GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

Short Laboratory Report

Presented To

The Department of Chemical Engineering

By

NSOFOR, K.C. (Group D)

Mat. No. 120401048

In Partial Fulfilment

Of the Requirements for the course

Chemical Engineering Laboratory II

University of Lagos, Lagos

October 27, 2014

ABSTRACT
Grain size analysis is the standard laboratory process for the determination of
the particle size distribution of a soil. Soil consists of an assembly of ultimate
soil particles (discrete particles) of various shapes and sizes. The objective of a
particle size analysis is to group these particles into separate ranges of sizes
and so determine the relative proportion by weight of each size range. Sieving
method is employed in determining the percentage of different grain sizes
contained within a given sample.

This experiment was carried out to determine the percentage of different grain
sizes contained within a soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis was performed
and thus employed here to determine the distribution of the coarser, larger-
sized particles.

In this experiment, a soil sample was placed on the top sieve on a sieve stack
with the individual sieves making up the sieve stack having been cleaned and
weighed including the bottom pan. The sieve stack with the soil sample on the
top sieve on the sieve covered was then placed in a mechanical shaker and the
mechanical shaker operated for 10 minutes. The mechanical shaker was then
switched off and the sieve stack removed from the mechanical shaker. The
sieve stack was then separated into individual sieves and the weights of the
sieves with their soil contents were weighed to calculate the weight of the soil
particles, the percentage retained and the percentage passing on each
successive sieve. A semi-logarithmic plot of the grain size against per cent finer
(or per cent passing) was finally done and analysed.

Grain size analysis is very important in grain producing Industries.

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INTRODUCTION
Grain size is the most fundamental physical property of sediment. Geologists
and sedimentologists use information on sediment grain size to study trends in
surface processes related to the dynamic conditions of transportation and
deposition; engineers use grain size to study sample permeability and stability
under load; geochemists use grain size to study kinetic reactions and the
affinities of fine-grained particles and contaminants; and hydrologists use it
when studying the movement of subsurface fluids (Blatt and others, 1972;
McCave and Syvitski, 1991). Therefore, with these reasons in mind, the
objectives of a grain-size analysis are to accurately measure individual particle
sizes or hydraulic equivalents, to determine their frequency distribution, and to
calculate a statistical description that adequately characterizes the sample.

The techniques and equipment used for particle-size analysis must be fast,
accurate, and yield highly reproducible results. The accuracy of these
measurements is limited by sampling techniques, storage conditions, analytical
methods, equipment, and, especially, the capability of the operator. Care and
attention to detail must be exercised to achieve the best possible results. As
with most types of sedimentological analyses there is no ultimate technique or
procedure that will produce the most desirable grain size data for all cases.
Several types of analyses have been developed over the years to accommodate
the different types and sizes of samples and the reasons for conducting the
analysis

Apart from engineering, sediment characteristics can provide information

about source materials, the depositional environment (how much energy there
is in waves and currents), and other physical and chemical factors.

When rocks are broken down into fragments, either through the mechanical
means of weathering, or through chemical reactions, the fragments are called
sediment. When that sediment is compacted or cemented together, it forms a

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sedimentary rock. Sediments are either clastic or chemical. That is, rocks are
broken down through either mechanical or chemical means.

Clastic Sediment: Clastic sediment is what one usually thinks of when speaking
of sediment. From the Greek word klastos (broken), it refers to the broken
remains of rocks of all types, broken and altered by weathering processes such
as wind, water and ice. Clastic sediment is also known as detrital sediment.

Chemical sediment: Chemical sedimentary rocks may contain fossils and other
sedimentary characteristics, but their components were not broken up
mechanically. Rather, rocks were dissolved in solution (as salt can dissolve in
water) and transported, then precipitated chemically (as salt can precipitate
out of a saturated solution).

Texture refers to properties of sediment such as particle size, shape,

roundness, and sorting. A well sorted sediment is one in which the grains are
all about the same size. In contrast, poorly sorted sediment contains a chaotic
mixture and large, intermediate and small grains. Shape is a measure of the
sphericity of a grain. Some grains are almost spherical, whereas others may be
elongate or flattened. Particle roundness refers to the smoothness of a grain,
regardless of its shape. Grains may be rounded (i.e., no sharp corners), sub
angular or angular.

There are basically two methods in performing grain size analysis, which are;

1. Sieving analysis and

2. Hydrometer analysis.

The laboratory work carried out was specifically based on SIEVING ANALYSIS.

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1.2 SIEVING ANALYSIS

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used (commonly

used in engineering) to assess the particle size distribution (also
called gradation) of a granular material.

The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the material
performs in use. A sieve analysis can be performed on any type of non-organic
or organic granular materials including sands, crushed rock, clays, granite,
feldspars, coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds,
down to a minimum size depending on the exact method. Being such a simple
technique of particle sizing, it is probably the most common.

1.3 PROCEDURES AND WAYS OF CARRYING OUT SIEVING ANALYSIS.

A gradation test is performed on a sample of aggregate in a laboratory. A

typical sieve analysis involves a nested column of sieves with wire mesh cloth
(screen). See the separate Mesh (scale) page for details of sieve sizing.

A representative weighed sample is poured into the top sieve which has the
largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller openings
than the one above. At the base is a round pan, called the receiver.

The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes the
column, usually for some fixed amount of time. After the shaking is complete
the material on each sieve is weighed. The weight of the sample of each sieve
is then divided by the total weight to give a percentage retained on each sieve.

The size of the average particle on each sieve is then analyzed to get a cut-off
point or specific size range, which is then captured on a screen.

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The results of this test are used to describe the properties of the aggregate and
to see if it is appropriate for various civil engineering purposes such as
selecting the appropriate aggregate for concrete mixes and asphalt mixes as
well as sizing of water production well screens.

The results of this test are provided in graphical form to identify the type of
gradation of the aggregate. The complete procedure for this test is outlined in
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American
Association and State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

A suitable sieve size for the aggregate should be selected and placed in order
of decreasing size, from top to bottom, in a mechanical sieve shaker. A pan
should be placed underneath the nest of sieves to collect the aggregate that
passes through the smallest. The entire nest is then agitated, and the material
whose diameter is smaller than the mesh opening passes through the sieves.
After the aggregate reaches the pan, the amount of material retained in each
sieve is then weighed. In order to perform the test, a sample of the aggregate
must be obtained from the source. To prepare the sample, the aggregate
should be mixed thoroughly and be reduced to a suitable size for testing. The
total weight of the sample is also required.

Figure 1.1: Examples of sieves

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Rates of throughput of sieves are dependent upon a number of factors:

 Nature and the shape of the particles,

 Frequency and the amplitude of the shaking,
 Methods used to prevent sticking or bridging of particles in the
apertures of the sieve and
 Tension and physical nature of the sieve material.

1.4. METHODS OF CARRYING OUT SIEVE ANALYSIS

There are different methods for carrying out sieve analyses, depending on the
material to be measured.

 Throw-Action Sieving: Here a throwing motion acts on the sample. The

vertical throwing motion is overlaid with a slight circular motion which
results in distribution of the sample amount over the whole sieving
surface. The particles are accelerated in the vertical direction (are
thrown upwards). In the air they carry out free rotations and interact
with the openings in the mesh of the sieve when they fall back. If the
particles are smaller than the openings, they pass through the sieve. If
they are larger, they are thrown upwards again. The rotating motion
while suspended increases the probability that the particles present a
different orientation to the mesh when they fall back again and thus
might eventually pass through the mesh.
Modern sieve shakers work with an electro-magnetic drive which moves
a spring-mass system and transfers the resulting oscillation to the sieve
stack. Amplitude and sieving time are set digitally and are continuously
observed by an integrated control-unit. Therefore sieving results are
reproducible and precise (an important precondition for a significant
analysis). Adjustment of parameters like amplitude and sieving time

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 serves to optimize the sieving for different types of material. This
method is the most common in the laboratory sector.

Figure 1.2: A throw action sieving

 Horizontal Sieving: In a horizontal sieve shaker the sieve stack moves in

horizontal circles in a plane. Horizontal sieve shakers are preferably used
for needle-shaped, flat, long or fibrous samples, as their horizontal
orientation means that only a few disoriented particles enter the mesh
and the sieve is not blocked so quickly. The large sieving area enables
the sieving of large amounts of sample, for example as encountered in
the particle-size analysis of construction materials and aggregates.

Figure 1.3: Horizontal sieving

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  Tapping Sieving: A horizontal circular motion overlies a vertical motion
which is created by a tapping impulse. These motional processes are
characteristic of hand sieving and produce a higher degree of sieving for
denser particles (e.g. abrasives) than throw-action sieve shakers.

Figure 1.4: Tapping sieving

 Sonic Sieving: The particles are lifted and forcibly dropped in a column
of oscillating air at a frequency of thousands of cycles per minute. Sonic
sieves are able to handle much finer dry powders than woven mesh
screens.

 Wet Sieving: Most sieve analyses are carried out dry. But there are some
applications which can only be carried out by wet sieving. This is the case
when the sample which has to be analyzed is e.g. a suspension which
must not be dried; or when the sample is a very fine powder which
tends to agglomerate (mostly < 45 µm) – in a dry sieving process this
tendency would lead to a clogging of the sieve meshes and this would
make a further sieving process impossible. A wet sieving process is set
up like a dry process: the sieve stack is clamped onto the sieve shaker

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 and the sample is placed on the top sieve. Above the top sieve a water-
spray nozzle is placed which supports the sieving process additionally to
the sieving motion. The rinsing is carried out until the liquid which is
discharged through the receiver is clear. Sample residues on the sieves
have to be dried and weighed. When it comes to wet sieving it is very
important not to change to sample in its volume (no swelling, dissolving
or reaction with the liquid).

 Air-Jet Sieving: Air jet sieving machines are ideally suited for very fine
powders which tend to agglomerate and cannot be separated by
vibrational sieving. The reason for the effectiveness of this sieving
method is based on two components: A rotating slotted nozzle inside
the sieving chamber and a powerful industrial vacuum cleaner which is
connected to the chamber. The vacuum cleaner generates a vacuum
inside the sieving chamber and sucks in fresh air through the slotted
nozzle. When passing the narrow slit of the nozzle the air stream is
accelerated and blown against the sieve mesh, dispersing the particles.
Above the mesh, the air jet is distributed over the complete sieve
surface and is sucked in with low speed through the sieve mesh. Thus
the finer particles are transported through the mesh openings into the
vacuum cleaner.

1.5 TYPES OF GRADATION (SIEVING).

Dense Gradation: A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately

of equal amounts of various sizes of aggregate. By having a dense gradation,
most of the air voids between the materials are filled with particles. A dense
gradation will result in an even curve on the gradation graph.

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Narrow Gradation: Also known as uniform gradation, a narrow gradation is a
sample that has aggregate of approximately the same size. The curve on the
gradation graph is very steep, and occupies a small range of the aggregate.

Gap Gradation: A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate in
the medium size range. This results in only coarse and fine aggregate. The
curve is horizontal in the medium size range on the gradation graph.

Open Gradation: An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little
fine aggregate particles. This results in many air voids, because there are no
fine particles to fill them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is
horizontal in the small size range.

Rich Gradation: A rich gradation refers to a sample of aggregate with a high

proportion of particles of small sizes

1.6 FACTORS AFFECTING SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis performance is affected by many factors, the most important of

which are material characteristics they include;

 Particle size distribution: because screening is a separation based on

particle size, the most important material characteristic is particle size
distribution. This distribution is determined by taking a small
representative sample and determining the weight of particles within
size ranges. Mechanical sieve analysis is the most common method for
characterizing particle size distribution
 Particle shape: particles can be various shapes; granular, spherical,
cylindrical, etc. Regular shapes such as spherical often allow for
relatively sharp separations. Sieve analysis of irregular shapes (e.g.,
elongated, sliver-like, plate-like) generally produce inaccurate
separations since the particles enter the screen openings at many

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 different angles. Particle shape can also cause screen blinding, in which
particles slightly larger than the screen openings plug the openings.
Crystalline particles and spherical particles are particularly prone to
blinding.
 Bulk density: in general, the higher the bulk density, the higher the
screen capacity. There are two reasons for this. One is that the force
that causes a particle to pass through an opening is proportional to the
particle’s mass. Consequently, heavy materials like metal powder screen
quite readily. However, lightweight materials like sawdust are generally
screened at very low-mass flow rates. The second reason is that
screening is essentially a volumetric process, as volume defines the
depth of material on the screen surface. So, for a given volumetric flow
through a screener, the material with the higher bulk density will result
in the higher screening rate for a given bed depth, i.e., mass flow.
 Flow-ability of a material: this is indicated by its angle of repose, affects
screening performance since materials that do not flow well do not
spread out on the screen surface and properly present themselves to the
screen openings. Materials with poor flow characteristics do not convey
well along the screen surface. This leads to deeper bed depths and lower
screening efficiency. While a material’s angle of repose gives some
indication of flow ability, it is best to evaluate flow ability by measuring
the material’s conveying rate under actual screening conditions.

1.6.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SIEVE ANALYSIS

ADVANTAGES

 Easy to perform
 Wide size range
 Inexpensive

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DISADVANTAGES

 Known problems of reproducibility

 Wear/damage in use or cleaning
 Irregular/agglomerated particles
 Rod-like particles: overestimate of under-size
 Labour intensive

1.6.2 APPLICATION OF GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

 Food and Beverage Industry: many foods exist in particulate form,

ranging from powders to emulsions, suspensions and pellets. The size
distribution of the particle can affect the taste, appearance, stability and
quality of the final products. Examples of foods includes; coffee,
homogenized milk, sugars, salt, beverages, flour, biscuits, Food additives
etc.
 Cosmetics: any cosmetic products including powders would require
control of the particle size distribution. A material that requires
thorough grain size analysis includes; lipsticks, facial powders etc.
 Semisolid drugs: pharmaceutical products such as ointments, lotions,
gels and creams have some of the properties of solids and liquids. These
make them very important in terms of delivery mechanism for patients.
Understanding the particle size of this product is very critical to their
performance
 Cement: in order to ensure that the product is of high quality and to
keep costs low, the particle size of cements needs to be measured and
controlled.
 Ceramics: products used in ceramics are generally produced from
powders. Depending on how on how they are used, size distribution can
have mechanical, transport and densification properties.

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  Plastics: this refers to materials made from polymers, or large molecules
composed of many repeated units or monomers. A good example of
plastic that requires the particle distribution is polystyrene.
 Inks and Paints: they are mixtures of pigment particles and additives
aimed at changing the viscosity, color and stability of the product. The
particle size must be understood in order to ensure correct weight of
additives is included to ensure product quality.
 Roads: to improve the visibility of roads at night, glass beads are used
due to their ability to reflect light. Understanding the particle size of
these beads allows them to be controlled to allow for better reflective
properties and thus safer driving.

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THEORY
Grain size, also called particle size, refers to the diameter of individual grains
of sediment, or soil particles. The term may also be applied to other granular
materials.

Methods for Determining Particle/Grain Size

 Microscopy
 Sieving
 Sedimentation techniques
 Optical and electrical sensing zone method
 Laser light scattering techniques
 Surface area measurement techniques

2.1 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Grain size distribution is the measurement of the size of granulates contained

in a batch of material and their distribution in relation to size.

The distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of

soil and it is required in classifying the soil. Grain Size Analysis provides the
grain size distribution.

Grain size analysis equations and calculation to ensure appropriate grain size
distribution are

Mass of empty sieve (in grams) = 𝑚𝑠

Mass of sieve + soil retained (in grams) = 𝑚𝑠𝑠

Mass of soil sample (in grams) = 𝑚𝑡

Mass Retained (𝑚𝑟 ): this is the quantity of the soil sample that is collected in a
particular sieve after shaking i.e.𝑚𝑟 = 𝑚𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚𝑠 (1)

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Mass arriving (𝑚𝑎 ): this is the quantity of soil sample that actually entered into
the stack
𝑚𝑟
Percentage retained(𝑝𝑟 ) = × 100 (2)
𝑚𝑡

Quantity passing(𝑞𝑝 ) : mass of sample that passed through a sieve after

shaking. 𝑞𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔൫𝑚𝑎 ൯ − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝑟 ) (3)
𝑞𝑝
Percent passing (𝑝𝑝 )= × 100 (4)
𝑚𝑡

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EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS
The apparatus used in this experiment include:

 Beakers: A beaker is a simple container for stirring, mixing and heating

liquids commonly used in many laboratories. Beakers are generally
cylindrical in shape, with a flat bottom. Most also have a small spout (or
beak) to aid pouring as shown in the pictorial diagram.

Fig3.1 Pictorial Diagram of A beaker

 Sieve: The sieve is used to separate fine particles from coarse solute
particles for experimental analysis. In this experiment the sieve was used
to further obtain finer chalk samples and the bigger chalk samples that
couldn’t pass through the sieve were sent back to the grinder.

Fig3.2 Pictorial Diagram of Sieves

 Weighing balance: The weighing balance is an equipment used to

measure out the weight of samples needed for experimental analysis. In
this experiment the weighing balance was used to measure out the
various weights of the chalk samples needed for analysis.

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 Fig3.3 Pictorial Diagram of a Weighing Balance

 Stopwatch: A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure

the amount of time elapsed from a particular time when activated to
when the piece is deactivated. A large digital version of a stopwatch
designed for viewing at a distance, as in a sports stadium, is called a stop
clock.

Fig 3.2 Pictorial Diagram of a Stop Watch

 Sieve Stack and Mechanical Shakers:The sieve stack is a set of sieves (six
in number) having sieve number; BSS40, BSS60, BSS80, BSS100, BSS150
and BSS300. The various screen diameters are measured based on
standards.

The mechanical shaker is a device used to agitate the sieve stack(that is,
produce gyratory motion on the sieve stack), thereby causing the particles to
move through the screens

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Sieve stack and mechanical shaker Weighing balance and sieve

 Cleaning Brush: In the experiment, the cleaning brush was more or less
a painting brush, in which the handle is made of wood and the fluffy
hairs are attached to the top of the wooden handle.
 Mixer (Blender): It is a machine which merges two or more substances
together by spinning the substances making them become one
substance with the components in it.

PROCEDURE

Sieve Analysis:

 The weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the
analysis was taken.
 The weight of the given dry soil sample was Record
 It was made sure that all the sieves are clean, and assembled in the
ascending order of sieve numbers (#40 sieve at top and #300 sieve at
bottom). The pan was placed below #300 sieve. The soil sample was
carefully poured into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

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  The sieve stack was placed into the mechanical shaker and shook for 10
minutes.
 The stack was removed from the shaker and carefully weighed and the
weight of each sieve was recorded with its retained soil. In addition, the
weight of the bottom pan was recorded with its retained fine soil.

Data Analysis:

 The mass of soil retained on each sieve was obtained by subtracting the
weight of the empty sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and
this mass was recorded as the weight retained on the data sheet. The
sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial
mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
 The percent retained on each sieve was calculated by dividing the weight
retained on each sieve by the original sample mass.
 The percent passing (or percent finer) was calculated by starting with
100 percent and subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a
cumulative procedure.
 A semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer was drawn.

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 RESULTS
Sieve Analysis

Visual classification of soil

Weight f container = 165.62g

Weight of container + Dry Soil= 765.62g

Weight of dry sample= 600g

SIEVE DIAMETER MASS MASS OF SOIL PERECNT PERCENT

NUMBER OF SIEVE + SOIL RETAINED RETAINED PASSING
(µm)
EMPTY RETAINED(g) (g)
SIEVE(g)

40 BSS 425 766.30 1197.58 431.28 71.88 28.12

60 BSS 250 770.06 874.32 104.26 17.38 82.62

80 BSS 180 732.10 761.60 29.50 4.92 95.08

100 BSS 150 722.34 742.16 19.82 3.30 96.69

150 BSS 104 722.52 730.76 8.24 1.37 98.63

300 BSS 53 763.08 767.98 4.90 0.82 99.18

BOTTOM 595.70 597.48 1.78 0.29 99.70

PAN

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CALCULATIONS
Total weight of soil retained = 599.78g

Percentage error

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒−𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

= × 100 = 0.037%
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

The grain size analysis can therefore be calculated thus;

The soil sample is sample is entirely composed of three components; gravel,

sand and fines

The mass of gravel present = soil retained on BSS40 = 431.28g

The mass of sand sample present = soil retained at (BSS60+ BSS80 +BSS100

+BSS150+BSS 300) = 166.72g

Mass of fines in the sample = soil retained on the pan = 1.78g

Hence;
431.28
% gravel= × 100 = 71.88%
600

166.72
% Sand = × 100 = 27.79%
600

1.78
% Fines = × 100 = 0.2967%
600

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 120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1000 100 10 1
Grain Size(µm)

Graph 1: Semi-logarithmic plot of Grain size against percentage filter

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DISCUSSION

From the experiment performed, results obtained and the plot, the following
observations were made as to how the equipment works and correlation
between the theory and experiments:

This sieves are arranged in descending order from top to bottom in sieve
number, this arrangement retains the larger grains above meaning that each
sieve away from the top contains a smaller grain than the sieve above it with
the finest grains in the pan.

Majority of the particles are retained in the sieve BSS40 and a very small
quantity compared to the BSS40 is retained in the pan, this could be as a result
of;

 Insufficient time for experiment, which is a possibility being that the

particles have to separate and separation, is time dependent.

 The particle size being large and coarse

 Particle shapes which generally produce inaccurate separation since the

particles enter the screen openings at different angles.

It was observed that the remaining sieves gradually decrease in the retention
of the soil samples. Thus only 0.2967% made it to the pan

From the grain size analysis plot, the particle distribution of the soil can easily
be deduced; the soil contains very large quantity of coarse particles with
diameter fitting that of the BSS40 and a relatively low quantity of fine particles
which is smaller than that of the BSS300 and is retained in the pan.

From calculations, the percentage gravel in the soil sample is 71.88%,

percentage sand is 27.79% and the percentage fine in the sample is 0.2967%.
Therefore, the soil sample is more skewed to the larger size.

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it has been deduced that sieve analysis in a method used in grain
size analyzing, in that percentage retained and passing through the sieve
decreases successively as the sieve sizes are reduced.

From the soil sample analysis, conclusions can be made that;

Gravel in the soil sample = 71.88%

Sand in the soil sample = 27.79%

Fines in the soil sample = 0.2967%

This shows that the soil sample contains a large proportion of coarse grains
and if this does not comply with the specifications needed, the soil would have
to be taken for further processing.

There was a gradual decrease in the soil retained by the sieve as the soil
descended.

The percentage error obtained was 0.037% which is less than the 2%, thus the
result is thus an acceptable one.

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