Formation Evaluation 1

Introduction
Reservoir Characterization • After reviewing the Geology, the engineer
Logging and Log Analyses should perform a through log analyses to
determine the reservoir fluid flow properties
of porosity and water saturation
Section 5.2.1 Basic Log Analysis • Well bore corrections, shale corrections,
hydrocarbon and lithology corrections must
be made to compute porosity
• Shaly sand water saturation must also be
used to compute Sw

Introduction Example Log

• For an unconventional gas reservoir, a hydraulic
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50

fracture treatment must be successfully pumped

SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF

to produce gas commercially 10700

6 16 0.2 200

• Accurate measurement or estimation of in-situ

stress, Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus, is
required
• Mechanical properties are also required in the 10800

evaluation of wellbore stability and sand

production
• Core analyses and log analyses are the two main
methods to obtain mechanical properties of the
10900

rock formations.

Formation Evaluation Formation Evaluation

• Unconventional gas reservoirs are typically • The properties of each layer that we most
layered, low porosity, naturally fractured need to know are:
deposits of sandstone, siltstone, and shale ƒ Permeability
• There are wide variations in the layer ƒ Porosity
ƒ Water saturation
properties and some of the layers will be
ƒ Pressure
naturally fractured.
ƒ Gross and net thickness
• To properly complete, fracture treat and ƒ In-situ stress
produce a tight gas well, we must evaluate ƒ Young’s Modulus
the properties of each layer, to include all the
pay interval and the layers that affect fracture • For each layer of rock above, within and
height growth below the productive interval.
Formation Evaluation 2

Formation Evaluation Gross and Net Pay

• The tools we can use to estimate values for • Estimated from logs or drilling data
all of these parameters are: ƒ Gross thickness important in defining in situ
stress profiles
ƒ Logs
ƒ Net thickness used for oil and gas in place
calculations
ƒ Cores
ƒ Net thickness important in leakoff profile
ƒ Well Tests
calculations
ƒ Drilling Records
ƒ Net pay is a function of the porosity and
ƒ Geologic Information from Seismic or Outcrops permeability that will support oil and gas flow
at measurable flow rates

Formation Permeability is Used to Reservoir Pressure

• Compute oil and gas flow rates • Used to compute oil and gas in place
• Compute fracture fluid leak off rates • Used to compute in-situ stress
• Compute optimum fracture length • Used to compute oil and gas flow rates
• Compute the optimum fracture conductivity • Used to compute fracture fluid loss into the
• Estimate fracture half length from post formation
fracture production and well test data • Affects fracture fluid cleanup
• Affects choice of fracture fluid
• Affects choice of propping agent

Basic Log Analyses Triple Combo Logging Suite

• Open hole well logs are the most economical • Logs that should be run on every well are
source of information for evaluating layered, ƒ Spontaneous Potential (SP)
low porosity, tight gas reservoirs. ƒ Gamma Ray log (GR)
• Typically, we need to run a full suite of logs ƒ Density Log (FDL)
to properly characterize the various rock ƒ Neutron Log (CNL)
layers. ƒ Dual-Induction Log (DIL)
• The logs have to be calibrated with core data, ƒ Sonic Log (SON)
well test data and production data.
Formation Evaluation 3

Properties Logs Actually Measure

Gamma Ray Log
• Current flowing from the formation
into the borehole • Measures natural radioactivity of
formation
• Natural radioactivity
• The natural radioactivity is affected by
• Electron density ƒ Potassium (K)
ƒ Uranium (U)
• Acoustic travel time ƒ Thorium (Th)
• Hydrogen content • Indicates shale present as most of these
elements are found in shale
• Photoelectric absorption

Example GR Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
Other logs that are useful
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC

• Currently, there are many new logs that may

-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
GRC ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
0 150
10700
also provide valuable data, such as
ƒ Array Induction Log (AIT)
ƒ Array Sonic Log (AST)
10800
ƒ Electromagnetic Propagation Log (EPT)
ƒ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
GR ƒ Formation Imager Logs
Log
• Data from these logs can be used to improve
10900
the evaluation of each formation layer but
can be very expensive to use routinely

WELL TYPE LOGGING SUITE FOR EXPLORATION WELLS

• Exploration wells: Involve the initial phase in
petroleum operations on this case a full suite of logs • For Exploration wells, you may want to obtain as
to properly characterize the formation is needed. much information as possible
ƒ Gamma Ray Log (GR)
• Development wells: This operations start after the ƒ Spontaneous Potential (SP)
exploration phase has proven successful, and before
full-scale production. A plan to fully and efficiently ƒ Neutron Log (CNL)
exploit the field is created, and additional wells are ƒ Density Log (FDL)
usually drilled.
ƒ Dual-Induction (Array) Log
ƒ Sonic Compressional and Shear slowness
• Production wells: This phase occurs after
successful exploration and development and during ƒ Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
which gas or oil are drained for mass production, on ƒ Borehole Imaging
this case a minimum logs suite is needed to minimize
cost. ƒ Formation Tester
ƒ Side wall coring
Formation Evaluation 4

LOGGING SUITE FOR DEVELOPMENT WELLS LOGGING SUITE FOR PRODUCTION WELLS
• For Development wells, it may be possible to • For Production Wells, it is likely that the logging
reduce the costs of the well by reducing the open suite has to be minimize to minimize costs and
hole logging suite improve the profit margin.
ƒ Gamma Ray Log (GR) • To get the necessary information from a minimal
ƒ Spontaneous potential (SP) logging suite, correlations between logs and cores
ƒ Sonic Compressional and shear slowness will have to be developed.
ƒ Dual-Induction (Array) Log ƒ Gamma Ray (GR)
ƒ Neutron (CNL) ƒ Spontaneous Potential (SP)
ƒ Density Log (FDL) ƒ Dual-Induction (Array) Log (DIL)
ƒ Sonic Compressional and shear slowness

Steps Required to Analyze Logs in UGRs Steps Required to Analyze Logs in UGRs
• If older logs are available on paper, a • These statistical analyses include:
substantial amount of work is required before ƒ Pickett Plot (Rw, m, n)
any reservoir properties can be computed ƒ Shale histograms (shale end points)
• For older, paper logs, the steps required to pre- ƒ Sand or Limestone histograms to determine clean
process the log data are: zone end points
ƒ Digitizing all data,
ƒ Depth shifting, ƒ Environmental corrections
ƒ Environmental corrections, and ƒ Linear regression of sonic, density and neutron log
ƒ Normalization data with core porosity data when available
• Once all data have been pre-processed and are ƒ Linear regression of sonic vs. density and neutron vs.
stored in a digital database, then a series of density log readings
statistical analyses are conducted to quantify
certain parameters

Caliper Log
Steps Required to Analyze Logs in UGRs 001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC

• Over 80% of the work required to do proper

-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200

log analyses in tight gas reservoirs involves ACAL 10700

the pre-processing of the data, before any 6 16

actual analyses can be performed.

• Ercill Hunt et. al. published a series of articles 10800

in World Oil that clearly shows the steps

required to process log correctly so the true Caliper
values of porosity, shale content and water Log

saturation can be computed in low porosity 10900

formations
Formation Evaluation 5

Porosity Logs Bulk Density Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF

• 3 main types
6 16 0.2 200
RHOC
10700
1.95 2.95

ƒ Bulk density

ƒ Compensated neutron 10800

ƒ Sonic (acoustic)
Bulk Density
10900
Log

Bulk Density Log Example Example Solution Density Log

001) BONANZA 1 001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50 0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPC SNC DPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 -160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200 6 16 0.2 200
10700 10700

Bulk Density
DPHI
Log

10800 10800

10900 10900

Neutron Log Porosity From Neutron Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
• Logging tool emits high energy neutrons into 0
SPC
150 0.2
SNC
200 1.95
CNLLC
2.95 150 us/f 50

formation in bursts
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
CNLLC
• Neutrons collide with nuclei of the atoms in the
10700
0.45 -0.15

formation
• Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with each collision
• If a neutron hits a hydrogen atom head on, it will be 10800

adsorbed and a gamma ray will be emitted

• The number of neutrons left or the number of
gamma rays emitted over time is a direct measure of
the amount of hydrogen in the formation 10900
Neutron
Log
Formation Evaluation 6

Sonic Log Example Sonic Log

001) BONANZA 1 001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50 0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 -160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200 6 16 0.2 200
DT
10700 10700
150 us/f 50
Sonic
Log

10800 10800

Sonic
Log

10900 10900

Example Solution Sonic Log

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 45 ss -15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700

10800

SPHI
Typical sonic waveform in borehole

10900

Density Porosity Sonic Porosity

φD =
( ρb −ρ ma )
φS =
(Δt−Δtma )
(ρ f −ρ ma ) (Δt f −Δtma )
Formation Evaluation 7

Sonic Log analyses Example Log With Resistivity

001) BONANZA 1

• The sonic log was first introduced into

GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
ILDC
oilfield around 1950’s, but the log only
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200 0.2 200
recorded the compressional wave velocity 10700

SNC
• Later, the full-wave form acoustic log was 0.2 200

developed to allow the determination of MLLCF

both compressional velocity and shear 10800

0.2 200

velocity
• With both shear and compressional velocity,
we can compute mechanical properties, to
include the elastic modulus
10900
Resistivity
Log

Water Saturation ARCHIE’S SECOND EQUATION

• General formula:
• Amount of water per unit volume = φ Sw
Ro F * R w a * R w
• Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume = φ (1 - Sw) S wn = = = m
Rt Rt φ Rt
• For clean sands, n = 2 is common
φ (1-Sw) • Like “a” and m, n is measured in the lab
φ Hydrocarbon
φ Sw Water • If Rt = R0, then the formation is 100% saturated with
formation water
1−φ • However, if Rt > Ro, then the formation contains oil or
Matrix
gas.

LAB EVALUATION OF n Archie’s Equation

Empirical constant
(usually near unity) Resistivity of

Rww
aR formation water,

Sw = n
Ω-m

φ
Cementation
Water
saturation,
m
m exponent
fraction
Saturation
exponent
R
Rtt (usually near 2)

(also usually Resistivity of

near 2) Porosity, uninvaded
fraction formation, Ω-m
Formation Evaluation 8

How Archie’s Equation Works How Archie’s Equation Works

• Archie’s equation is based on the following 1000
relationships
1000
Rock type 1
Rock type 1 100

R0
Rt
100

IR =
Rock type 2
10
FR

10 Rock type 2
1
.01 .1 1.0
1
.01 .1 1.0 Sw
When water saturation is 100% φ • When φ is constant

Determining Rw Rw Using the Rwa Technique

• Directly: from measured water sample

• Indirectly: from openhole well logs

ƒ SP logs
ƒ Pickett plots
R wa = φm R t
ƒ Rwa technique

Example Log Rw Using Pickett Plots

001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
1/ n
⎛ aR ⎞
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF

S w = ⎜⎜ m w ⎟⎟
6 16 0.2 200
10700

⎝ φ Rt ⎠
log(R t ) = − m log (φ) + log (a R w ) − n log (S w )
10800

For water sands

10900
log (R t ) = − m log (φ) + log (aR w )
y Slope x Intercept
Formation Evaluation 9

Example Pickett Plot Pickett Plot Solution For Sw

200
1

200
1
63.245553

63.245553
20

20
Apparent Rt

Apparent Rt
Porosity

Porosity
6.324555

6.324555
.1
0.1

0.1
.2

2
Rw = 0.073 Rw = 0.073 .4

0.632456
0.632456
a=1 a=1 .6
m=2 m=2 .8

0.01
0.01

n=2 1.00 n=2 1.00

0.2
0.2
0.01
Well: Bonanza 1
0.1 1 10 100 500 Well: Bonanza 1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 500
Zone: 10690.000 - 10980.000 ft Deep Induction VCL < .3 Zone: 10690.000 - 10980.000 ft Deep induction VCL < .3
Date: 27 Apr 1998 @ 11:31 Date: 27 Apr 1998 @ 11:32

Summary
SUMMARY - RESISTIVITY
• The most economic way to evaluate a thick,
• Resistivity important property
layered formation is to run open hole well logs
• Depends on ions in water
and correlate the logs with cores and well
• Water resistivity depends on tests
ƒ Concentration
ƒ Temperature • For unconventional gas wells, the log readings
ƒ Ion species have to be corrected for shale, hydrocarbons,
• Archie’s First Equation relates rock wellbore effects and other factors before one
resistivity to formation water resistivity,Rw has values from logs that can be correlated
• Archie’s Second Equation relates Sw to Rt with cores and well tests.

Summary
• Open hole logs create a continuous record of
how certain fluid flow and mechanical
properties vary with depth
• The logs can be used to identify the contrast
between layers
• Obtaining in-situ data from logs can be
correlated with core data to calibrate the logs