UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

CAVE HILL | OPEN CAMPUS

MSC. INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY

EDID 6501

Learning Theory and Instructional Design

Assignment 3: How do theories of learning influence instructional design?

Student name: Kara Lord

Registration number: 406003336

Course Instructor: Dr. Jennifer Deanne Ford

Date of Submission: 22nd April, 2016

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Table of Content

Page #.

Question …………………………………………….. 3

Introduction ……………………………………………. 4-5

Humanism ……………………………………………. 5-9

Humanistic Implications for Instruction ……………………………………………. 9-11

Practical Application/Humanism in Action ……………………………………………. 11-13

Conclusion ……………………………………………. 13-14

References ……………………………………………. 14-17

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Question

Task: Identify one or more theories of learning in this course (can talk about the modern

cognitive theories, or all of the theories of constructivism, or behaviourism, or humanism) and

present evidence of how the theories can be used to design instruction.

For the purposes of this paper, while all areas will be mentioned (behaviourism, cognitivism,

constructivism and humanism), focus will be placed on theories of learning that promote a

humanistic approach.
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Introduction

Theories of learning offer vast considerations for instructional design as it allows for

objective and testable insight into effective, efficient and best practices for the planning and

implementation of instruction (Hergenhahn, and Olson, 2005). The use of learning theories

informs how students learn; it is these considerations on the learning act and process that greatly

implies how instructional design can be catered to inform conducive learning in any institution

for teaching-learning (Driscoll, 2005).

Early learning theories such as behaviorism and cognitivism provides insights about

learning which take place through the environment (stimulus – response) and the mental

processes involved in learning (information processing) respectively (Hergenhahn, and Olson,

2005; Slavin, 2015). These theories have led to the understanding that learning takes place in a

number of ways; namely, sensory reception (which makes consideration for visual, auditory and

tactile learners), observation, imitation, memory (both working and long-term) with implications

for the use of reinforcement, rewards, punishment, and devices that contribute to learning, for

example: repetition and mnemonics (Slavin, 2015).

Furthermore, the constructivist approach provides new dynamics in an effort to offer

consideration for learning which takes place through socialization, interaction, play and practice

(Bruner, 1966; Slavin, 2015). These considerations have allowed for the creation of instructional

designs which facilitate learning in a student-centered manner (Slavin, 2015). However, while

every learning theory has its place in the teaching-learning practice; it is humanism which makes

holistic considerations for learning and development that has significant implications,
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particularly for adult learners but is not limited to andragogy (Knowles, et al., 1984; Knowles,

Holton, and Swanson, 2005).

Humanism has emerged over the past 50 years in response to the views of psychoanalysis

and behaviorism, which largely neglect the ‘human factor’ in contributing to our understanding

of issues such as learning and development (Crandell, Crandell, Zanden, 2009). Instead of

blaming the unconscious mind or relying on a stimulus – response method of understanding;

humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) believe that scientific inquiry

should mainly focus on helping people achieve hope, freedom and self-fulfillment (Crandell,

Crandell, Zanden, 2009).

Today, while the contributions of humanistic psychologists have been widely accepted; it

has also been criticized on many fronts - including its practicality of application in the

teaching/learning arena. This is primarily because it allows much room for personal choice and

decision making on the part of the learner, which may not necessarily be ideal for the teacher

(Jungna, 2012). Therefore, the humanistic perspective will be examined in a descriptive and

explanatory manner to assess its implications for understanding learning and informing

instructional design. This will be done to consider both theory and practice.

Humanism

General Principles

The subjective view of the humanistic perspective takes an individual look at human

development (Rathus, 2004). It considers the perception that we are not only free in our capacity

for decision making, but that we are also capable of self-healing and ultimately self-actualization
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(Gross, 2010). Schneider, et al. leaves a meaningful summary from which the humanistic

perspective can be understood by saying “humanistic psychology takes a holistic approach, one

that views the human condition in its totality and each person as more than a collection of

physical, social and psychological components” (Schneider, Bugental and Pierson, 2002 as cited

in Crandell, Crandell, and Zanden, 2009, P. 46).

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) contributes to humanism with his person centered therapy and

his views on development. Rogers believes that there are two images that human beings possess;

that is, the “real self” and the “ideal self” (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004). He further opines that

our development is sometimes as a result of our desire to entirely become a living replication of

our ideal self. To clarify, the real self is a make-up of the qualities and holistic realities of who

you actually are; while the ideal self is a subjective perception of who you would like to be. This

is also viewed in a holistic context which includes self-image, personality and accomplishments

(Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004).

Similarly, the work of Maslow (1908-1970) informs and contributes to the humanistic

approach with the popularized hierarchy of needs which indicates that human development is

based on the satisfaction of certain needs (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004). The needs range from

fundamental (including the most basic necessities for survival, such as food, air, and sleep) to

psychological needs (such as love and belonging) and ultimately to self-actualization needs

which speaks to the attainment of purpose and self-fulfillment (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004;

Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2009).

Self-actualization has been described as the pinnacle of life where one has reached and

fulfilled their highest inherent potentialities (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004). This simply means

that the intrinsic qualities and skills that are possessed by a person have reached its peak and said
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person is now at a point where he/she is satisfied and contented with the outcome, experiences

and overall personal goal achievement (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004).

The Humanistic Approach to Learning

In general, there are a few variables that can be considered in highlighting the humanistic

view towards teaching/learning. Humanists express a need to show concern for students and the

learning process while considering the development of the whole person (Rogers, 1970). Also,

the need for self-assessment and evaluation is evident since the perspective is one which

encourages a subjective view of the self (Schneider, Bugental, and Pierson, 2002); this therefore

posits that each learner must carry out an individual assessment and provide feedback or ask

questions in communicating with the teacher.

Speaking of the teacher, it is inherent that this person must play a supportive, non-

judgmental and genuine role which will in turn foster and promote a conducive environment for

meaningful learning to take place (Schneider, Bugental, and Pierson, 2002). Additionally, it is

evident that the impact of the learner’s perception about their ability affects their performance

and willingness to strive towards success (Bandura, 1997; Schunk, 1990; and Schunk, 1995).

Motivation

Weiner (1980) states: "Causal attributions determine affective reactions to success and

failure. For example, one is not likely to experience pride in success, or feelings of competence,

when receiving an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives only that grade, or when defeating a tennis

player who always loses...On the other hand, an ‘A’ from a teacher who gives few high grades or

a victory over a highly rated tennis player following a great deal of practice generates great

positive affect." (p.362). The attribution theory seeks to outline factors that may directly result in

success and can be named as the cause of behavior (Weiner, 1974). In the quote above, it is
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evident that feelings of confidence, esteem, and efficacy can be derived from attributions based

on our interpretations.

Weiner (1974) believes that the main attributes that determine success or failure are

primarily one’s ability, effort, the level of task difficulty and luck. Additionally, there are three

(3) main dimensions to consider as the attribution theory speaks clearly to motivation; these are:

the locus (the sources of success; i.e. internal or external); stability; and controllability (Weiner,

1974). In relation to the process of the theory, there must be an observation of behavior,

determination concerning the cause of said behavior and finally attribution of internal or external

factors as the motivating force for actions (Weiner, 1980).

Goal Setting

Goal setting refers to the setting of personal standards for achievement (Driscoll, 2005).

While there are important factors that affect student achievement through the setting of goals

such as the general or specific nature of the goal as well as the time it may take to accomplish

said task; it is also important to consider the goal orientations (Driscoll, 2005; Locke and

Latham, 1990). There are two basic goal orientations; i.e. performance goals and learning goals,

these two types of goal orientations differ in their outcome; persons who are oriented towards

learning goals are concerning with gaining competency (Slavin, 2015). Therefore, the

achievement is to know more, to understand, comprehend and be able to use the information in a

skill-based manner (practical application) (Slavin, 2015). On the other hand, those oriented

towards performance goals are concerned with the judgment of their competence. In other words,

they are interested in getting good grades and avoiding bad grades (Urdan & Mestas, 2006); the

purpose of learning is not particularly to understand in a practical manner but to be successful at

assessment and evaluation (Slavin, 2015).

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Self-efficacy

The term self efficacy speaks to the individual’s belief in their own capabilities towards

the successful execution and completion of a task (Bandura, 1997). It speaks to one’s confidence

about their abilities and that the undertaking of a task will lead to the attainment of a goal or

activity (Slavin, 2015). It is argued that these beliefs can determine an individual’s willingness to

even attempt a specific action but should not be interpreted to mean that perceived self efficacy

is something that can be generalized as it may be action or behaviour specific (Driscoll, 2005).

Humanistic Implications for Instruction

Self-Regulated Learning

The importance of individual considerations cannot be overstated in the humanistic

perspective to learning, for ideal learning outcomes, this perspective emphasizes the use of a

procees where one can monitor their performance. This process is known as self-regulated

learning and it considers the overall setting of goals in a holistic manner from the initial goal

setting to continual assessment (Boekaerts, Pintrich, and Zeidner, 2000).

According to Zimmerman (1998), the self regulated learner is one who has the ability for

forethought, self reflection and performance. The instructional design therefore, must consider

planning ahead for a task or activity as it allows students to be aware learning goals, establish

positive beliefs about their ability (self-efficacy) and to make personal plans for attainment

(Schunk, 1990). Additionally, it must encourage a system for enactive feedback as the learner

strives to monitor learning goals and make assessments concerning progress (Schunk, and

Zimmerman, 2007). Finally, performance must be so geared as to allow students to monitor and
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adjust any actions or behaviours during the learning process as needed to facilitate successful

achievement (Schunk, and Zimmerman, 2007).

Self-Directed Learning

The approach of an educator may largely be based on personal choice and comfort, but

good teachers understand that consideration must be given to the audience (the learners/students)

who expect meaningful learning to take place. Particularly for the adult learner, expectations are

considerably higher than children since their (the adult) focus is context oriented rather than on

content (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). In fact, Knowles (1975) sums up the ability of

adults by stating:

“…there is convincing evidence that people who take the initiative in learning (proactive

learners) learn more things and learn better than do people who sit at the feet of teachers

passively waiting to be taught….They enter into learning more purposefully and make

use of what they learn better and longer than do the reactive learners” (P. 14).

This in essence is what he referred to as self directed learning. In fact, the essence of learning is a

responsibility that is boldly taken up by the learner instead of being thrust upon the learner or

handed over by the instructor. Here, the learner has the capability and ability to embark on and

complete any learning task or activity he/she may desire and operate from a basis of intrinsic or

internal motivation (Knowles, 1975).

ARCS

A person will undertake an activity based on their perceived expectancy for successful

completion; if there is a positive expectancy of completion, then this will result in a high degree

of motivation, but completion of learning activities must be linked to individual needs (Keller,

2006 and 2013; Cheng, and Yeh, 2009). The ARCS model is perhaps one of the more relevant
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humanistic instructional models that incorporate the principles of motivation and belief into the

teaching-learning practice.

Table 1. Summary of ARCS Indicators

Variables Description Outcomes

Attention  Need for stimulation  Curiousity

 Boredom
 Arousal
Relevance  Desire to satisfy basic  Needs
needs  Motives
Confidence  Desire to feel  Attribution
competent and in  Self-efficacy
control  Expectancy
 Success opportunities
 Personal control
Satisfaction  Desire to feel good  Intrinsic motivation
about oneself  Extrinsic incentives
 Equity

Adapted from Keller, 2006 and 2013.

The table above show clear implications of how the ARCS model draws inspiration for

learning taking into consideration humanism as its key component which allows for learning to

take place first through gaining the attention of the learner, then continuing stimulation by

drawing relationships to inform relevance of content or material to be learned, engaging learners

to play an active role in the learning experience and finally allowing for successful completion of

learning goals which leads to feelings of satisfaction (Keller, 2006 and 2013).

Practical Application/ Humanism in Action

In the application of instructional design based on a humanistic approach it is important

to consider that the main aim of humanistic learning theory is to achieve self actualization
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(Jungna, 2012). Therefore, it is assumed that the student is always working towards achieving

their fullest potential while the teacher seeks to facilitate this process. In this quest, Schunk

(1990) strongly opines for the use of challenging but attainable goals not only for the purposes of

goal setting but to facilitate effective self-directed learning.

Furthermore, he states that self-efficacy is increased as students set, monitor and

successfully complete learning goals, but noted that the setting of easy goals will not lead to

feelings of accomplishment as they do not adequately inform one of their abilities (Schunk,

1990). For example, in practice it was found that the effective use of self-monitoring and

regulation lead to more time spent practicing mathematical equations and therefore solving

problems; this was conversely better than setting a simple goal for a single session (Sagotsky,

Patterson, and Lepper, 1978).

In applying the ARCS model to instructional design, focus will be placed on practice

rather than theory. Balaban-Sali (2008) makes multiple suggestions for the use of ARCS in the

implementation of instructional design. For example: she advocates for the use of variability,

unexpectancy and curiosity to get and maintain attention in the model; specifically, one should

use different methods of instruction, a variety of activities or try asking misleading questions in

an effort to keep students interested and engaged (Balaban-Sali, 2008). Interestingly, ChanLin

(2009) appropriated suggested the use of video clips and multimedia to enhance the attention of

students.

This view was also supported by Song and Keller (2001) who conducted a study to

examine the usefulness of motivational models including the ARCS models to computer assisted

and computer mediated instruction. Since this is also a web-based learning situation and the

motivational model has proven to be greatly helpful in the situation, it is noteworthy to add
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online and distance learning programs which facilitate student learning by making considerations

for the adult learning (ChanLin, 2009). This is done through self-directed learning by allowing

the learners to study what is important and relevant to them and also greatly utilizes self-

assessment and evaluation methods in order to allow students to track their progress and make

adjustments where necessary for successful completion of goals (Balaban-Sali, 2008; ChanLin,

2009; Song, and Keller, 2001).

Finally, it is evident that linking concepts and real life experiences can assist with

bringing relevance to the learning situation as many studies have found the use of relevance

strategies to be helpful in effecting successful learning outcomes (Newby, 1991; and Nwagbara,

1993). Therefore, Balaban-Sali (2008) suggests using familiar objects, stories or pictures that

will draw comparisons between real life and learning scenarios.

Conclusion

It has been found that while the humanistic perspective is subjective in its approach in

consideration of personal experiences; it provides invaluable application to inform instructional

design for holistic development. Furthermore, it serves to ensure that learning occurs in a manner

which promotes individual goal attainment and strongly utilizes principles of motivation in the

teaching-learning practice.

To appraise instructional design models which can be extrapolated from the humanistic

approach, the student-centered model seems to be of more value since it supports the needs of

learners. The teaching strategies in this approach involve the teacher playing the role of a

facilitator who is there to guide learning. This is appropriate since it allows for self-regulated and
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directed learning, provides motivation and the development of self-efficacy by involving

students in both formal or informal learning situations.

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