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Heating Effects of Short-Circuit Current Impulses on Contacts and

Conductors—Part I

Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery · February 2008

DOI: 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.905806 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 1, JANUARY 2008 221

Heating Effects of Short-Circuit Current Impulses on

Contacts and Conductors—Part I
László Koller, Balázs Novák, and György Tevan

Abstract—An analytical description combined with finite-el-

ement calculations of the current displacement caused by
short-circuit current impulses in 1-D and 2-D conductor models is
presented. It is shown that in many cases, the Joule integral used
in the technical practice gives a false representation of the thermal
stress in the conductors and contacts. A simplified method is given
for determining the degree of current displacement caused by
different current impulses, hence, the nonuniformity of the losses
and the heating within the conductors.
Index Terms—Conductors, contacts, current distribution, short-
circuit currents. Fig. 1. Opening-closing finger contact arrangement.

I. INTRODUCTION
the physical parameters of the conducting material and the heat
HE increasing demand for electric power and for its transfer to the environment are temperature dependent.
T economical use entails the use of energy converters with
higher power. This also means that the serial network elements
The electromagnetic effects of a harmonic current or a
current impulse produce current displacement, which means
(mainly the conductors and the contact units)—used at high nonuniform current-, thermal power-, and temperature-dis-
and low voltage, at operating frequency, and at substantially tribution. Because of these effects, not only the distribution
higher frequencies—must withstand the thermal and dynamic within the conductors connected parallel (e.g. bus bars or fuse
effects of several hundred kiloamps operating and short-circuit elements), but also the amount of current carried by each of
currents. these conductors will be uneven. The nonuniform temperature
In switchgears, the conductors and contacts must have appro- distribution modifies the physical parameters of the conductors,
priate geometry and sufficiently large cross sectional areas. On which reacts on the current distribution. This nonuniformity can
the other hand the economical installation and power transmis- cause the overheating—possibly the breaking down—of the
sion requires the possible smallest size that can be achieved. To conductors and contacts: the conductors can lose their temper
minimize size different switchgear combinations, e.g., the metal and they cannot withstand the mechanical stress (mainly the
enclosed gas insulated switchgears, and gas insulated bus bars electrodynamical forces). The contacts, where the current is
have been developed. As a result, the size of the conductors and constrained to flow through a narrow path, are exposed to even
contacts has risen and the distance between them has become higher thermal stress. An example of an opening-closing finger
smaller and smaller. contact arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. If there are parallel
In energy converters—like induction furnaces or electric connected contacts, the temperature of some parts can reach the
motors—the high currents’ thermal effects and their dynamic melting-point of the contact material, and the contacts can bond
forces are harnessed to change the properties of materials or to together or evaporate. The risk of evaporation is the highest in
accomplish mechanical work. Through crucible-type induction case of lamella contacts.
furnaces the distribution of the eddy currents within the work- The main cause of the increased thermal stress is the cur-
piece is highly relevant, and by such applications the primary rent displacement. Its degree at a given current with given time-
goal—along with the technological process—is the economical function and at given conductor material is higher if the cross
energy conversion [7]–[11]. sectional area of the conductors is higher and the distance be-
The current distribution within the serial network elements tween them is smaller. It has been already mentioned that in
of electrical equipment is nonuniform no matter if the current switchgears there are large conductor sizes with the possible
is harmonic or an impulse [3], [5]. In solid conductors the cur- smallest distance between them, and therefore a current dis-
rent distribution is formed by the interaction of the electromag- placement of higher degree with its undesirable effects can be
netic field and the thermal field. This interaction occurs because expected. These considerations are confirmed by the results of
2-D and 3-D finite-element calculations for harmonic currents in
Manuscript received October 9, 2006; revised December 12, 2006. Paper no. SF6 gas insulated circuit breakers [12]. The analyses proved that
TPWRD-00624-2006. the nonuniform current distribution of the parallel connected
The authors are with the Department of Electric Power Engineering, Budapest contacts is affected mainly by the geometrical arrangement of
University of Technology and Economics, Budapest 1111, Hungary (e-mail:
[email protected]; [email protected]). the current conductors and thus the proximity effects of the elec-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.905806 tromagnetic field.
0885-8977/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE

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222 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 1, JANUARY 2008

In [13] and [14], analytical calculations determining the tran-

sient current distribution in conductors were carried out. These
methods can be used only for particular cases namely for single
cylindrical conductors, and thus cannot be used to evaluate the
effects on other conductor arrangements, especially on contacts.
In [15] the heating of contacts under short-circuit currents were
calculated but the current displacement and its effect on the con-
tact resistance was not reckoned with.
Our primary goal in this two part paper is to give a general
approach to this problem by comparing the effects of different
current impulses in simple models reflecting the physical back-
ground of the phenomena. Based on our results it can be esti-
mated when to use accurate analytical or finite-element calcu-
lations. To accomplish this task:
• degree of current displacement in the conductors (the
space- and time-functions of current distribution);
• losses;
• space-function of dissipated energy density
will be determined in circuits with inductive characteristic and
current impulses with short duration. These results reflect the
increased and nonuniform thermal stresses within the contacts. Fig. 2. Time functions of the current impulses. The dashed line shows the
An answer can also be obtained to the question, that whether the prospective current, the continuous line shows the current impulse with t
width: (a) sinusoidal impulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component; (c)
impulse with current limitation; and (d) dc impulse.

(1)
the short-circuit occurred at no-load condition. Three different
type of ac and one type of dc impulses were analyzed (Fig. 2):
Joule integral determining the thermal effect of a current im- • solely sinusoidal impulse;
pulse with time function and length can be used in the • sinusoidal impulse with a dc component generating the
technical practice in the traditional way, which means that the highest possible current peak;
value of the integral is given independently from the shape of the • ac impulse occurring at current limitation;
impulse, the geometrical parameters and the arrangement of the • impulse occurring at a dc short-circuit, increasing with an
serial circuit elements. Thus the effect of the current displace- exponential function.
ment is neglected by considering only the dc resistance of the The length of the impulses is , which in the ac case can be
conductors. The effect of resistivity change is considered also given with an angle or in the dc case
with uniform current- and an approximately uniform tempera- with the ratio. The impulses were determined for such
ture distribution. electrical circuits, where the components (inductance, effective
The results were obtained from analytical and finite-element resistance) are constant. With this assumption—among other
calculations (and their combination) of the electromagnetic things—the effect of the current displacement on the current’s
field. In the calculations the interaction with the thermal field time-function is neglected. The real short-circuit inductance and
was neglected, because the heat transfer to the environment resistance are much higher than the analyzed circuit’s.
and the temperature rise of the conductors with large cross The impulse models reflect two practical cases.
sectional areas are negligible during the time of the short-circuit 1) Regarding the main contacts of the circuit breakers: By the
current impulses. In the 1-D and 2-D mathematical models (a), (b) and (d) impulse models means the time of con-
a homogenous copper conductor with constant temperature tact opening. This is the end of the thermal strain of the
( and ) is assumed. The 2-D main contacts caused by the nonuniform current distribu-
model calculations and the conclusions are presented in Part II tion among the asperities on the mating contact surfaces.
of this paper. At the current begins to flow through the arcing con-
tacts, thus from this time on the current has no effect on
the main contacts.
II. TIME-FUNCTIONS AND SPECTRAL AMPLITUDE DENSITIES
2) Regarding the conductors and all other contacts (espe-
OF THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT IMPULSES
cially the sliding contacts): When the arcing contacts open
The heating effects of the short-circuit current impulses on the time function of the current will be changed by the arc
conductors and contacts were examined for both ac and dc short- voltage. This change can be neglected in case of a high
circuits. It is assumed that the current starts to flow from 0 A voltage ac short-circuit as the arc voltage is significantly
in an inductive circuit with time constant. In the ac case the lower than the mains voltage. Practically the same cur-
current is induced by a sinusoidal voltage with rent continues to flow after opening of the contacts, which
frequency. This means the switching on of a short-circuit, or that breaks in a current zero (or near a current zero) by the (a)

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KOLLER et al.: HEATING EFFECTS OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT IMPULSES ON CONTACTS AND CONDUCTORS—PART I 223

and (b) impulse models . This can be the case also

at low voltages if there is no current limitation and the arc
voltage is low. The current’s shape is completely different
at low voltage in dc case or in ac case with current limita-
tion, where the arc voltage is higher than the instantaneous
value of the mains voltage. Fig. 2(c) shows an example of
the latter case, where the sinusoidal current is modified by
the arc appearing at the opening of the contacts at . The
final breaking of the current (the current zero) occurs at
.
The time-functions of the four impulse models are

if
(2)
otherwise
if (3)
otherwise

shown in (4) and (5) at the bottom of the page, where is the
peak value of the ac case in the steady-state range, and is the
steady-state value of the dc case. The effect of the arc voltage in
the low voltage ac case with current limitation (4) is represented Fig. 3. Normalized spectral amplitude densities at different t times. (a) Si-
by two sine curves, the frequencies of which depend on the nusoidal impulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component; (c) impulse with
time of contact opening. The peak value of the impulse occurs at current limitation; and (d) dc impulse.
. The parameter is the ratio of the impulse’s peak to the value
occurring at the time of contact opening . During The spectral amplitude densities of the current impulses can
the calculations was assumed, and the maximum value be calculated from the time-functions with the following for-
of was considered where current limitation occurs, namely mula [1], [2]:
where .
Both in the ac and dc cases the mains voltage was assumed (7)
to be the same, thus the effective value of the ac voltage was as-
sumed to be the same as the dc voltage . The time The calculated spectral densities for some characteristic
constant of the circuits was equal too . This time times are shown in Fig. 3. As it can be seen, at short current
constant represents a power factor of which is breaking times, namely when the impulse width is small, the
an average of the typical values in high- and low-voltage ac cir- amplitude of the high-frequency components is significant.
cuits. Because of the same voltage and time constant Below 5 ms impulse width there is no major difference between
the solely sinusoidal (a) and the dc (d) case. Within this time the
spectrum of the sinusoidal impulse with dc component (b) is
(6) much wider. The proportion of the high-frequency components
is the lowest in the case of current limitation (c), as there is
therefore the steady-state value of the dc current is no such instant change in the time-function as by the other
, if the sinusoidal peak current is . impulses. The steps of determining the spectral amplitude
It shall be noted here, that in case of the 1-D conductor models density of the solely sinusoidal impulse, and the result in a
the extent of which in two or three directions is infinite, in the closed form can be seen in Part II, Appendix A1. For the other
formulas (2)–(6) and in Fig. 2. shall be replaced with three signals, because of their complexity, the equations are not
and with , where . published here.

if
if
(4)
if
otherwise
if (5)
otherwise

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224 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 1, JANUARY 2008

It can be seen from the definition of the Fourier-spectrum that

the inner integral is equal with , namely with the con-
jugate of , that is . Furthermore

which is an even function. Therefore

Since
Fig. 4. One-dimensional models: (a) infinite half-space and (b) infinite plate
conductor.

III. 1-D CONDUCTOR MODELS

In the following section, the distribution of current-densities
and energy-densities are calculated for the most general and and according to (8) the conjugate of is
simple 1-D model: the infinite half-space conductor [Fig. 4(a)].
The current density distribution at different times and the dis-
tribution of the losses inside the conductor will be shown. A
slightly more difficult but better representation of the problem is
the infinite conductor plate [Fig. 4(b)]. By this model, the losses
can be calculated to include only the dc resistance, which cannot
It can be seen that is an even and is an uneven
be defined for infinite half-space. By both conductor models the
function. In the previous integral falls out and is
total energy loss will be compared with the losses on mains
doubled in the integral from 0 to . So the loss per surface unit
frequency resistance, and by the plate model with the losses also
is
on the dc resistance.

A. Energy Losses by Current Impulses in Infinite Half-Space (10)

and Plate Conductor Models
The calculation is accomplished with the use of the fre- The frequency-dependent resistance of the infinite half space
quency-dependent impedance of the space. The phasor of the [Fig. 4(a)] is
electric field strength is , where is the phasor
of the magnetic field strength and (11)

(8)
where is the skin depth at angular frequency. The energy
loss on the mains frequency resistance with
is the space impedance. Therefore, the spectrum of is

(12)
and the time-function of can be given with the following for-
mula:
In case of infinite conductor plate with finite width [Fig. 4(b)]
the frequency-dependent resistance is [3], [4]
(9)
(13)
The instantaneous power per surface unit is , so the
energy loss per surface unit is where is the width of the plate. The energy loss per unit sur-
face on mains frequency resistance can be obtained by
replacing with in formula (10). Since and
, the energy loss per unit surface on dc resistance

(14)

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KOLLER et al.: HEATING EFFECTS OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT IMPULSES ON CONTACTS AND CONDUCTORS—PART I 225

Fig. 5. Ratio of real energy loss to the energy loss on dc and mains frequency
resistance. (a) Sinusoidal impulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component;
(c) impulse with current limitation; and (d) dc impulse.
Fig. 6. Current density distribution in infinite half-space conductor at t =
2:5 ms. (a) Sinusoidal impulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component; (c)
impulse with current limitation; and (d) dc impulse.
A more detailed deduction for solely sinusoidal impulse can be
observed in Part II, Appendix A2.
Fig. 5(a)–(d) shows the ratio of the energy loss considering
the current displacement to the energy loss considering only
the mains frequency resistance and dc resistance
of the conductor in the function of . The is the
width of the conductor plate and is the skin
depth at mains frequency. Since the resistance of the infinite
half-space is zero in steady-state dc condition [Fig. 5(d)], the
real losses are compared also in this case with the losses on
mains frequency resistance. It can be seen that when the
time is short, and thus there are considerable high-frequency
components in the spectrum (Fig. 3), the real losses are sig-
nificantly higher in all the four cases than when considering
just the dc or mains frequency resistance generally used in the
engineering practice, e.g., in case of solely sinusoidal impulse
(Fig. 5(a)) at plate widths substantially larger than , and at
the ratio . If the is close to the
current zero, this ratio to the mains frequency losses is less than
1 (at for sinusoidal impulse),
which means that if the current breaking occurs near the current
zero the energy loss is smaller than when calculating in the
traditional way. Increasing the impulse width this ratio con-
verges to 1, which is true also for the sinusoidal impulse with Fig. 7. Energy-density distribution in infinite half-space. (a) Sinusoidal im-
pulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component; (c) impulse with current lim-
dc component (b), but in the dc case (d) the limit of itation; and (d) dc impulse.
is 0, and the limit of is 1. If the plate’s width is much
smaller than there is no significant difference, and therefore
the use of the dc resistance for determining the energy loss is Here the impulse always ends in current zero, hence its shape is
acceptable. If the plate’s width is large enough the just marginally different from a half sine wave with width
ratio equals the ratio calculated for infinite half-space. [Fig. 2(c)]. Thus, the proportion of the high frequency com-
The convergence of this ratio to the 1 limit is the quickest ponents in the spectrum is determined mostly by the impulse
in the case of current limitation modelling the electric arc (c). width.

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226 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 23, NO. 1, JANUARY 2008

Fig. 8. f =f in function of t (f = 50 Hz). (a) Sinusoidal impulse; (b) sinusoidal impulse with dc component; (c) impulse with current limitation; and (d) dc
impulse.

B. Current Density Distribution in Infinite Half-Space which, similar to the deduction in Section III-A, can be ex-
The Fourier-spectrum of the real function is pressed with the spectrum of the current density

(15) (21)

therefore
Fig. 6 shows the instantaneous value of the current density
within the conductor at different times, if and the
(16)
magnetic field strength is . It is noticeable that
current still flows in the conductor as an eddy current after the
In case of sinusoidal excitation the current density phasor is [3], excitation is terminated.
[4] The distribution of the energy-density produced by the cur-
rent impulse in the conductor is shown for different times in
(17) Fig. 7. This can be compared with a harmonic energy-density
distribution at mains frequency, which can be expressed at
distance from the boundary as
where is the phasor of the magnetic field strength at the
boundary surface of the half-space, is the coordinate perpen-
(22)
dicular to the boundary surface, is the inverse
value of the skin depth in nonferromagnetic material, is the
It is shown in Fig. 7 with a dashed line. The energy loss,
angular frequency of the sinusoidal excitation, and is the re-
and hence the temperature of the conductor, is higher if is
sistivity. If the spectrum of the magnetic field strength at the
higher, therefore, as the current displacement is represented by
boundary surface is , then from (17) the spectrum of
the steepness of the curves, it is better to compare the normalized
the current density is
energy-densities to the value at . Because of the current
displacement the energy-density curves deviate from the har-
(18)
monic case and most of the energy loss is concentrated close to
the surface. In ac cases the higher the is the smaller is the de-
and according to (16) its instantaneous value at distance from
viation. By dc impulse as increases the distribution becomes
the boundary is
more and more uniform.
Each curve can be substituted with an exponential one in the
(19) form of (22) where the skin depth must be replaced with a
equivalent skin depth. It means an distance from the surface,
where the curve decreases from its initial value to fold. An
The expression of this formula for solely sinusoidal impulse can
equivalent frequency can be assigned to this , which, in
be found in Part II, Appendix A3. The cumulated energy-density
harmonic case, generates approximately the same energy-den-
at distance from the boundary surface is
sity distribution as the given type of impulse with a given width.
The ratio of in the function of is shown in Fig. 8.
(20) This ratio can reach a significant value if the impulses are
short. E.g. by a solely sinusoidal impulse (Fig. 8(a)) with

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KOLLER et al.: HEATING EFFECTS OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT IMPULSES ON CONTACTS AND CONDUCTORS—PART I 227

it is 17.1251, which corresponds to a harmonic distribu- László Koller was born in Budapest, Hungary,
tion with . By a dc impulse [Fig. 8(d)] with the in 1943. He received the Dipl.Eng. and the Ph.D.
degrees in electrical engineering from the Budapest
same it is 16.9934 corresponding to . Even if University of Technology and Economics in 1967
, namely at a quarter sine period, can be 4 and 1994, respectively, and the Candidate of En-
[Fig. 8(a)], 5 [Fig. 8(d)] or 8 [Fig. 8(b)]. In case of current lim- gineering Sciences degree from the Hungarian
Academy of Sciences, Budapest, in 1994.
itation [Fig. 8(c)] it decreases much quicker, at it is Between 1967 and 1974, he worked with different
1.8715, which means an . companies as a Technical Supervisor; and from 1970
to 1971, he was a Senior Lecturer at the Ministry of
Public Education. From 1974 to 1995, he was an As-
sistant Lecturer at the Technical University of Budapest. Currently, he is an As-
sociate Professor and Deputy Head in the Department of Power Engineering,
Department of Electric Power Engineering, Budapest University of Technology
REFERENCES and Economics, Budapest, Hungary. His major fields of research are high-cur-
rent engineering (electrical switchgears and equipment, electrical heat engi-
neering) and electrical safety engineering. He has been published in many pub-
[1] K. Simonyi, Foundations of Electrical Engineering. Oxford, U.K.: lications. He also has 14 patents and inventions among them as well as 43 sci-
Pergamon, 1963. entific articles.
[2] A. Papoulis, The Fourier Integral and Its Applications. New York: Dr. Koller is a member of the Public Corporation of the Hungarian Academy
McGraw-Hill, 1962. of Sciences from 2000; Hungarian Electrotechnical Association from 1976; and
[3] W. Rogowski, “Über zusätzliche Kupferverluste, über die kritische the Hungarian Engineering Chamber from 1996. He received the Gold Degree
of Award of the Eminent Inventor, the Prize of Zipernowski, and the Prize of
Kupferhöhe eines Nut und über das kritische Wiederstandverhältnis
Academic Patent of Quality from the Hungarian Patent Office in 1988, 1995,
einer Wechselstrommaschine,” Archiv Elektrotech., p. 81, 1913. and 2002, respectively.
[4] G. Tevan, Models of Current Displacement in High Current Elec-
trotechnics. (Áramkiszorítási modellek az erősáramú elektrotech-
nikában.) Budapest Univ. Technol., Inst. Continuing Eng. Educ., 1985,
p. 184.
Balázs Novák was born in Szeged, Hungary, in
[5] Copper for Busbars Copper Development Assoc., 1996 [Online]. Avail-
1976. He received the M.Sc. degree in electrical
able: http://www.cda.org.uk/megab2/elecapps/pub22/index.htm.
engineering from the Budapest University of Tech-
[6] L. Koller, “About the bus bars. (Az áramvezeto sínekről.),” Elek- nology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary, in 1999;
trotech., vol. 93, no. 3, pp. 91–96, 2000. the Postgraduate Engineer-Economist degree from
[7] L. Koller, “Examination of the efficiency of crucible type induction the University of Economic Sciences and Public
furnaces (Untersuchung des elektrischen Wirkungsgrades von Induk- Administration, Budapest, in 2002, and is currently
tionstiegelöfen (Wirkung der Spulenparameter)),” Elektrowärme Int., pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electric power engi-
pp. 158–160, Apr. 2001. neering from the Budapest University of Technology
[8] L. Koller, “Influence of the shielding on the efficiency of crucibele and Economics.
type induction furnaces 1. (Wirkung der Abschirmungselemente Currently, he is an Assistant Lecturer in the De-
(Flußleiter) auf den elektrischen Wirkungsgrad von Induktion- partment of Electric Power Engineering, Budapest University of Technology
stiegelöfen.),” Elektrowärme Int., pp. 76–78, Feb. 2002. and Economics, Budapest, Hungary. His research interests include high-current
[9] L. Koller, “Influence of the shielding on the efficiency of crucibele engineering and electromagnetic compatibility. His publications include four
type induction furnaces 2. (Wirkung der Abschirmungselemente conference papers and one paper.
(Kurzschlußring und Mantel) auf den elektrischen Wirkungsgrad von Mr. Novak is a member of the Hungarian Electrotechnical Association.
Induktionstiegelöfen.),” Elektrowärme Int., pp. 110–111, Mar. 2002.
[10] L. Koller, “New ribbed type of crucible for induction furnaces
(Neuartiger Tiegel für Induktionsöfen mit gerippter Wandfläche.),”
Elektrowärme Int., pp. 75–79, Feb. 2003. György Tevan was born in Békéscsaba, Hungary,
[11] L. Koller, G. Tevan, and I. Kiss, “Optimisation of electrical parameters in 1927. He received the Dipl.M.Eng. degree from
of induction melting furnaces with graphite crucible,” Elektrowärme the Technical University of Budapest, Budapest,
Int., pp. 122–125, Mar. 2004. Hungary, in 1949 and the Candidate of Technical
[12] G. Dévényi, S. Gócsa, L. Koller, and S. Vincze, “Analyzing the current Sciences and Doctor of Technical Sciences degrees
distribution within the contacts of a three phase high voltage SF
from the Scientific Qualification Board, Budapest,
in 1967 and 1979, respectively. His major fields of
circuit breaker. (Háromfázisú tokozású SF6-gázos nagyfeszültségű
research are the calculation of networks with Kron’s
megszakító érintkezőrendszere árameloszlásának vizsgálata.),” Elek-
method; the voltage distortion of power systems;
trotech., vol. 98, no. 9, pp. 245–248, 2005. the investigation of active and reactive power in
[13] L. Hannakam, Berechnung der transienten Stromverteilung im zylin- nonsinusoidal periodic systems; investigation of
drischen Massivleiter ETZ-A Bd.91, 1970. electric drives and induction heating systems; and linear algebra.
[14] E. Bolte, “Transient current distribution in a cylindrical solid conductor He was with the Technical University of Miskolc, Hungary, and with the
placed in a semiclosed slot,” Elect. Eng., vol. 85, pp. 1–9, 2003, 2002. Technical University of Budapest. He is now retired. He wrote two textbooks,
[15] M. P. Filippakou, C. G. Karagiannopoulos, D. P. Agoris, and P. D. more than 50 papers, and has two patents.
Bourkas, “Electrical contact overheating under short-circuit currents,” Dr. Tevan received the Level Award from the Hungarian Electrotechnical As-
Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 57, pp. 141–147, 2001. sociation in 1970 and 1989, and the Excellent Teacher Award in 1974.

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