-33) guides the drag cable onto the hoist
drum. The hoist wire rope, which is reeved through the boom point sheaves, raises and lowers
the bucket.

WARNING

On some model of cranes, you must make sure the fairlead is in a vertical position when lowering
the boom to avoid bending the cords of the boom base.

Figure 12-31.-Tag line winder.

When changing attachments from hook block or clamshell to dragline, check the operator's
manual for the lengths and diameter size of wire rope required for dragline operations. The
pulling force of the dragline

5
Figure 12-30.-Clamshell rigging configuration.

Figure 12-32.-Dragline.

6
Figure 12-33.-Dragline fairlead.

normally requires a larger diameter drag cable. The length of the hoist wire rope is also shorter
than normal to avoid cross winding on the hoist drum. The drag cable pulls the bucket through
the material when digging. When the bucket is raised by the hoist wire rope and moved to the
dump point, dump the bucket by releasing the tension on the drag cable.

NOTE: Do not lubricate the drag cable. If the drag cable is lubricated and pulled through the dirt,
it retains the dirt, which causes damage to the wire rope.

The construction industry rates dragline buckets in different types and classes. The types and
classes are as follows: . Type I (light duty)

. Type II (medium duty)

. Type III (heavy duty) . Class P (perforated plate)

. Class S (solid plate)

The most common buckets used by the Navy are the type II, class S buckets. Class P buckets are available for
dredging operations. Figure 12-34 shows the makeup of a drag bucket.

7
CRANE OPERATIONS
People are crippled or killed and enormous property damage is incurred as a direct result of crane
mishaps. Most of these crane mishaps result from OPERATOR ERROR. The Naval Construction
Force (NCF) has an extensive crane safety program that applies to crane operators and the safe
operation of weight-handling equipment.

Standards for weight-handling equipment operations are outlined in the Management of Weight-
Handling Equipment, NAVFAC P-307; NCF Equipment Management Manual, NAVFAC P-404;
NMCB Equipment Management, COMSECOND/COMTHIRDNCBINST 11200.1; Use of Wire Rope
Slings and Rigging Hardware in the NCF, COMSECOND/COMTHIRDNCBINST 11200.11; and Testing
and Licensing of Construction Equipment Operators, NAVFAC P-306.

CRANE CREW

The skills and safety standards demanded for efficient crane operations require only mature
professionals be assigned as crane operators and riggers. The supervisor of the crane crew is
normally the best crane operator available within the battalion-wide assets and is assigned and
designated in writing by the commanding officer. The equipment officer, the crane test director,
and the crane crew supervisor share the responsibility of ensuring that any personnel that
prepares, assembles, operates, or works with or around cranes are well trained in both safety and
operating procedures.

Before you receive a license to operate a crane, crane operators are required to attend 40 hours
of formal classroom instruction on crane operating safety, as outlined in NAVFAC P-306.
Additionally, operators who need to renew their license must attend a minimum

8
Figure 12-34.-Dragline bucket.

8-hour refresher training course on crane operator safety.

The testing of crane operators is the direct responsibility of the crane certifying officer. The crane
certifying officer may be assisted in administering a performance test by the crane test director.
The equipment officer is normally responsible for the duties of the crane certifying officer and is
designated in writing by the commanding officer. The crane certifying officer designates in writing
the crane test director and all crane test personnel. Crane license is issued on the Construction
Equipment Operator License, NAVFAC 11260/2, and will indicate the make, model, capacity, and
the attachments the operator is qualified to operate.

Signalman

The signalman is part of the crane crew and is responsible to the operator to give signals for
lifting, swinging, and lowering loads. A signalman should be a qualified seasoned crane operator.
Not only does the signalman give signals for handling loads but the signalman can visually
observe what the operator cannot see from the operator's cab. For example, during a lift the
signalman should make a visual check of the following:

1. The load hook is centered over the center of balance of the load, as the weight is being lifted
by the crane.

2. The boom deflection does not exceed the safe load radius.

3. All the rigging gear is straight and not causing damage to itself or the load.

4. During a lift with a lattice boom crane, check the boom suspension system and boom hoist
reeving to ensure proper operation.

5. Check the hook block and boom tip sheaves reeving to ensure proper operation.

6. Check the stability of the outriggers especially when swinging from one quadrant of operation
to another.

NOTE: On some cranes, the capacity of the crane changes when swinging from the rear quadrant
to over-the-side quadrant.

7. Use tag lines and tag line handlers to prevent the load from swinging or twisting.

WARNING

Allowing personnel to control a load by the use of hands puts them in great danger should the
load fall or some unexpted mishap occurs.

9
8. Signal only to lift the load high enough to clear any obstacles.

9. ALWAYS have eye-to-eye contact with the crane operator. The crane operator depends on the
signalman to lift, swing, and lower a load safely.

The signalman must also know the load weight being lifted and the radius and capacity of the
crane. The basic hand signals used throughout the NCF are in appendix IV of this TRAMAN. Only
one person gives signals to the operator. The only time anyone else should give a signal is for an
EMERGENCY STOP.

Rigger

The rigger or riggers are responsible to the operator for properly attaching the rigging gear to the
load. Rigging can be an extremely dangerous job if not properly performed. Safety gear, such as hard
hats, steel-toed shoes, gloves, and any other personal safety clothing needed, must be worn.

Riggers and signalman must work closely together after the load is rigged. The signalman visually
checks for proper rigging that the operator cannot visually see from the operator's cab. Once the
rigging is approved, then the load can be signaled to be lifted.

NOTE: The operator has the final approval on any lift and has the ultimate responsibility for the
crane lift and safety.

Operator

The operator pulls the levers on the crane and is directly responsible for the crane, the load
rigging, and the lifts performed. You must know the crane, how to operate it, how it responds
under loaded and unloaded conditions, proper rigging procedures, and signaling. You must be
able to set the crane up properly for lifts, always keeping in mind that safety comes first and
production second.

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CRANE OPERATOR'S DAILY INSPECTION
Before a crane is operated or transported, it must be thoroughly inspected by the operator. The
operator uses the Crane Operator’s Daily Check-list (ODCL) (fig. 12-35). The operator visually
inspects and checks each item prescribed on the checklist.

When the operator observes a deficiency of a load-bearing or load-controlling part or safety

device (major deficiency) or an operating condition that would cause the slightest loss of control
or otherwise render

11
Figure 12-35.-Crane Operator's Daily Checklist.

the crane unsafe, the operator must secure the crane and notify the crane crew supervisor.

The Operator's Daily PM Report, NAVFAC Form 11260/4, is also used with the ODCL when
performing the crane prestart inspection. The ODCL is turned in to the crane crew supervisor at
the end of each day or shift for reviewing and signing. The NAVFAC Form 11260/4 is turned in to
dispatch. As outlined in the NAVFAC P-307, the minimum requirement for retaining ODCLs is
those completed during the current month and during the previous month of operation.

Wire Rope Inspection

Part of the ODCL inspection is the thorough inspection of all wire rope before using a crane. All
running rope in continuous service must be visually inspected for crushing, kinking, corrosion or
other damage, broken wires, and proper lubrication (fig. 12-36).

Other areas to inspect are wire rope sockets, swage fittings, swivels, pendants, and securing
hardware for wear. Hoist drum end fittings need only be disconnected or disassembled when
experience or visible indications deem it necessary.

The exact time for replacement of wire rope cannot be given because many variables are
involved; however, safety depends upon the use of good judgment in evaluating wire rope.

The following conditions are reasons for wire rope replacement:

1. Running ropes. six or more broken wires randomly distributed, broken or torn wires in one lay,
or three broken wires in one strand in one lay. Replace end

12
Figure 12-36.-Common wire rope defects. 12-23

3. Kinks or crushed sections. Severe kinks or crushed rope in straight runs where the wire rope
core is forced through the outer strands.

4. Flattened section. Flat sections where the diameter across the flat section is less than five sixths of the
original diameter.

5. Wire rope wear. Measure wire rope with wire rope calipers (fig. 12-37) to check for wear
accurately. Replace why rope that has wear of one third of the original diameter of outside
individual wires. A crescent wrench can be used as an expedient means to measure wire rope.

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Hook Block Inspection
The hook block and the hook are part of the ODCL inspection. The operator must inspect the
hook block for cleanliness, binding sheaves, damaged or worn sheaves, worn or distorted sheave
pins, broken bolts, and worn cheek weights (fig. 12-38).

The hook is inspected for damage, excessive wear to the hook safety latch, hook swivel trunnions,
thrust collar, and securing nut. Also, the hook is inspected for damage or missing lubrication
fittings, proper

Figure 12-37.-Measuring wire rope.

lubrication, cracks and gouges, and if visibly bent or twisted.

Sheave Inspection

2. Boom pendant wire ropes. More than two connections

when there are any broken wires adjacent to the end
connection. The sheaves inspection (fig. 12-39) is the inspection for wear and damage, wear in
the wire rope connection or one or more broken wires at an end connection. sheave broken wires in one lay in
sections beyond the end groove, loose or damage sheave guards, and worn bearings and pins.
Sheaves rotate on either bearings or bushings that are inspected for discoloration (due to

14
Figure 12-38.-Hook and block inspection points.

15
Figure 12-39.-Sheave (pulley) inspection.

16
Figure 12-40.-Wedge socket.

excessive heat), metallic particles, chips or displaced metal, broken or distorted bearing retainer
or seals, adequate lubrication, and tight bearing caps.

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Wire Rope End Connections
Wire rope end connections must be as specified by the manufacture. The most common type of
end connection used in the NCF is the wedge socket (fig. 12-40).

Wedge sockets develop only 70 percent of the breaking strength of the wire rope due to the
crushing action of the wedge. Swage socket, cappel socket, and zinc (spelter) socket wire rope
end connections all provide 100 percent of the breaking strength of the wire rope when properly
made.

Exercise caution when wedge socket connections are used to make rated capacity lifts. Wedge
sockets are particularly subject to wear, faulty component fit, and damage from frequent change
outs, and are highly vulnerable to inadvertent wedge release and disassembly in a two-blocking
situation.

NOTE: Two-blocking is hoisting the hook block sheaves against the boom tip sheaves.

Wedge sockets must be installed as specified in the following procedures:

1. Cut and remove any section of wire rope used in a socket that was subject to sharp bending
and crushing before resocketing.

2. Install the wedge socket carefully, so the wire rope carrying the load is in direct alignment with
the eye of the socket clevis pin. This ensures the load pull is direct.

3. Place the socket upright and bring the rope around in a large, easy-to-handle loop. Extend the
dead end of the wire rope from the socket for a distance of at least one rope lay length. Insert the
wedge in the socket, permitting the rope to adjust around the wedge.

4. As a safety precaution, install a wire rope clip on the dead end of the wire rope that comes out
of the wedge socket (fig. 12-41). Measure the distance from the base of the wedge socket to the
clamp. This measurement is used as a guide to check if the wire rope is slipping in the wedge
socket.

NOTE: Do not attach the wire rope clip to the dead end and live end of the wire rope that comes
out of the

18
Figure 12-41.-Wedge socket clip method.

19
Figure 12-42.-Improper wire rope clip placement.

wedge socket. Improper wire rope clip placement is shown in figure 12-42.

5. Secure the socket to a support and carefully take a strain on the live side of the rope to ensure
the proper initial seating of the wedge. Increase the load gradually until the wedge is fully seated.
Avoid sudden shock loads.

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CRANE LIFT CHECKLIST
The Crane Lift Checklist (fig. 12-43), outlined in the COMSECOND/COMTHIRDNCBINST 11200.1,
must be filled out by the crane crew supervisor or the crane test director before the crane can
proceed to any project or make any crane lift. After the Crane Lift Checklist is complete, the crane
crew supervisor briefs the operator and rigger on specifics of the lift and travel conditions.

Crane Stability

Setting up for a crane lift is the most critical portion of the crane operation. The most common
causes of crane mishaps are as follows:

Figure 12-43.-Crane Lift Checklist.

21
Figure 12-44.-Proper and improper cribbing.

22
Figure 12-45.-Crane capacity lost by crane out of level.

1. Failure to block/crib under the outrigger pads when poor ground conditions cannot support
the total weight of the crane and load. Proper and improper cribbing is shown in figure 12-44.

2. Failure to extend the outriggers fully and use them following the manufacturer's instruction.

3. Failure to note overhead obstructions, such as overpasses and power lines.

4. Failure to level the crane. Leveling the crane cannot be overemphasized. Cranes must be set up
as per manufacturer's instruction with the outriggers fully extended and the crane leveled. Crane
capacity is lost when the crane is out of level by only a few degrees (fig. 12-45). Most cranes have
levels mounted on them, but the levels are not always accurate. Use a 3-foot builders level to
check the level of the crane over the rear and over the sides (fig. 12-46).

23
Load Capacity

The rated capacities of mobile cranes are based on both strength and stability. Manufacturers of
cranes will normally denote on the load charts a shaded area or a bold line across the chart
dividing the lifting capacities based on strength or stability of the crane. It is extremely important
to know the difference for, in one case, one of the structural components of the crane will break
and, in the other case, the crane will tip over. Additionally, the following factors must be
recognized and the capacity adjusted accordingly:

1. Do not use stability to determine lifting capacity. Use the load chart installed by the crane
manufacturer. The load chart is securely attached in the operator's cab.

2. The number of parts of line on the hoist and the size and type of wire rope for various crane
loads.

3. Length of boom.

4. Boom angle.

5. Boom pendant angle (when the telescopic/ folding gantry is down, the angle decreases and the
stress increases).

Figure 12-46.-Leveling procedures using a builder's level.

6. Gantry and/or live mast in the highest position.

7. Quadrant of operation (that is, over the side, over the rear capacities).

Load Rating Chart

24
Atypical load rating chart is shown in figure 12-47. To determine the capacity of the crane by
using the load chart, the operator must know the length of boom, the load radius, the boom
angle, and if the lift is to be performed over the side or over the rear.

When performing lifts using the boom angle indicator that indicates an angle not noted on the
load chart, use the next lower boom angle noted on the load chart for determining the capacity
of the crane. For example, using the load charts in figure 12-47, the crane is rigged with 60 feet of
boom, and the boom angle indicator indicates a boom angle of 57 degrees. A 57-degree boom
angle load capacity is not noted on the load chart, so you must use the next lower noted boom
angle of 53 degrees for determining the capacity of the crane.

NOTE: Do not rely on the boom angle indicator for radius accuracy when lifts exceed 75 percent
of the rated capacity. Measure the radius to avoid the possibility of error.

When using a radius measurement not noted on the load charts, use the next longer radius
measurement noted on the load chart for determining the capacity of the crane. For example,
using the load charts in figure 12-47, the crane is rigged with 50 feet of boom, and the radius
measurement is 32 feet. A 32-foot radius measurement is not noted on the load charts, so you
must use the next longer radius measurement of 35 feet noted on the load chart for determining
the capacity of the crane.

The number of part lines reeved on the main hoist block can affect the capacity of the crane. If
the crane is capable of being reeved with an eight-part line and the reeving is changed to a six-
part line, the capacity of the crane changes. On newer models of cranes, the capacity for different
parts of line configurations is noted on the load charts. On older models, you must refer to the
manufacturer's manual.

The load chart provides the capacity of the crane with outriggers set and without outriggers.
"Outriggers set" means the outriggers are fully extended and the weight of the crane is off of the
suspension system or the tires are off the ground. If a situation arises where the outriggers
cannot be fully extended, you must use the without outriggers load capacity ratings.

NOTE: Load capacities change when swinging from each quadrant of operation, such as from over
the rear to over the side.

25
SAFE LIFTING
The following factors are basic guidelines to perform safe daily crane operations:

1. Determine the weight to be lifted and the crane required to make the lift safely.

2. Travel the proposed route the crane will follow to and from the project site, and complete the
Crane Lift Checklist.

3. Obtain the travel permits if required.

4. Brief operators and riggers on the specifics of the lift and travel conditions.

5. Inspect the crane area setup for stability and safe operating area

6. Fully extend the outriggers and use them according to the manufacturer's instruction.

7. Check the crane for levelness.

8. Inspect all rigging hardware.

9. Select the proper sling with sufficient capacity rating.

10. Center the sling in the base (bowl) of the hook to avoid hook point loading, and ensure the
hook block is always placed over the center of the load to eliminate shock loading of the slings or
cranes, resulting from load shifts when a lift is made.

11. Make ample safety allowances for unknown factors.

12. Stand clear of and do not walk under suspended loads.

13. Boom deflection. All crane booms have deflection. When the load is lifted off the ground, the boom
will deflect, causing the radius to increase. Increased radius may cause overloading of the crane.

14. An uncontrolled swinging load can cause the radius to increase.

15. Clean operating area. Water coolers, excess tools, grease, soda cans, and other unnecessary
items should be kept outside of the operating area of the crane. Water coolers must be kept off
the crane to prevent

26
Figure 12-47.-Typical crane capacity chart.

people from congregating around the crane when in operation.

NOTE: Safe lifting is paramount! Project completion must not interfere with safe crane operations.

27
CLAMSHELL OPERATIONS
The clamshell bucket is an attachment used with a crane for vertical digging belowground level
and for placing materials at considerable height, depth, or distance. You can also use it for
moving bulk materials from stockpiles to plant bins, loading hoppers, and conveyors. It can be
used to dig loose to medium compacted soil.

Clamshell operating procedures are as follows:

1. Position and level the crane, ensuring the digging operation is as close to the radius as the
dumping operation. This prevents you from having to boom up and down, resulting in a loss of
production.

2. Select the correct size and type of bucket for the crane.

3. When lowering the clamshell bucket, if too much pressure is applied to the closing line brake,
the bucket will close and an excess amount of wire rope will unwind from the holding line hoist
drum. To avoid this, you should release the holding line and closing line brakes simultaneously
when lowering the open clamshell into the material for the initial bite. Engage the closing line
control lever to close the bucket. Control the digging depth by using the holding line control lever
and brake.

4. If, during hoisting, the hoist line gets ahead of the closing line, the bucket will open and spill
the material. (This could also be caused by having too much wire rope on the hoist drum.) The
operator must hoist both the closing and holding lines at the same speed to keep the bucket from
opening and spilling material.

5. When the clamshell bucket is raised enough to clear all obstacles, start the swing by engaging
the swing control lever. Hoisting the bucket can be performed, as it is swung to the dumping site.
The spring-loaded tag line will retard the twisting motion of the bucket if the swing is performed
smoothly.

6. Dumping and unloading the clamshell is performed by keeping the holding line brake applied
while the closing line brake is released. Apply the closing line brake quickly after the load is
dumped to prevent the closing line from unwinding more wire rope than is needed to dump the
material. After the bucket is emptied, swing the open clamshell back to the digging site. Then
lower the open bucket and repeat the cycle.

The clamshell operating cycle has four steps: filling (closing) the bucket, raising the loaded
bucket, swinging, and dumping. The boom angle for clamshell operations should be between 40
to 60 degrees. Be careful when working with higher boom angles, as the bucket could hit the
boom. A clamshell attachment is not a positive digging tool.

28
The height reached by the clamshell depends on the length of the boom used. The depth reached
by the clamshell is limited by the length of wire rope that the hoist drum can handle. For the safe
lifting capacity for the clamshell, refer to the operator's manual and the crane capacity load chart.

DRAGLINE OPERATIONS
The dragline is a versatile attachment capable of a wide range of operations at and belowground
level. The dragline can dig through loose to medium compacted soil. The biggest advantage of the
dragline over other machines is its long reach for both digging and dumping. Another advantage
is its high cycle speed. The dragline does not have the positive digging force of the backhoe. The
bucket is not weighted or held in alignment by rigid structures; therefore, it can bounce, tip over,
or drift sideways when digging through hard materials. This weakness increases with digging
depth.

Dragline operating procedures are as follows:

1. Keep the teeth sharp of the dragline bucket and built up to proper size.

2. Keep the dump rope short, so the load can be picked up at a proper distance from the crane.

3. Excavate the working area in layers, not in trenches, and sloped upward toward the crane.

4. Do not drag the bucket in so close to the crane that it builds piles and ridges of material in
front of the crane.

5. Do not guide the bucket by swinging the crane while digging. This puts unnecessary side
stresses on the boom. Start the swing only after the bucket has been raised clear of the ground.

6. A pair of drag chains is attached to the front of the bucket through brackets by which the pull
point may be adjusted up or down. The upper position is used for deep or hard digging, as it pulls
the teeth into a steeper angle.

7. The drag cable can be reversed end for end to prolong the life of the wire rope, reduce early
wire rope replacement, and keep wire rope cost down. Remember, the drag cable should not be
lubricated.

8. When lowering the dragline bucket into the area to be worked, release the drag brake to tip
the cutting edge down and then release the hoist brake. You do not have to drop the bucket to
force the teeth into the material. The bucket is filled as it is dragged toward the crane by
engaging the drag control lever. The cutting depth is controlled by releasing tension from the
hoist brake. The dragline is NOT a positive digging tool.

9. The dragline cycle is filling the bucket, lifting the bucket, swinging the loaded bucket, and
dumping the load.

29
10. Since the dragline is not a rigid attachment, it will not dump materials as accurately as do
other excavators. When a load is dumped into a haul unit or hopper, you need more time to
position the bucket before dumping it.

NOTE: When you are dumping into a haul unit, NEVER load over the cab. Additionally, make sure
the operator is out of the cab and clear of the dragline or clamshell bucket.

11. The boom angle for dragline operations should normally be from 25 to 35 degrees. However,
check the crane load chart to ensure this low boom angle does not exceed the capacity of the
crane. At this relatively low boom angle, you must be careful when excavating and dumping wet,
sticky materials, because the chance of tipping the crane is increased because the material tends
to hang in the bucket.

Dragline Employment

The dragline can be used in dredging where the material handled is wet and sticky. It can dig
trenches, strip overburden, clean and dig road side ditches, and slope embankments. When the dragline
is handling mud, it is the most practical attachment. Its reach enables it to handle a wide area of
excavation while sitting in one position, and the sliding action of the bucket eliminates trouble
with suction.

Other uses of the dragline include the following:

1. In-line approach. When

excavating a trench with the dragline, ensure the dragline and carrier unit are
centered on the excavation (fig. 12-48). The dragline cuts or digs to the front and dumps on
either side of the excavation. The crane moves away from the face as the work progresses.

2. Parallel approach. The dragline can slope an embankment better by working it from the
bottom to the top. The crane is positioned on the top with the carrier parallel to the working
face, so it can move the full length of the job without excessive turning.

3. Drainage. A dragline is ideal if earthwork materials have to be removed from a trench, canal,
gravel pit, and so forth, containing water. Plan the work to begin at the lowest grade point, so
drainage will be provided as the dragline progresses towards higher levels.

NOTE: Digging underwater or in wet materials increase the weight of the materials and
frequently prevent carrying heaped bucket loads.

Ditching the excavation through swamps or soft terrain is common. Under these conditions the
excavated material is normally cast onto a levee or spoils bank.

4. Loading haul units. When the job requires excavated material to be loaded into hauling units,
the excavation should be opened up so loaded hauling equipment can travel on high, dry ground
or on better grades. The spotting of trucks and dragline should be planned for minimum boom
swing with the truck bed under the boom point and the long axis of the bed parallel with the long

30
axis of the boom or at right angles to the boom. More spillage is to be expected from a dragline
than from a front-end loader.

Efficient Dragline Operation

Other uses of the dragline operation include the following:

1. Although the dragline bucket can be readily cast beyond the length of the boom, the machine
should be positioned to eliminate casting.

2. Use heavy timber mats for work on soft ground. The mats should be kept level and clean.

3. When setting up for a dragline operation, you should have access for maintenance, operating
personnel, and hauling equipment.

4. Excavate the working area in layers, not in trenches, and keep the slope upward toward the
crane.

5. Do not drag the bucket in so close to the crane that it builds piles and ridges of material in
front of the crane.

Figure 12-48.-In-line approach with dragline.

31
6. Salvage pieces of hoist wire rope for use as the dump rope.

PILE-DRIVING OPERATIONS

Pile driving in the NCF is done with crawler- or truck-mounted cranes rigged with pile-driving
attachments, as shown in figure 12-49. The pile-driving hammer is categorized under the 36-
00000 USN number registration series.

NOTE: The combined weight of all the pile-driving attachments reduces the capacity of the crane.
Additionally, the crane capacity must be able to support the combined weight of all of the pile-
driving attachments.

LEADS

Pile-driving leads serve as tracks along which the pile-driving hammer runs and as guides for
positioning and steadying the pile during driving operations. The leads come in 10-, 15-, and 20-
foot sections bolted together to form various lengths, as shown in figure 12-50.

NOTE: Because of the vibrations created during pile-driving operations, you must check all the
lead

Figure 12-49.-Typical pile-driving operation.

32
section bolts for tightness at the beginning of each pile-driving shift.

The types of leads used in the NCF are swinging, under hung, extended four-way, and spud leads.

Swinging Leads
Swinging leads are assembled facedown on the ground by bolting the 15-foot tapered section to
the selected intermediate sections. A single crane line holds the pile-driving hammer that is
slipped into and guided by the rails of the swinging leads. This lead is hung from the crane boom
with a second single line from the crane. The lead is spotted on the ground at the pile location,
normally with stabbing points attached to the bottom of the leads, and held plumb or at the
desired batter with the second single crane line. Short swinging leads are often used to assist in
driving

Figure 12-50.-Assembly of 10- and 20-foot lead sections.

steel sheet pilings. Figure 12-51 shows the components of a swinging lead.

The boom point sheaves are used to accommodate the hoist drum wire rope that supports the
pile, pile-driving hammer, and leads; therefore, its use requires a three-drum crane. Under
certain conditions a two-drum crane can be used The leads are raised to the vertical by a
combination of booming, swinging, and/or traveling.

ADVANTAGES.- Some advantages of using a swinging lead over other types of leads are as
follows:

1. They are the lightest, simplest, and least expensive.

2. With stabbing points secured in the ground, these leads are free to rotate sufficiently to align
the pile-driving hammer with the pile without precise alignment of the crane with the pile.

33
3. Because these leads are generally 15 to 20 feet shorter than the boom, the crane can reach out
farther if the crane has sufficient capacity.

4. They can be used to drive piles in a hole, ditch, or over the edge of an excavation.

5. For long lead and boom requirements, the weight of the leads can be supported on the ground
and the pile is lifted into place without excessively increasing the working load weight.

Figure 12-52.-Lead adapters connected to the boom tip.

DISADVANTAGES.- Some disadvantages of using a swinging lead are as follows:

1. It requires a three-hoist drum crane (main line for the pile, secondary for the pile-driving
hammer, and third for the leads) or two-hoist drum crane with the lead hung on the sling from
the boom tip.

2. Because the leads are supported by the hoist wire rope, precise positioning of the leads with
the top of the pile is difficult and slow.

3. If stabbing points are not secured to the ground, it is difficult to control the twisting of the
leads.

34
Figure 12-51.-Swinging leads.

NOTE: The tag line winder may be used to control the twisting of the leads.

4. Because these leads are not rigid, it is more difficult to position the crane to set up for pile-
driving operations.

Underhung Leads

Underhung leads are composed of exactly the same sections used for swinging leads. Underhung
leads are bolted together on the ground, as described for swinging leads, and connected to the
boom tip through the use of lead adapters (fig. 12-52). The boom tip sheaves are used to
accommodate the pile and the pile-driving hammer. All underhung leads have a standard bolt
hole layout for bolting the lead adapters to the leads; however, the dimensions of the boom tip
end of the adapters vary according to the make and model of the crane. After the adapters are
connected to the boom, the boom is raised to bring the leads to a vertical position (fig. 12-53).
Long lead sections may require the use of support equipment to raise the leads to a vertical
position.

NOTE: Check the adapter bolts for tightness at the beginning of each pile-driving shift.

Adapter plates are mounted to the boom butt or crane cab and on the bottom lead section for
connection of a fore-and-aft bottom brace, commonly known as a catwalk. The catwalk can be
extended or telescoped to various lengths. It can be set to hold the leads vertical for driving
bearing piles or to hold them at an angle for driving batter piles. In use, an underhung lead is held
by the boom at a fixed radius (fig. 12-54).

35
Figure 12-53.-Underhung leads being raised by the boom.

Figure 12-54.-Underhung leads.

ADVANTAGES.- Some advantages of using underhung leads over other types of leads areas
follows:

1. They are lighter and generally less expensive than the extended four-way type of lead.

2. They require only a two-hoist drum crane.

3. They provide accuracy in positioning leads in vertical and fore-and-aft batter positions.

4. They provide precise control of the leads during positioning operation.

5. They reduce rigging time in setting up and breaking down.

6. They use boom tip sheaves.

36
DISADVANTAGES.- Some disadvantages of using underhung leads are as follows:

1. They cannot be used for side-to-side batter driving.

2. The length of pile is limited by boom length, since this type of lead cannot be extended above
the boom tip.

3. When long leads require the use of long boom lengths, the working radius that results may be
excessive for the capacity of the crane.

4. They do not allow the use of a boom shorter than the lead.

Extended Four-Way Leads

Extended four-way leads use the same intermediate lead sections as swinging and underhung
leads. In place of a 15-foot tapered section, an extended lead uses a 30-foot slide section with a
sheave head assembly. A universal sliding boom tip connector, slipped into the 30-foot slide
section, connects to the boom tip (fig. 12-55). The sliding boom tip connector swivels, allowing
for driving batter piles in all directions.

The boom is lowered over the leads when connecting the boom tip to the sliding boom
connector. The connector is bolted into the 30-foot slide section at the location dictated by the
amount of lead extension desired above the boom tip.

NOTE: Extension of the lead over the boom tip must not exceed one third of the total lead length
or up to 25 feet maximum.

Figure 12-55.-Sliding boom tip connector.

37
Figure 12-56.-Extended four-way lead.

The boom is raised to raise the leads. The type of catwalk used is a hydraulic or mechanical
parallelogram bottom brace. This type of brace allows for a fixed radius or side-to-side batter by
swinging the linked parallelogram in the desired position. The parallelogram allows for pile
driving in all directions at the bottom. Figure 12-56 shows an extended four-way lead.

The boom point sheaves are not used to accommodate the pile-driving hammer and the piles.
The extended four-way leads are equipped with a special sheave head assembly (fig. 12-57) that
the two-hoist drum wire rope reeves through to support the pile-driving hammer and the piles.

ADVANTAGES.- Some advantages of using an extended four-way lead are as follows:

38
Figure 12-57.-Sheave head assembly.

1. It requires only a two-hoist drum crane.

2. It provides accuracy in locating leads in all batter positions.

3. It provides rigid control of the leads during positioning operation.

4. It allows batter angles to be set and accurately maintained.

5. It allows for the use of short boom angles that increases the crane capacity.

6. The boom can be lowered and leads folded under for short hauls over the road when a crane
with adequate capacity is used This operation depends on the length of the lead and boom and
the configuration of the crane.

DISADVANTAGES.- Some disadvantages of using an extended four-way lead are as follows:

39
1. It is the heaviest and most expensive of the three basic lead types.

2. It is more troublesome to assemble.

Spud Leads

A spud lead is a steel wide flange or H-beam used in place of pile-driving hammer leads. The pile-
driving hammer rides on the flange of the beam through spud clips bolted to one side of the pile-
driving hammer (fig. 12-58).

Depending on the design of the spud lead, the spud can be used as a swinging and underhung
lead or equipped with a sheave head assembly as an extended four-way lead An advantage of
this type of lead is that it bears the whole bottom of the pile cap to the piling especially when
sheet piling is being driven (fig. 12-59).

PILE-DRIVING HAMMERS
The three principal types of pile-driving hammers are the drop hammer, the steam, or pneumatic,
hammer, and the diesel hammer.

A drop hammer is a block of metal hoisted to a specific height and then dropped on a cap paced
on the butt or head of the pile. Drop hammers weigh from 1,200 to 3,000 pounds.

WARNING

The noise generated by a pile driving operation can cause hearing loss. Hearing protection must
be worn by personnel in the vicinity of pile driving operations.

Figure 12-58.-Spud clips mounted to one side of the piledriving hammer.

40
Figure 12-59.-Sheet pile driving with spud leads.

The steam, or pneumatic, hammer has basically replaced the drop hammer. This hammer (fig. 12-
60) consists of a cylinder that contains a steam-driven or air-driven ram. The ram consists of a
piston equipped with a striking head. The hammer is rested on the butt or head of the pile for
driving.

41
Figure 12-60.- Steam, or pneumatic, pile hammer.

With a single-action steam, or pneumatic, hammer, the power drive serves only to lift the ram;
the downward blow of the ram results from the force of gravity only. In a double-action hammer,
the ram is both lifted and driven downward by the power drive. A double-action hammer weighs
from 5,000 to 14,000 pounds, and a single-action hammer weighs about 10,000 pounds.

The blows of the double-action hammer are lighter, but more rapid than those of the single-
action hammer. The double-action hammer generally drives lightweight or average weight piles
into soils of average density. The rapid blows tend to keep the pile in motion, thereby reducing
the resistance of inertia and friction. However, when you are driving heavy piles in hard or dense
soil, the resistance from inertia and friction, together with the rapid, high-velocity blows of the
double-action hammer, tends to damage the butt or head of the pile.

The single-action hammer is best for driving heavy piles into hard or dense soil. The heavy ram,
striking at low velocity, allows more energy to be transferred into the motion of the pile, thereby
reducing impact and damage to the butt or head of the pile.

A conventional pneumatic hammer requires a 600-cubic-foot-per-minute compressor to operate,

and the diesel is a self-contained unit constructed in sizes that deliver up to 43,000 foot-pounds
of energy per blow. The diesel pile hammer is about twice as fast as a conventional pneumatic, or
steam, hammer of like size and weight.

Diesel Hammer Operation

The most common diesel hammer used in the NCF is the DE-10 McKiernan-Terry pile hammer
shown in figure 12-61. The hammer is lifted and started by a single crane load line connected to a
trip mechanism (A). The hammer is started by lifting the ram piston (B) with the load line until the
trip mechanism (C) automatically releases the ram piston. The ram piston falls and actuates the
cam of the fuel pump (D) that delivers a measured amount of diesel fuel that falls into a cup
formed in the top of the anvil (E). Continuing its downfall, the ram piston blocks the exhaust ports
(F) and begins compression of air trapped between the ram piston and the anvil. The
compression of the trapped air creates a preloading force upon the anvil, the drive cap, and the
pile. The gravity propelled ram piston strikes the anvil, delivering its impact energy to the pile.

The rounded end of the ram piston mates perfectly with the cup in the anvil and displaces the
fuel at the

42
Figure 12-61.-Operating principles of the McKiernan-Terry diesel pile hammer.

precise moment of impact for perfect timing. The fuel is atomized and splattered into the annular
(ring-shaped) zone between the ram and the anvil and is ignited by the heat of compression.

The resulting explosive force drives the ram piston upward and the pile downward and adds a
push to the pile to extend the time of the total effort to drive the pile.

On the upstroke, the ram piston opens the exhaust ports (F) to permit scavenging the exhaust
gases. The ram piston continues freely upward until arrested by gravity. The length of the stroke
varies with the resistance of the pile. The greater the resistance, the longer the stroke.

Having reached the top of its stroke, the ram piston falls again, repeating the cycle. The hammer
is stopped by pulling a rope (G) that disengages the fuel pump cam (D).

TRIP MECHANISM.- The trip mechanism (fig. 12-62) is an off-center linkage mechanism located at
the rear of the hammer, designed to lift and drop the ram for starting. Additionally, the trip
mechanism lifts and lowers the hammer in the leads. The trip mechanism is connected to a single
line from the crane. Lowering the trip mechanism to the bottom of its stroke engages the lifting
lever that lifts the ram. When the crane lifts the trip mechanism and ram piston past the upper
stops, the finger of the trip lever is rotated clockwise around the trip lever pin, thus freeing the
ram piston. The trip mechanism is held in the upper position while the hammer is in operation.

43
The safety link in the trip mechanism is designed to break or bend should the operator lower the
trip mechanism to low and engage the lifting lever while the hammer is in operation. The safety link
prevents damaging the trip mechanism or ram. If the safety link is broken while the hammer is in
operation, the hammer will continue to operate; however, once the hammer is shut down, the
safety link must be replaced before the hammer can be restarted.

Figure 12-62.-Trip mechanism.

44
NOTE: The number of safety links to have on hand depends on the experience of the crane
operator; however, as a rule of thumb you should have at lease 5 to 10 safety links stored in the
toolbox on the jobsite.

FUEL SYSTEM.- Diesel or kerosene fuel is fed by gravity from the main fuel tank through the filter
cartridge and in-line shut-off valve and down the inlet line to the pump. The cam-actuated fuel
pump is located at the lower end of the cylinder and injects the fuel directly into the combustion
chamber in the anvil. The hammer usually consumes about .9 gallon of fuel per hour of operation,
and the capacity of the tank is 9 gallons.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM.- Oil drains are fed by gravity from the lubrication tank (fig. 12-63) through
the wire mesh falter and in-line shut-off valve down the inlet line to the reservoir in the pump
baseplate. From the reservoir oil feeds through passages in the pump to

Figure 12-63.-Lubrication system.

45
Figure 12-64.-Buffer bolt.

small plungers.
A weighted piston rests on these plungers. Ajar of the hammer while in operation
forces the piston and plunger down and thus drives a small amount of oil past the ball check
valves and into the feed lines. Two of the feed lines have terminal checks that hold back the high
pressure of the combustion chamber. A small pipe plug is provided at each terminal to observe
the flow of oil.

NOTE: Fill the oil reservoir with high temperature, high detergent No. 30 to No. 40 viscosity diesel
engine lubricating oil with a flash point of 425° to 450°.

CYLINDER.- The cylinder is a stress-relieved weldment made from steel tubing and plate with a
bore specifically chrome-plated to prevent seizing, galling, and rapid wear. The shape of the shell
forms a fuel and oil tank as well as protection for the fuel and oil pumps, lines, and trip
mechanism. Cover plates, front and back provide easy access to the components. For safety in
transporting and rigging the hammer, the ram piston is locked in place by a travel plug found
midway on the front of the hammer. This plug should be removed when the hammer is rigged
and ready for operation and should

46
Figure 12-65.-Maximum ram-piston overstroke.

be replaced when the hammer is removed from the leads or is laid horizontal. The ram piston is a
chrome-steel forging that has eight compression rings.

BASE ASSEMBLY.- The anvil block in the base assembly group is held in place by buffer bolts and
has compression rings identical to those on the ram piston (fig. 12-64). Radial thrust or side thrust
to the hammer is transmitted to the leads through the thrust bearing. A vibration damper,
concealed under a shroud, isolates the cylinder from the shock vibration of the anvil. Buffer
bumpers absorb the recoil from the Belleville washer type of buffer springs connected to the
anvil by buffer bolts, dampening overtravel and holding the hammer together. Pins lock the
buffer compression nuts to the buffer bolts and are held captive by the buffer housing caps. The
buffer nut bumpers absorb the recoil of the Belleville springs.

RAM-PISTON OVERSTRIKE.- The length of free travel (maximum stroke) of the ram from the
bottom of the stroke to the safety catch lip at the top is 109 inches (fig. 12-65). When the ram is

47
recoiled high enough, the ram rings will engage the safety catch lip and prevent it from going out
of the top. If the upward force of the ram is too great, the whole hammer will be lifted off the
pile, possibly causing the rings to shear. To prevent this danger, watch the projection of the ram
above the hammer and reset the throttle when necessary.

Pile-Driving Caps

A pile-driving cap is a block (usually a steel block) that rests on the butt or head of the pile and
protects it against damage by receiving and transmitting the blows of the hammer or ram. In the steam,
or pneumatic, hammer, the cap is a part of the hammer. The cap with a drop or diesel hammer is
a separate casting with the lower part recessed to fit the head or butt of the pile and the upper
part recessed to contain a hard cushion block that receives the blows of the hammer. The cap is
fitted with a wire rope sling so that the cap, as well as the hammer, may be raised to the top of
the leads when positioning a pile in the leads.

On the DE-10 hammer, you place one cushion block in the drive cap and lash the cap to the
hammer front and

Figure 12-66.-H-beam pile-driving cap.

back with two pieces of 1/2-inch wire rope and clips. You must allow 3 to 4 inches of slack in the
wire rope. The cap is normally lashed to the hammer after the hammer is placed in the leads.

NOTE: The top of the cushion block should be kept high enough to prevent the hammer shroud
from fouling on the rim of the drive cap pocket.

48
Pile-driving caps are available for driving timber, concrete, sheet, and H-beam piles. Figure 12-66
shows a pile cap designed for driving a H-beam pile.

Placing Hammer in Leads

Placing the pile-driving hammer in the leads is performed two ways: while the leads are
horizontal or vertical. Leads are not always used in pile-driving operations. Pile hammers can be
used as a flying hammer, using special adapter caps attached to the hammer (fig. 12-67). This is
far the most dangerous of all types of pile-driving operations and should be attempted only by
experienced personnel.

Figure 12-67.-Pile driving using a flying hammer.

The steps required to install the hammer in the leads in the horizontal position are as follows:

1. Block the leads about 18 inches off the ground in several places, keeping them as level as
possible.

2. Using a forklift, place the hammer at the base of the leads with the top of the hammer towards
the top of the leads.

49
NOTE: On underhung leads, the fuel pump faces upward. On extended four-way leads, the fuel
pump faces downward.

3. Have the forklift approach the hammer from the pile cap end.

4. Adjust the forks so they will just fit the lead guides on the hammer.

5. Pick the hammer up in this manner and guide the top end into the leads as far as it will go
without hitting the forks.

6. Block up the hammer that protrudes and reposition the forklift to push the remainder of the
hammer into the leads.

NOTE: The crane line may assist in pulling the hammer into the leads.

7. Secure the hammer to the bottom of the leads. This will keep the strain off of the leads, as they
are raised to the vertical position by the crane boom.

Installing the hammer in the leads in the vertical position is as follows:

1. Raise the boom and leads from horizontal to vertical and install the catwalk. Continue to raise
the boom as high as practical and safety permits.

2. Hoist the hammer to a vertical position and position it under the leads. It takes a combination
of lowering the boom and hoisting the hammer to slide the hammer onto the lead guides.

If this does not allow enough clearance to install the hammer vertically, use the following:

1. Use a deep ditch or loading ramp for additional clearance for the hammer.

2, Set the hammer in an excavated hole to clear the bottom of the leads.

3. The hammer can be partially submerged in water to gain additional clearance.

PILE-DRIVING TECHNIQUES AND TERMINOLOGY

Care must be taken during pile driving to avoid damaging the pile, the hammer, or both. The pile
driver must be securely anchored to avoid a shift of position. If the hammer shifts while driving,
the blow of the hammer will be out of line with the axis of the pile and both the pile and hammer
may be damaged.

Carefully watch the piles for any indication of a split or brake below the ground. If driving
suddenly becomes easier or if the pile suddenly changes direction, a break or split has probably
occurred. When this happens, the pile must be pulled.

50
Springing and Bouncing
"Springing" means that the pile vibrates too much laterally from the blow of the hammer.
Springing may occur when a pile is crooked, when the butt has not been squared off properly, or
when the pile is not in line with the fall of the hammer. In all pile-driving operations, ensure the
fall of the hammer is in line with the pile axis; otherwise, the head of the pile and the hammer
may be damaged and much of the energy of the hammer blow is lost.

Excessive bouncing may come from a hammer which is too light. However, it usually occurs when
the butt of the pile has been crushed or broomed, when the pile has met an obstruction, or when
the pile has penetrated to a solid footing. When a double-acting hammer is being used, bouncing
may result from too much steam or air pressure. With a diesel hammer, if the hammer lifts on the
upstroke of the ram piston, the throttle setting is probably too high. Back off on the throttle
control just enough to avoid this lifting. If the butt of the timber pile has been crushed or
broomed more than an inch or so, it should be cut back to sound wood before driving operations
continue.

Driving Bearing Piles in Groups

Bearing piles are frequently driven in groups, as in a pile group which will support a column
footing for a building or in closely spaced rows, as beneath a wall. When piles must be driven in
closely spaced groups, these principles are observed:

1. When a pile is driven into sand or gravel deposits, the soil must be compacted or displaced an
amount equal to the volume of the pile. If the deposit is quite loose, the vibration of pile driving
frequently results in considerable compaction of the soil. The

surface of the ground between and around the piles then may subside or shrink. This action may
result in damage to the foundation of nearby structures. If piles are driven into dense sand and
gravel deposits, the ground may heave.

2. Clay soils are hard to compress in pile driving; hence, a volume of soil equal to that of the pile
will usually be displaced (fig. 12-68). The ground will heave between and around the piles. Driving
a pile alongside those previously driven will frequently cause those already in place to heave
upward. If the piles are driven through a clay stratum to firm bearing beneath, the heave may
destroy the contact between the tip of the pile and the firm stratum. Such cases maybe detected
by taking a level reading on the top of the piles previously placed. Piles which are raised
appreciably should be redriven to a firm bearing. Soil displaced by the pile may cause enough lateral
force to move previously driven piles out of line.

3. The sequence of driving piles in groups should be as follows: . Driving should progress from an
area of high resistance to one of low resistance, toward a stream, or downslope to reduce the

51
shoving of previous driven piles that are out of place when succeeding piles arc driven. l Outer
rows in the group should be driven first if the piles derive their main support from friction. Inner
rows are driven first if the piles are supported from a point bearing.

Figure 12-68.-Displacement of clay soil caused by driving solid piles.

Obstruction and Refusal

The condition reached when a pile being driven by a hammer has a 1-inch penetration per blow
or zero penetration per blow (as when the point of the pile reaches an impenetrable bottom such
as rock) or when the effective energy of the hammer is no longer sufficient to cause penetration
(hammer is to light or velocity at impact too little), under which circumstances the pile may cease
to penetrate before it has reached the desired depth is known as refusal. Further driving after
refusal is likely to break or split the pile, as shown in figure 12-69.

When a pile has been driven to a depth where deeper penetration is prevented by friction, the
pile has been driven to refusal. A pile supported by skin friction alone is called a friction pile. A
pile supported by bedrock or

52
Figure 12-69.-Pile damage caused by overdriving timber piles.

an extra dense layer of soil at the tip is called an end-bearing pile. A pile supported partly by skin
friction and partly by a substratum of extra dense soil at the tip is called a combination end-
bearing and friction pile.

It is not always necessary to drive a friction pile to refusal; such a pile needs to be driven only to
the depth where friction develops the required load-bearing capacity.

Straightening and Aligning Piles

Piles should be straightened when any misalignment is noticed during pile driving. The accuracy
of alignment that should be sought for the finished job depends on various factors, but if a pile is
more than a few inches out of its plumb line, an effort should be made to true it up. The greater
the penetration along the wrong alignment, the harder it is to get the pile back to plumb.

One method of alignment is to use pull from a block and tackle (fig. 12-70) with the impact of the
hammer jarring the pile back into line. The straightening of steel bearing piles must include
twisting of the individual piles to bring the webs of the piles parallel to the center line of the bent.

Figure 12-70.-Realigning pile using block and tackle.

Another method of alignment is to use a jet (fig. 12-71), either alone or jointly, with the block-
and-tackle method

53
When all piles in a bent have been driven, they may be pulled into proper spacing and alignment
with block and tackle and an aligning frame, as shown in figures 12-72 and 12-73.

Pulling Files

A pile that has met an obstruction, that has been driven in the wrong place, that has split or
broken in

Figure 12-71.-Realigning pile by jetting.

Figure 12-72.-Aligning frame used for timber pile bent.

54
Figure 12-73.-Aligning and capping steel pile bents.

driving, or that is to be salvaged (steel sheet piles are frequently salvaged for reuse) is usually
extracted (pulled). Pulling should be done as soon as possible after driving; the longer the pile
stays in the soil, the more compact the soil becomes, and the greater the resistance to pulling will
be. Methods of pulling piles are as follows:

1. In a direct lift method, a crane palls the pile. The crane hoist line is rigged to the pile through
the use of wire rope rigging, and an increase in pull is gradually applied to the pile. Lateral blows
from a skull cracker (heavy steel ball swung on a crane line to demolish walls) or a few light blows
on the butt or head with the pile-driving hammer are given to break the skin friction, and the
crane pull is then increased. If the pile still refuses to extract, it may be loosened by jetting, air
extractors, or beam pullers.

2. The 5,000-pound pneumatic, or steam, hammer may be used in an inverted position to pull
piles. The hammer is turned over and the wire rope rigging is attached to it and the pile is
extracted. A pneumatic extractor may also be used. The crane line, holding the hammer or
extractor, is hoisted taut; and the upward blows of the hammer ram on the sling, plus the pull of
the crane hoist, are usually enough to pull the pile.

3. Tidal lift is often used to pull piles driven in tidewater. Rigging, wrapped around the piles, is
attached to barges or pontoons at low tide; the rising tide pulls the piles as it lifts the barges or
pontoons.

55
Types of Piles
The principal use of piles is for the support of bridges, buildings, wharves, docks and other
structures, and in temporary construction. A pile transfers the load into an underlying bearing
stratum by either of the following:

1. Friction along the embedded length of the pile

2. Point bearing plus any bearing from the taper of the pile

A pile maybe classified roughly as friction or end bearing, according to the manner in which they
develop support. The load must be carried ultimately by the soil layers around and below the
points of the piles, and accurate knowledge of the compressibility of these soil layers is of utmost
importance.

Some of the common terms used with piles are as follows:

1. Piles. A pile is a load-bearing member made of timber, steel, concrete, or a combination of

these materials, usually forced into the ground to transfer the load to underlying soil or rock
layers when the surface soils at a proposed site are too weak or compressible to provide enough
support.

2. Pile foundation. A pile foundation is a group of piles that supports a superstructure or a

number of piles distributed over a large area to support a mat foundation.

3. Bearing piles. Piles that are driven vertically and used for the direct support of vertical loads
are called bearing piles. Bearing piles transfer the load through a soft soil to an underlying firm
stratum. They also distribute the load through relatively soft soils that are not capable of
supporting concentrated loads.

4. End-bearing piles. Typical end-bearing piles are driven through very soft soil, such as a loose
silt-bearing stratum underlain by compressible strata. Remember this factor when determining
the load the piles can support safely.

5. Friction piles. When a pile is driven into soil of fairly uniform consistency and the tip is not
seated in a hard layer, the load-carrying capacity of the pile is developed by skin friction. The load
is transferred to the adjoining soil by friction between the pile and the surrounding soil. The load
is transferred downward and laterally to the soil.

6. Combination end-bearing and friction piles. Many piles carry loads by a combination of friction
and end bearing. For example, a pile may pass through a

56
Figure 12-74.-Types of bearing piles.

fairly soft soil that provides frictional resistance and then into a form layer which develops a load-
carrying capacity by both end bearing and friction over a rather short length of embedment (fig.
12-74).

7. Batter piles. Piles driven at an angle with the vertical are called batter piles. They resist lateral
or incline loads when such loads are huge or when the foundation material immediately beneath
the structure fails to resist the lateral movement of vertical piles. They also may be used if piles
are driven into a compressible soil to spread vertical loads over a large area thereby reducing
final settlement. They may be used alone (battered in opposite directions) or with vertical piles.

8. Anchor piles. An anchor pile may be used to anchor bulkheads, retaining walls, and guy wires.
They resist tension or uplift loads (fig. 12-75).

9. Dolphin piles.
As shown in figure 12-75, dolphin piles are a group of piles driven close together in
water and tied together so that the group will withstand lateral forces, such as boats and other
floating objects.

10. Fender piles. As shown in figure 12-75, fender piles are driven in front of a structure to
protect it from damage.

11. Foot of pile. As shown in figure 12-75, the foot of a pile is the lower end of a driven pile,
which is the smaller end.

12. Guide piles. Piles used as a guide for driving other piles or serving as a support as a wale for
sheetpiling.

57
13. Pile bent. Two or more piles driven in a row transverse to the long dimension of the structure
and are fastened together by capping and (sometimes) bracing.

14. Pile foundation. A group of piles used to support a column or pier, a row of piles under a wall,
or a number of piles distributed over a large area to support a mat foundation.

15. Pile group. A number of bearing piles driven close together to form a pile foundation.

16. Test piles. A pile driven to determine driving conditions and probable required lengths; one
on which a loading test may also be made to find its load settlement properties and the carrying
capacity of the soil and as a guide in designing pile foundations.

17. Timber piles.

Common timber piles are usually straight tree trunks cut off aboveground swell,
trimmed of branches, and the bark removed. A good timber pile has the following characteristics:

Ž It is free of sharp bends, large or loose knots, splits or decay.

Ž It has a straight line between centers of the butt and tip and lies within the body of the pile.

Ž It has a uniform taper from butt to tip.

Figure 12-75.-Typical uses of piles driven in a waterfront structure.

18. Treated timber pile. A timber pile impregnated with a preservative material that retards or
prevents deterioration due to organisms.

WARNING

When you are working with treated piles, protective clothing, such as long sleeves, gloves, and
safety goggles, must be worn. The preservative used in treated piles can irritate the eyes and
skin.

58
19. Concrete piles. Two types of concrete piles are precast and cast-in-place. Factors contributing
to their use are the availability of the materials from which concrete is made.

l Precast concrete piles are steel reinforced sections that are square or octagonal in shape except
near the tip. They vary in length up to 50 or 60 feet.

Because of their great weight, greater lengths are generally not feasible. They require time for
setting and curing and storage space. Precast concrete piles are frequently driven with the aid of
water jetting (fig. 12-76). Water is forced through and out the pile tip through jetting pipes
constructed into the piles while the pile is driven.

CHAPTER 13 RIGGING
Rigging is a technique of handling materials using wire rope, fiber rope, chains, slings, spreader
bars, and so forth. Rigging is a vital link in the weight-handling process.

In the Naval Construction Force (NCF), an in-depth management program for maintenance and
use of all rigging gear is required to ensure the entire weight-handling operations are performed
safely and professionally. These guidelines are outlined in the COMSECOND/COMTHIRDNCBINST
11200.11,

Use of Wire Rope Slings and Rigging Hardware in the Naval Construction Force.

This chapter covers the characteristics, maintenance, usage, and storage of rigging gear used in
weight-handling operations.

WIRE ROPE

Many of the movable components on cranes and attachments are moved by wire rope. Wire
rope is a complex machine, composed of a number of precise, moving parts. The moving parts of
wire rope are designed and manufactured to bear a definite relationship to one another to have
the necessary flexibility during operation.

Wire rope may be manufactured by either of two methods. If the strands, or wires, are shaped to
conform to the curvature of the finished rope before laying up, the rope is termed preformed
wire rope. If they are not shaped before fabrication, the wire rope is termed non-preformed wire
rope.

The most common type of manufactured wire rope is preformed. When cut, the wire rope tends
not to unlay and is more flexible than non-preformed wire rope. With non-preformed wire rope,
twisting produces a stress in the wires; therefore, when it is cut or broken, the stress causes the
strands to unlay.

59
NOTE: When the wire is cut or broken, the almost instantaneous unlaying of the wires and
strands of non-preformed wire rope can cause serious injury to someone that is careless or not
familiar with this characteristic of the rope.

PARTS OF WIRE ROPE

Wire rope is composed of three parts: wires, strands, and core (fig. 13- 1). A predetermined
number of wires of the same or different size are fabricated in a uniform arrangement of definite
lay to form a strand. The required number of strands are then laid together symmetrically around
the core to form the wire rope.

Wire

The basic component of the wire rope is the wire. The wire may be made of steel, iron, or other
metal in various sizes. The number of wires to a strand varies, depending on the purpose for
which the wire rope is intended. Wire rope is designated by the number of strands per rope and
the number of wires per strand. Thus an 1/2-inch 6 x 19 rope has six strands with 19 wires per
strand. It has the same outside diameter as a 1/2-inch 6 x 37 rope that has six strands with 37
wires (of smaller size) per strand.

Strand

The design arrangement of a strand is called the construction. The wires in the strand maybe all
the same size or a mixture of sizes. The most common strand

Figure 13-1.-Parts of wire rope.

60
Figure 13-2.-Common strand construction.

constructions are Ordinary, Seale, Warrington, and Filler (fig. 13-2).

. Ordinary construction wires are all the same size.

. Seale is where larger diameter wires are used on the outside of the strand to resist abrasion and
smaller wires are inside to provide flexibility.

l Warrington is where alternate wires are large and small to combine great flexibility with
resistance to abrasion.

l Filler is where very small wires fill in the valleys between the outer and inner rows of wires to
provide good abrasion and fatigue resistance.

Core
The wire rope core supports the strands laid around it. The three types of wire rope cores arc
fiber, wire strand, and independent wire rope (fig. 13-3).

Figure 13-3.-Core construction.

61
. A fiber core may be a hard fiber, such as manila, hemp, plastic, paper, or sisal. The fiber core
offers the advantage of increased flexibility. It also serves as a cushion to reduce the effects of
sudden strain and acts as an oil reservoir to lubricate the wire and strands (to reduce friction).
Wire rope with a fiber core is used when flexibility of (he rope is important.

. A wire strand core resists more heat than a fiber core and also adds about 15 percent to the
strength of the rope; however, the wire strand core makes the wire rope less flexible than a fiber
core.

. An independent wire rope core is a separate wire rope over which the main strands of the rope
are laid. This core strengthens the rope, provides support against crushing, and supplies
maximum resistance to heat.

GRADES OF WIRE ROPE

The three primary grades of wire rope are mild plow steel, plow steel, and improved plow steel.

Mild Plow Steel Wire Rope

Mild plow steel wire rope is tough and pliable. It can stand repeated strain and stress and has a
tensile strength (resistance to lengthwise stress) of from 200,000 to 220,000 pounds per square
inch (psi). These characteristics make it desirable for cable tool drilling and other purposes where
abrasion is encountered.

Plow Steel Wire Rope

Plow steel wire rope is unusually tough and strong. This steel has a tensile strength of 220,000 to
240,000 psi. Plow steel wire rope is suitable for hauling, hoisting, and logging.

Improved Plow Steel Wire Rope

Improved plow steel wire rope is one of the best grades of rope available and is the most
common rope used in the NCF. This type of rope is stronger, tougher, and more resistant to wear
than either mild plow steel or plow steel. Each square inch of improved plow steel can stand a
strain of 240,000 to 260,000 pounds. This makes it especially useful for heavy-duty service, such
as on cranes with excavating and weight-handling attachments.

LAYS OF WIRE ROPE

The term lay refers to the direction of the twist of the wires in a strand and to the direction that
the strands are laid in the rope. In some instances, both the wires in the strand and the strands in
the rope are laid in the same direction; and in other instances, the wires are laid in one direction
and the strands are laid in the opposite direction, depending on the intended use of the rope.
Most manufacturers specify the types and lays of wire rope to be used on their piece of
equipment. Be sure and consult the operator's manual for proper application.

62
Five different lays of wire rope are shown in figure 13-4.

The five types of lays used in wire rope are as follows: . Right Regular Lay: In right regular lay
rope, the wires in the strands are laid to the left, while the strands are laid to the right to form
the wire rope.

. Left Regular Lay: In left regular lay rope, the wires in the strands are laid to the right, while the
strands are laid to the left to form the wire rope. In this lay, each step of fabrication is exactly
opposite from the right regular lay.

. Right Lang Lay: In right lang lay rope, the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope are laid
in the same direction; in this instance, the lay is to the right.

. Left Lang Lay: In left lang lay rope, the wires in the strands and the strands in the rope are also
laid in the same direction; in this instance, the lay is to the left (rather than to the right as in the
right lang lay).

Figure 13-4.-Lays of wire rope.

. Reverse Lay: In reverse lay rope, the wires in one strand are laid to the right, the wires in the
nearby strand are laid to the left, the wires in the next strand are to the right, and so forth, with
alternate directions from one strand to the other. Then all strands are laid to the right.

63
LAY LENGTH OF WIRE ROPE
The length of a rope lay is the distance measured parallel to the center line of a wire rope in
which a strand makes one complete spiral or turn around the rope. The length of a strand lay is
the distance measured parallel to the center line of the strand in which one wire makes one
complete spiral or turnaround the strand. Lay length measurement is shown in figure 13-5.

Figure 13-5.-Lay length of wire rope.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRE ROPE

The main types of wire rope used by the NCF consist of 6, 7, 12, 19, 24, or 37 wires in each strand.
Usually, the wire rope has six strands laid around the core.

The two most common types of wire rope, 6 x 19 and 6 x 37, are shown in figure 13-6. The 6 x 19
type (having six strands with 19 wires in each strand) is the stiffest and strongest construction of
the types of wire rope suitable for general hoisting operations. The 6 x 37 wire rope (six strands
with 37 wires in each strand) is very flexible, making it suitable for cranes and similar equipment
where sheaves are smaller than usual. The wires in the 6 x 37 are smaller than the wires in the 6 x
19 wire rope and, consequently, will not stand as much abrasive wear.

Several factors must be considered whenever a wire rope is selected for use in a particular kind of
operation. The manufacture of a wire rope which can withstand equally well all kinds of wear and
stress, it may be subjected to, is not possible, Because of this, selecting a rope is often a matter of
compromise, sacrificing one quality to have some other more urgently needed characteristic.

Tensile Strength

Tensile strength is the strength necessary to withstand a certain maximum load applied to the
rope. It includes a reserve of strength measured in a so-called factor of safety.

Crushing Strength

Crushing strength is the strength necessary to resist the compressive and squeezing forces that
distort the cross section of a wire rope, as it runs over sheaves,

64
Figure 13-6.-A. 6 x 19 wire rope; B. 6 x 37 wire rope.

rollers, and hoist drums when under a heavy load. Regular lay rope distorts less in these
situations than lang lay.

Fatigue Resistance

Fatigue resistance is the ability to withstand the constant bending and flexing of wire rope that
runs continuously on sheaves and hoist drums. Fatigue resistance is important when the wire
rope must run at high speeds. Such constant and rapid bending of the rope can break individual
wires in the strands. Lang lay ropes are best for service requiring high fatigue resistance. Ropes
with smaller wires around the outside of their strands also have greater fatigue resistance, since
these strands are more flexible.

Abrasion Resistance

Abrasion resistance is the ability to withstand the gradual wearing away of the outer metal, as
the rope runs across sheaves and hoist drums. The rate of abrasion depends mainly on the load
carried by the rope and its running speed. Generally, abrasion resistance in a rope depends on
the type of metal of which the rope is made and the size of the individual outer wires. Wire rope
made of the harder steels, such as improved plow steel, have considerable resistance to abrasion.
Ropes that have larger wires forming the outside of their strands are more resistant to wear than
ropes having smaller wires which wear away more quickly.

Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion resistance is the ability to withstand the dissolution of the wire metal that results from
chemical attack by moisture in the atmosphere or elsewhere in the working environment. Ropes
that are put to static work, such as guy wires, may be protected from corrosive elements by paint
or other special dressings. Wire rope may also be galvanized for corrosion protection. Most wire
ropes used in crane operations must rely on their lubricating dressing to double as a corrosion
preventive.

65
MEASURING WIRE ROPE
Wire rope is designated by its diameter in inches, as shown in figure 13-7. The correct method of
measuring the wire rope is to measure from the top of one strand to the top of the strand
directly opposite it. The wrong way is to measure across two strands side by side.

To ensure an accurate measurement of the diameter of a wire rope, always measure the rope at
three places,

Figure 13-7.-Correct and incorrect methods of measuringwire rope.

at least 5 feet apart. Use the average of the three measurements as the diameter of the rope.

NOTE: A crescent wrench can be used as an expedient means to measure wire rope.

WIRE ROPE SAFE WORKING LOAD

The term safe working load (SWL) of wire rope means the load that can be applied and still obtain
the most efficient service and also prolong the life of the rope.

The formula for computing the SWL of a wire rope is the diameter of the rope squared, multiplied
by 8 (D x D x 8 = SWL in tons).

Example: The wire rope is 1/2 inch in diameter. Compute the SWL for the rope.

The first step is to convert the 1/2 into decimal number by dividing the bottom number of the
fraction into the top number of the fraction: ( 1 divided by 2 = .5).

Next, compute the SWL formula: (.5 x .5 x 8 = 2 tons). The SWL of the 1/2-inch wire rope is 2 tons.

NOTE: Do NOT downgrade the SWL of wire rope due to being old, worn, or in poor condition.
Wire rope in these conditions should be cut up and discarded.

WIRE ROPE FAILURE

66
Some of the common causes of wire rope failure are the following:

l Using incorrect size, construction, or grade

l Dragging over obstacles

l Lubricating improperly

l Operating over sheaves and drums of inadequate size

l Overriding or crosr winding on drums

. Operating over sheaves and drums with improperly fitted grooves or broken flanges . Jumping
off sheaves l Exposing to acid or corrosive liquids or gases . Using an improperly attached fitting .
Allowing grit to penetrate between the strands, promoting internal wear . Subjecting to severe or
continuing overload l Using an excessive fleet angle

HANDLING AND CARE OF WIRE ROPE

To render safe, dependable service over a maximum period of time, you should take good care
and upkeep that is necessary to keep the wire rope in good condition. Various ways of caring for
and handling wire rope are listed below.

Coiling and Uncoiling

Once a new reel has been opened, it maybe coiled or faked down, like line, The proper direction
of coiling is counterclockwise for left lay wire rope and clockwise for right lay wire rope. Because
of the general toughness and resilience of wire, it tends now and then to resist being coiled
down. When this occurs, it is useless to fight the wire by forcing down the turn because it will
only spring up again. But if it is thrown in a back turn, as shown in figure 13-8, it will lie down
properly. A wire rope, when faked down, will run right

67
Figure 13-8.-Throwing a back turn.

off, like line; but when wound in a coil, it must always be unwound.

Wire rope tends to kink during uncoiling or unreeling, especially if it has been in service long. A
kink can cause a weak spot in the rope that wears out quicker than the rest of the rope.

A good method for unreeling wire rope is to run a pipe, or rod, through the center and mount the
reel on drum jacks or other supports so the reel is off the ground, as shown in figure 13-9. In this
way, the reel will turn as the rope is unwound, and the rotation of the reel helps keep the rope
straight. During unreeling, pull the rope straight forward, and avoid hurrying the operation. As a
safeguard against kinking, NEVER unreel wire rope from a reel that is stationary.

Figure 13-9.-Unreeling wire rope (left); uncoiling wire rope (right).

To uncoil a small coil of wire rope, simply stand the coil on edge and roll it along the ground like a
wheel, or hoop, as also shown in figure 13-9. NEVER lay the coil flat on the floor or ground and
uncoil it by pulling on the end, because such practice can kink or twist the rope.

68
Kinks
One of the most common forms of damage resulting from improper handled wire rope is the
development of a kink. A kink starts with the formation of a loop, as shown in figures 13-10 and
13-11.

A loop that has not been pulled tight enough to set the wires or strands of the rope into a kink
can be removed by turning the rope at either end in the proper direction to restore the lay, as
shown in figure 13-12. If this is not done and the loop is pulled tight enough to cause a kink (fig.
13-13), the kink will result in irreparable damage to the rope (fig. 13-14).

Figure 13-12.-The correct way to take out a loop in a wire rope.

Figure 13-13.-Wire rope kink.

Figure 13-14.-Kink damage.

69
Figure 13-10.-Improper handling.

Figure 13-11.-Wire rope loop.

Kinking can be prevented by proper uncoiling and unreeling methods and by the correct handling
of the rope throughout its installation.

Drum Winding

Spooling wire rope on a crane hoist drum causes a slight rotating tendency of the rope due to the
spiral lay of the strands. Two types of hoist drums used for spooling wire rope are as follows:

1. Grooved drum. When grooved drums are used, the grooves generally give sufficient control to
wind the wire rope properly, whether it is right or left lay rope.

2, Smooth-faced drum. When smooth-faced drums are used, where the only other influence on
the wire rope in winding on the first layer is the fleet angle, the slight rotational tendency of the
rope can be used as an advantage in keeping the winding tight and uniform.

NOTE: Using the wrong type of wire rope lay causes the rotational tendency of the rope to be a
disadvantage, because it results in loose and nonuniform winding of the rope on the hoist drum.

Figure 13-15 shows drum winding diagrams for selection of the proper lay of rope. Standing
behind the hoist drum and looking toward an oncoming overwind rope, the rotating tendency of
right lay rope is toward the left; whereas, the rotating tendency of a left lay rope is toward the
right.

70
Refer to figure 13-15. With overwind reeving and a right lay rope on a smooth-faced drum, the
wire rope bitter end attachment to the drum flange should be at the left flange. With underwind
reeving and a right lay rope, the wire rope bitter end attachment should beat the right flange.

When wire rope is run off one reel onto another or onto a winch or drum, it should be run from
TOP TO

Figure 13-15.-Different lays of wire rope winding on hoist drums.

Figure 13-16.-Transferring wire rope from reel to drum.

71
Figure 13-17.-Fleet angle relationship.

TOP or from BOTTOM TO BOTTOM, as shown in figure 13-16.

Fleet Angle

The fleet angle is formed by running wire rope between a sheave and a hoist drum whose axles
are parallel to each other, as shown in figure 13-17. Too large a fleet angle can cause the wire
rope to climb the flange of the sheave and can also cause the wire rope to climb over itself on the
hoist drum.

Sizes of Sheaves
The diameter of a sheave should never be less than 20 times the diameter of the wire rope. An
exception is 6 x 37 wire for which a smaller sheave can be used, because this wire rope is more
flexible.

The chart shown in table 13-1 can be used to determine the minimum sheave diameter for wire
rope of various diameters and construction.

Reverse Bends

Whenever possible, drums, sheaves, and blocks used with wire rope should be placed to avoid
reverse or S-shaped bends. Reverse bends cause the individual wires or strands to shift too much
and increase wear and fatigue. For a reverse bend, the drums and blocks affecting the reversal
should be of a larger diameter than

Table 13-1.-Suggested Minimum Tread Diameter of Sheaves and Drums

72
ordinarily used and should be spaced as far apart as possible.

Seizing and Cutting

The makers of wire rope are careful to lay each wire in the strand and each strand in the rope
under uniform tension. If the ends of the rope are not secured properly, the original balance of
tension will be disturbed and maximum service cannot be obtained because some strands can
carry a greater portion of the load than others. Before cutting steel wire rope, place seizing on
each side of the point where the rope is to be cut (fig. 13-18).

A rule of thumb for determining the size, number, and distance between seizing is as follows:

1. The number of seizing to be applied equals approximately three times the diameter of the
rope.

Example: 3 x 3/4-inch-diameter rope = 2 1/4 inches. Round up to the next higher whole number
and use three seizing.

2. The width of each seizing should be 1 to 1 1/2 times as long as the diameter of the rope.

Example: 1 x 3/4-inch-diameter rope = 3/4 inch. Use a 1-inch width of seizing.

73
Figure 13-18.-Seizing wire rope.

3. The seizing should be spaced a distance equal to twice the diameter of the wire rope.

Example: 2 x 3/4-inch-diameter rope = 1 1/2 inches. Space the seizing 2 inches apart.

A common method used to make a temporary wire rope seizing is as follows:

Wind on the seizing wire uniformly, using tension on the wire. After taking the required number
of turns, as shown in step 1, twist the ends of the wires counterclockwise by hand, so the twisted
portion of the wires is near the middle of the seizing, as shown in step 2. Grasp the ends with
end-cutting nippers and twist up slack, as shown in step 3. Do not try to tighten the seizing by
twisting. Draw up on the seizing, as shown in step 4. Again twist up the slack, using nippers, as
shown in step 5. Repeat steps 4 and 5 if necessary. Cut ends and pound them down on the rope,
as shown in step 6. If the seizing is to be permanent or if the rope is 1 5/8 inches or more in
diameter, use a serving bar, or iron, to increase tension on the seizing wire when putting on the
turns.

Wire rope can be cut successfully by a number of methods. One effective and simple method is to
use a hydraulic type of wire rope cutter, as shown in figure 13-19. Remember that all wire should
be seized before it is cut. For best results in using this method, place the rope in the cutter so the
blade comes between the two central seizings. With the release valve closed, jack the blade
against the rope at the location of the cut and continue to operate the cutter until the wire rope
is cut.

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MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPE
Wire rope bending around hoist drums and sheaves will wear like any other metal article, so
lubrication is just as important to an operating wire rope as it is to any other piece of working
machinery. For a wire rope to

Figure 13-19.-Hydraulic type of wire rope cutter.

work right, its wires and strands must be free to move. Friction from corrosion or lack of
lubrication shortens the service life of wire rope.

Deterioration from corrosion is more dangerous than that from wear, because corrosion ruins the
inside wires-a process hard to detect by inspection. Deterioration caused by wear can be
detected by examining the outside wires of the wire rope, because these wires become flattened
and reduced in diameter as the wire rope wears.

NOTE: Replace wire rope that has wear of one third of the original diameter of the outside
individual wires.

Both internal and external lubrication protects a wire rope against wear and corrosion. Internal
lubrication can be properly applied only when the wire rope is being manufactured, and
manufacturers customarily coat every wire with a rust-inhibiting lubricant, as it is laid into the
strand. The core is also lubricated in manufacturing.

Lubrication that is applied in the field is designed not only to maintain surface lubrication but also
to prevent the loss of the internal lubrication provided by the manufacturer. The Navy issues an
asphaltic petroleum oil that must be heated before using. This lubricant is known as Lubricating
Oil for Chain, Wire Rope, and Exposed Gear and comes in two types: l Type I, Regular: Does not
prevent rust and is used where rust prevention is not needed; for example, elevator wires used
inside are not exposed to the weather but need lubrication. l Type II, protective: A lubricant and
an anticorrosive- it comes in three grades: grade A, for cold weather (60°F and below); grade B,
for warm weather (between 60°F and 80°F); and grade C, for hot weather (80°F and above).

The oil, issued in 25-pound and 35-pound buckets and in 100-pound drums, can be applied with a
stiff brush, or the wire rope can be drawn through a trough of hot lubricant, as shown in figure

75
13-20. The frequency of application depends upon service conditions; as soon as the last coating
has appreciably deteriorated, it should be renewed.

CAUTION

Avoid prolonged skin contact with oils and lubricants. Consult the Materials Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) on each item before use for precautions and hazards. See your supervisor for copies of
MSDSs.

Figure 13-20.-Trough method of lubricating wire rope.

A good lubricant to use when working in the field, as recommended by COMSECOND/COMTHIRD-

NCBINST 11200.11, is a mixture of new motor oil and diesel fuel at a ratio of 70-percent oil and
30-percent diesel fuel. The NAVFAC P-404 contains added information on additional lubricants
that can be used.

Never lubricate wire rope that works a dragline or other attachments that normally bring the
wire rope in contact with soils. The reason is that the lubricant will pick up fine particles of
material, and the resulting abrasive action will be detrimental to both the wire rope and sheave.

As a safety precaution, always wipe off any excess oil when lubricating wire rope especially with
hoisting equipment. Too much lubricant can get into brakes or clutches and cause them to fail.
While in use, the motion of machinery may sling excess oil around over crane cabs and onto
catwalks making them unsafe.

NOTE: Properly dispose of wiping rags and used or excess lubricant as hazardous waste. See your
supervisor for details on local disposal requirements.

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