•5

Preface
What is Buddhism? It is different from what most people believe: an Oriental religion full of rituals
and ceremonies, which teaches meditation leading to mystical experiences. Buddhism is most
practical and matter of fact. The Buddha taught all that is real, all mental phenomena and physical
phenomena of our life. By the study of his teachings one learns to investigate one’s different
mental states which change very rapidly. One comes to know one’s faults and vices, even the more
subtle ones which are not easily noticeable. One learns what is good and wholesome and how to
develop wholesome deeds, speech and thoughts. The Buddha taught on life and death, on the
conditions for all phenomena which arise and which are impermanent. He pointed out the suffering
and dissatisfaction inherent in the phenomena of life. He explained the true nature of man: a
composition of elements which arise and then fall away immediately and which are devoid of an
abiding substance, of a “self”. The Buddha taught the eightfold Path which, if it is developed in the
right way, leads to direct understanding of the true nature of all the phenomena of life. It is by
direct understanding that defilements can eventually be eradicated.
In this book I try to explain the message, the basic contents and some details of the Buddha’s
teachings. What is the use of learning details? The Buddha’s teachings are subtle and deep and
therefore it is necessary to go into details. If one does not know that there are many different
aspects to each reality the Buddha taught one will read the scriptures with wrong understanding.
There will be an over-simplification in the interpretation of the texts. Patience is needed to grasp
the complexity of the teachings in order to avoid a superficial understanding of them. Wrong
interpretation of the texts leads to wrong practice of the Buddha’s Path, and as a consequence
there will not be right understanding of the phenomena within ourselves and around ourselves. The
development of the eightfold Path is the development of direct understanding of the true nature of
realities. When the way of its development is correctly understood, the truth of what the Buddha
taught can be verified through one’s own experience. Although theoretical understanding is the
foundation for the development of the Path, it is not sufficient to grasp the deep meaning of the
teachings. One should know that it takes time and patience to understand what this Path is and
how one can begin to develop it.
What is the origin of the Buddhist texts of the Theravåda tradition as they have come to us
today? These texts date from the Buddha’s time, about 2500 years ago. Shortly after the Buddha’s
passing away a Council was held in Råjagaha, were the teachings were examined and scrutinized
as to their orthodoxy. Under the leadership of the Buddha’s eminent disciple Mahå Kassapa five
hundred monks who had reached the state of perfection recited all the texts of the Vinaya, the
Book of Discipline for the monks, the Suttanta, Discourses, and the Abhidhamma, the higher
teaching on ultimate realities. A second Council was held one century later at Vesåli. This was
necessary because of wrong interpretations of the monks’s rules by heretical monks. A third
Council was held in 268 B.C. in Påtalíputta. On this occasion the canon of the Theravåda tradition in
the Påli language as it exists today was finally redacted. During all this time the teachings were
handed down by oral tradition. About 89 B.C. they were committed to writing in Sri Lanka.
In this book I have used a few Påli terms which can be of use to those who intend to deepen their
knowledge of Buddhism. The English equivalents of the Påli terms are frequently unsatisfactory
since they stem from Western philosophy and therefore give an association of meaning which is
different from the meaning intended by the Buddhist teachings.
I want to acknowledge my deep gratitude to Ms. Sujin Boriharnwanaket in Thailand, who gave me
great assistance in the understanding of the Buddhist teachings and in particular in their
application. I also wish to express my gratitude to the “Dhamma Study and Propagation Founda-
tion”, to the publisher Alan Weller and to my husband. Without their help the writing and the
printing of this book would not have been possible.
Finally I want to give information on the sources of my quotations from the texts in the English
language. I quoted mainly from the Dialogues of the Buddha, the Middle Length Sayings, the
Kindred Sayings and the Gradual Sayings. I also quoted from the Path of Purification which is an
Encyclopedia on Buddhism written by the commentator Buddhaghosa in the fifth century A.D. This
6 • The Buddha’s Path

is only a selection of the texts I used. They are available at the Påli Text Society, 73 Lime Walk,
Headington, Oxford OX3 7AD, England.
With this book I intend to give an introduction to the Buddhist teachings. I hope that I can
encourage readers to explore the scriptures themselves in order to deepen their own
understanding.

Nina van Gorkom.

•7
8 • The Buddha’s Path

Chapter I
Introduction

Why are we in this life? Why do we have to suffer? Men of all times conceived philosophical
systems which could explain the reason for their existence and give a solution to the problem of
suffering. Religions also try to give an answer to the problem of suffering in teaching that people
should have faith in God and live according to His commandments; consequently one can, after
death, enjoy eternal bliss in heaven. The Buddha gave his own, unique answer to the problem of
suffering. He taught that the cause of suffering is within man, namely his own faults and
defilements, and not in the external situation. He explained that only profound knowledge of his
own mind and of all phenomena of his life can lead to the end of suffering. We read in the Buddhist
scriptures (Kindred Sayings I, Chapter III, Kosala, Part 3, §3, The World) that King Pasenadi had a
conversation with the Buddha at Såvatthí about the cause of suffering. We read:

“…How many kinds of things, lord, that happen in the world, make for trouble, for suffering, for
distress?”
“Three things, sire, happen of that nature. What are the three? Greed, hate, and delusion—
these three make for trouble, for suffering, for distress…”

The outward circumstances cannot be changed, but the inward attitude towards the vicissitudes of
life can be changed. Wisdom can be developed and this can eventually eradicate completely
greed, hate and delusion. This wisdom is not developed by speculation about the truth of life, it is
developed through the direct experience of the phenomena of life as they really are, including
one’s own mental states. That is the Path the Buddha taught, but it takes time to understand how it
is to be developed.
The Buddha was not a God, not a saviour, who wanted people to follow him without questioning
the truth of his teaching. He showed the Path to the understanding of the truth, but people had to
investigate the truth and develop the Path themselves. We read in the scriptures (Dialogues of the
Buddha, II, 16, the Book of the Great Decease) that the Buddha said to his disciple Ånanda:

Therefore, Ånanda, be an island to yourselves, a refuge to yourselves, seeking no external

refuge; with the Teaching as your island, the Teaching as your refuge, seeking no other refuge…

The Buddha explained that in developing the Path one is one’s own refuge.
The Buddha had found the Path to understanding of the truth all by himself, without help from a
teacher. However, he was not the only Buddha. Aeons and aeons ago there were other Buddhas
who also found the Path all by themselves and who taught the development of the Path to others.
The Buddha whose teaching we know in this time was called the Buddha Gotama. His personal
name was Siddhattha and his family name Gotama. He lived in the sixth century B.C. in Northern
India. He was born in Lumbini (now in Nepal) as the son of Suddhodana, King of the Såkyas. His
mother was Queen Måyå. He married Princess Yasodharå and he lived in great luxury. However,
when he drove out to the park with his charioteer he was confronted with suffering. We read in the
Dialogues of the Buddha (II, 14, The Sublime Story) that the Buddha related the story of a former
Buddha, the Buddha Vipassi, and explained that all Bodhisattas, beings destined to become
Enlightened Ones, Buddhas, have such experiences. We read that the Bodhisatta, after he saw in
the park someone who was aged, asked the charioteer the meaning of what he saw. The charioteer
explained to him that the person he saw was aged and that all beings are subject to old age. On a
following occasion there was an encounter with a sick person and the charioteer explained that all
beings are subject to illness. At another occasion the Bodhisatta saw a corpse. The charioteer
explained that that was the corpse of someone who had ended his days. We read:
…And Vipassi saw the corpse of him who had ended his days and asked—“What, good
charioteer, is ending one’s days?”
 •9

“It means, my lord, that neither mother, nor father, nor other kinsfolk will see him any more,
nor will he ever again see them.”
“But am I too then subject to death, have I not got beyond the reach of death? Will neither the
King, nor the Queen, nor any other of my relatives see me any more, or I ever again see them?”
“You, my lord, and we too, we all are subject to death, we have not passed beyond the reach of
death. Neither the King, nor the Queen, nor any other of your relatives would see you any more,
nor would you ever again see them.”
“Why then, good charioteer, enough of the park for today! Drive me back from here to my
rooms.”
“Yes, my lord,” replied the charioteer, and drove him back.
And he, monks, going to his rooms, sat brooding sorrowful and depressed, thinking—“Shame
then verily be upon this thing called birth, since to one born the decay of life, since disease, since
death shows itself like that!”
After the Bodhisatta had been confronted with an old man, a sick man and a corpse, his fourth
encounter was with a monk. The Bodhisatta asked the meaning of being a monk and the charioteer
answered that it was being thorough in the religious life, in the peaceful life, in good actions, in
meritorious conduct, in harmlessness, and in kindness to all creatures. The Bodhisatta decided to
leave his worldly life and to become a monk.
The Buddha Gotama, when he was still a Bodhisatta, had the same encounters as the Bodhisatta
Vipassi. He also became a monk after his fourth encounter in order to seek the solution to the
problem of suffering. He first practised severe austerity, but he saw that that was not the way to
find the truth. He decided to discontinue such severe practices and to stop fasting. On the day he
was to attain enlightenment he took rice gruel which was offered to him by the girl Sujåtå. Seated
under the Bodhi-tree he attained enlightenment. He realized the four noble Truths: the truth of
suffering, of the cause of suffering, of the ceasing of suffering and of the Path leading to the
ceasing of suffering. He had attained enlightenment at the age of thirty-five years and he taught
the Path to others for forty-five years. At the age of eighty he passed away at Kusinårå.
His teachings have been preserved in the Buddhist scriptures of the Vinaya (Book of Discipline for
the monks), the Suttas (the Discourses), and the Abhidhamma (the “Higher Teachings”). These
scriptures which have been written in the Påli language are of the Theravåda tradition. The term
“Theravåda” (Hínayåna or “Small vehicle” is no longer used) could be translated as “the School of
the Elders”. There is also the Mahåyåna tradition which developed later on. The two traditions are
in agreement with several points of the Buddha’s teachings, but they are different as regards the
practice, the development of the Buddha’s Path leading to the realization of the truth. The
Theravåda tradition is followed in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, Cambodia and Bangladesh. The
Mahåyåna tradition is followed in China, Japan, Tibet and Mongolia.
The Buddha, at his enlightenment, understood that the cause of suffering is craving. He saw that
when there is the cessation of craving there will be an end to suffering. What the Buddha teaches
is contrary to what people generally are seeking in life. Every being has craving for the experience
of pleasant things and therefore wishes to continue to obtain such objects. The Buddha was, after
his enlightenment, for a moment not inclined to teach the truth he had realized under the Bodhi-
tree. He knew that the “Dhamma”, his teaching of the truth, would be difficult to understand by
those who delighted in sense pleasures. We read in the Middle Length Sayings (I, number 26, The
Ariyan Quest), that the Buddha related to the monks his quest for the truth when he was still a
Bodhisatta, his enlightenment and his disinclination to teaching. We read that the Buddha said:

This that through many toils I’ve won—

Enough! Why should I make it known?
By folk with lust and hate consumed
This Dhamma is not understood.
Leading on against the stream
Deep, subtle, difficult to see, delicate,
Unseen it will be by passion’s slaves
Cloaked in the murk of ignorance.
10 • The Buddha’s Path

We then read that the Brahmå Sahampati, a heavenly being, implored the Buddha to teach the
truth. The Buddha surveyed the world with the eye of an Awakened One, and he saw beings with
different dispositions, some of whom were not capable to accept his teaching, and some who were
capable to be taught. We read that the Buddha used a simile of different kinds of lotuses in a pond:

…Even as in a pond of blue lotuses or in a pond of red lotuses or in a pond of white lotuses, a
few red and blue and white lotuses are born in the water, grow in the water, do not rise above
the water but thrive while altogether immersed; a few blue or red or white lotuses are born in
the water, grow in the water and reach the surface of the water; a few blue or red or white
lotuses are born in the water, grow in the water, and stand rising out of the water, undefiled by
the water; even so did I, monks, surveying the world with the eye of an Awakened One, see
beings with little dust in their eyes, with much dust in their eyes, with acute faculties, with dull
faculties, of good dispositions, of bad dispositions, docile, indocile, few seeing fear in sins and
the world beyond.

Out of compassion the Buddha decided to teach Dhamma. His teaching goes “against the stream”,
it is deep and it can only be understood by studying it thoroughly and by carefully considering it.
Generally, people expect something else from the Buddhist teachings. They believe that the
Buddha taught a method of meditation to reach tranquillity, or even extraordinary experiences
such as a mystical trance. It is understandable that one looks for a way of escape from a life full of
tension and troubles. Extraordinary experiences, however, cannot give the real solution to one’s
problems. It is a wrong conception of Buddhism to think that the goal of the Buddha’s Path are
mystical experiences to be reached by concentration. The Buddha’s Path has nothing to do with
unworldly mysticism, it is very concrete and matter of fact. Understanding should be developed of
all that is real, also of our faults and vices as they naturally appear during our daily activities. We
have to know ourselves when we laugh, when we cry, when we are greedy or angry, we have to
know all our different moods. All troubles in life are caused by our defilements. It is through the
development of understanding that defilements can be completely eradicated. Comprehending,
knowing and seeing are stressed time and again in the Buddhist teachings.
It is felt by some people that, in order to develop understanding of one’s mind, one should retire
from daily life and sit still in quiet surroundings. It may seem that, when one is in isolation, there is
no anger or aversion and that it is easier to analyse one’s mental states. However, at such
moments there is bound to be clinging to quietness and when there is clinging there is no
development of understanding. We read in the scriptures about people who could develop calm in
concentrating on a meditation subject. They were very skilled, they knew the right method to
attain calm, which is a wholesome mental state. However, through the development of calm
defilements are not eradicated, they are merely temporarily suppressed. The Buddha taught the
way to develop the understanding leading to the complete and final eradication of all that is
impure, of all defilements. In order to reach the goal there is no other way but developing
understanding naturally in one’s daily life.
It cannot be expected that there will be the eradication of defilements soon since they are so
deeply rooted. The Buddha had, during countless lives when he was still a Bodhisatta, developed
understanding of all phenomena of life. Only in his last life, at the moment he attained
enlightenment, all defilements were eradicated. How could we expect to reach the final goal within
a short time?
The Buddha taught the way to the eradication of all defilements. Defilements are not eradicated
by rituals or by sacraments. The way to eradicate them is an inner way, namely the understanding
of all mental and physical phenomena of one’s life. The Buddha taught very precisely what
defilements are. They are not exactly the same as what is generally meant by “sin”. By sin is
usually meant an evil deed, evil speech or evil thought which has a high degree of impurity.
According to the Buddhist teachings defilements include all degrees, even slight degrees, of what
is impure. Even slight degrees of defilements are unhelpful, not beneficial. The term
“unwholesomeness”, that which is unhelpful, not beneficial, includes all degrees of defilements 1. If
one thinks in terms of sin one will not understand that ignorance of the phenomena of life is

1 “Unwholesome” and “wholesome” are terms which usually stand for the Påli terms “akusala” and “kusala”.
 • 11

unwholesome, that ignorance is harmful since it blinds one to see the truth. Or one will not
understand that even a slight degree of attachment is unwholesome, even harmful, because it is
accumulated and it will arise again and again.
The Buddha, when he was sitting under the Bodhi-tree, realized the four noble Truths: the Truth of
suffering, the Truth of the origin of suffering, the Truth of the ceasing of suffering, and the Truth of
the Path leading to the ceasing of suffering. As to the Truth of suffering, this is not merely suffering
caused by bodily and mental pain. The Truth of suffering pertains to all phenomena of life which
are impermanent. They arise and then fall away immediately, and thus they cannot be our refuge.
Suffering in this sense is the unsatisfactoriness inherent in all phenomena of life. Only when the
arising and falling away of physical phenomena and mental phenomena can be directly
experienced, can one begin to grasp the Truth of suffering.
The Truth of the origin of suffering is craving. Craving in this sense is not only strong attachment
or greed, it includes many shades and degrees of attachment. There is craving for pleasant
colours, sounds, odours, flavours and tangible objects, for all that can be experienced through the
senses. There is craving for the continuation of life. It is craving which conditions rebirth in new
existences, again and again. Craving pushes beings on in the cycle of life, the continuation of
rebirth and death. There is not only this present life, there were also past lives and there will be
future lives. I will deal with this subject later on. So long as there are ignorance and clinging there
are conditions for being in the cycle of birth and death. Through wisdom, understanding, there can
be liberation from it. When there are no more conditions for rebirth, there is the end of old age,
sickness and death, the end of all suffering.
The third noble Truth, the cessation of suffering, is nibbåna. The Buddha experienced at his
enlightenment nibbåna. It is difficult to understand what nibbåna, is. Nibbåna (more popularly
known in its Sanskrit form of nirvåùa) is not a place such as heaven or a paradise where one enjoys
eternal bliss. There are heavenly planes, according to the Buddhist teachings, where one can be
reborn as a result of a good deed, but existence in such planes is not forever. After one’s lifespan in
such a plane is ended there will be rebirth in other planes, and thus there is no end to suffering.
Nibbåna is only an object of speculation so long as it has not been realized. It can be realized when
there is full understanding of all phenomena of life which arise because of their own conditions and
then fall away. The conditioned phenomena of life are, because of their impermanence,
unsatisfactory or suffering. Nibbåna is the unconditioned reality, it does not arise and fall away and
therefore it is not suffering, it is the end of suffering. Nibbåna is real, it is a reality which can be
experienced, but we cannot grasp what an unconditioned reality is when we have not realized the
truth of conditioned realities. Nibbåna is not a God, it is not a person or a self. Since negative terms
are used to express what nibbåna is, such as the end of rebirth, it may be felt that Buddhism
propagates a negative attitude towards life. However, this is not the case. It has to be understood
that rebirth is suffering and that nibbåna is the end of suffering. Nibbåna is freedom from all
defilements, and since defilements are the cause of all unhappiness nibbåna should be called the
highest goal. We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, Part IV, Chapter 38, §1,
Nibbåna) that the wanderer Rose-apple-eater came to see the Buddha’s disciple Såriputta and
asked him what nibbåna was. Såriputta answered:

The destruction of lust, the destruction of hatred, the destruction of illusion, friend, is called
nibbåna.

“Extinction” and “freedom from desire” are meanings of the word nibbåna. Nibbåna means the end
of clinging to existence and thus it is deliverance from all future birth, old age, sickness and death,
from all suffering which is inherent in the conditioned realities of life. The Buddha experienced at
his enlightenment the unconditioned reality which is nibbåna. His passing away was the absolute
extinguishment of conditions for the continuation of the life process. When the Buddha was still
alive people asked him what would happen to him after his passing away. He explained that this
belongs to the questions which cannot be answered, questions which are merely speculative and
do not lead to the goal. The Buddha’s passing away cannot be called the annihilation of life, and
there cannot be rebirth for him in another plane, either. If there would be rebirth he would not have
reached the end of all suffering.
12 • The Buddha’s Path

The fourth noble Truth, the way leading to the ceasing of suffering, is the development of the
eightfold Path as taught by the Buddha. I will deal with the eightfold Path more extensively later on
in this book. The eightfold Path is the development of understanding of all physical phenomena and
mental phenomena which occur in daily life. Very gradually these phenomena can be realized as
impermanent, suffering and “not self”. The Buddha taught that there is in the absolute sense no
abiding person or self. What is generally understood as a person is merely a temporary
combination of mental phenomena and physical phenomena which arise and fall away. The
Buddha’s teaching of the truth of “non self” is deep and difficult to grasp. This teaching is unique
and cannot be found in other philosophical systems or religions. I will deal with the truth of “non
self” later on in this book. So long as there is still clinging to the concept of a self defilements
cannot be eradicated. There has to be first the eradication of the wrong view of self and then other
defilements can be eradicated stage by stage.
There were many monks, nuns and laypeople who developed the Path and realized the goal, each
in their own situation. The development of the eightfold Path does not mean that one should try to
be detached immediately from all pleasant objects and from existence. All realities, including
attachment, should be known and understood. So long as there are conditions for attachment it
arises. The development of understanding cannot be forced, it must be done in a natural way. Only
thus can understanding, knowing and seeing, very gradually lead to detachment. When one is a
layfollower one enjoys all the pleasant things of life, but understanding of realities can be
developed. The monk who observes the rules of monkhood leads a different kind of life, but this
does not mean that he already is without attachment to pleasant objects. He too should develop
understanding naturally, in his own situation, and come to know his own defilements.
The development of the Buddha’s Path is very gradual, it is a difficult and long way. It may take
many lives before there can be the attainment of enlightenment. Since the development of the
Path is so difficult there may be doubt whether it makes sense to start on this Path. It is
complicated to understand all phenomena of life, including our own mental states, and it seems
impossible to eradicate defilements. It is useless to expect results soon, but it is beneficial to start
to investigate what our life really is: phenomena which are impermanent and thus unsatisfactory.
When we start on the Buddha’s Path we begin to see our many faults and vices, not only the
coarse ones but also the more subtle ones which may not have been so obvious. Before studying
the Buddhist teachings, selfish motives when performing deeds of generosity were unnoticed.
When the deep, underlying, impure motives for one’s deeds are realized is that not a gain? A
sudden change of character cannot be expected soon as a result of the Buddhist teachings, but
what is unwholesome can be realized as unwholesome, and what is wholesome can be realized as
wholesome. In that way there will be more truthfulness, more sincerity in our actions, speech and
thoughts. The disadvantage and danger of unwholesomeness and the benefit of wholesomeness
will be seen more and more clearly.
The Buddha taught about everything which is real and which can be experienced in daily life. He
taught about seeing and hearing, about all that can be experienced through the senses. He taught
that on account of what is experienced through the senses there is attachment, aversion and
ignorance. We are ignorant most of the time of the phenomena occurring in daily life. However,
even when we only begin to develop understanding we can verify the truth of what the Buddha
taught. Seeing, hearing, attachment, anger, generosity and kindness are real for everybody. There
is no need to label what is true for everybody as “Buddhism”. When we begin to investigate what
the Buddha taught there will gradually be the elimination of ignorance about ourselves and the
world around us.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, The Third Fifty, Chapter I, §111,
Understanding):

By not comprehending, by not understanding, without detaching himself from, without

abandoning the eye, one is incapable of the destruction of suffering. By not comprehending…
the ear…nose…tongue…body…mind…one is incapable of the destruction of suffering.
But by comprehending, by understanding, by detaching himself from, by abandoning the eye…
nose…tongue…body…mind…one is capable of the destruction of suffering.
 • 13

In the following sutta we read that, for the destruction of suffering colours, sounds, scents, savours,
tangible objects and mind-states have to be understood. This is the way leading to the end of
suffering. The Buddha taught about realities for the sake of our welfare and happiness.
Chapter 2
The Truth of suffering

Old age, sickness and death are unavoidable. Separation from dear people through death is bound
to happen. We read in the Group of Discourses (Sutta-Nipåta, III, 8, The Arrow, verses 574-5822 ):

Unindicated and unknown is the length of life of those subject to death. Life is difficult and brief
and bound up with suffering. There is no means by which those who are born will not die.
Having reached old age, there is death. This is the natural course for a living being. With ripe
fruits there is the constant danger that they will fall. In the same way, for those born and
subject to death, there is always the fear of dying. Just as the pots made by a potter all end by
being broken, so death is the breaking up of life.
The young and old, the foolish and the wise, all are stopped short by the power of death, all
finally end in death. Of those overcome by death and passing to another world, a father cannot
hold back his son, nor relatives a relation. See! While the relatives are looking on and weeping,
one by one each mortal is led away like an ox to the slaughter.
In this manner the world is afflicted by death and decay. But the wise do not grieve, having
realized the nature of the world…

The Buddha consoled those who had suffered the loss of dear people by explaining to them the
impermanence of all phenomena of life. We read in the commentary to the Psalms of the Sisters
(Therígåthå, Canto X, LXIII) that a woman, named Kiså-gotamí, was completely overwhelmed by
grief because of the loss of her son. She went from door to door with his corpse asking for medicine
which could revive him. The Buddha said to her: “Go, enter the town, and bring from any house
where yet no man has died a little mustard seed.” She did not find any family without bereavement
caused by death and she realized that everything is impermanent. She went to the Buddha and he
said:

To him whose heart on children and on goods

Is centred, clinging to them in his thoughts,
Death comes like a great flood in the night,
Bearing away the village in its sleep.

Did the Buddha teach anything new? We all know that there has to be separation and death, that
everything in life is impermanent. Thinking about impermanence is not of much help when one has
suffered a loss. The Buddha taught that there is change of mental states from moment to moment
and that also the physical units which constitute the body are breaking up from moment to
moment. He taught the development of the wisdom which is the direct experience of the arising
and falling away of mental phenomena and physical phenomena. Kiså-gotamí did not merely think
about the impermanence of life, she realized through direct experience the momentary breaking
up of the mental phenomena and the physical phenomena. This changed her outlook on life and
she could recover from her deep sorrow.
Each mental state which arises falls away within split-seconds. At one moment we may speak
kindly to someone else but the next moment the kind disposition has disappeared and we may be
irritated and angry, we may even shout. It is as if we are a completely different personality at that
moment. Actually this is true. Kindness has disappeared and the angry disposition is a different
mental state which has arisen. Seeing, hearing or thinking are all different moments of
consciousness which arise and then fall away immediately. They each arise because of their own
conditioning factors. Seeing, for example is dependant on eye-sense and on its object, which is
2 I am using the translation of J. Ireland, Wheel Publication 82.
14 • The Buddha’s Path

colour, and since these conditioning factors do not last, also the seeing which is conditioned by
them cannot last either. Every reality which is dependant on conditions has to fall away. Since the
moment of consciousness which has fallen away is followed by a new one it seems that there is a
mind which lasts. In reality our life is an unbroken series of moments of consciousness which arise
and fall away. Also bodily phenomena which arise, fall away. We know that the body is subject to
decay, that there is old age and death, but this is not the wisdom which can directly realize the
momentary breaking up of the units which constitute the body. We do not notice their vanishing
after they have arisen because there are new bodily phenomena replacing the ones that have
fallen away. We can notice that there is sometimes heat in the body, sometimes cold, sometimes
suppleness, sometimes stiffness. This shows that there is change of bodily phenomena. Also what
we call dead matter are physical phenomena which are arising and vanishing all the time. Physical
phenomena arise because of conditioning factors. When we smile or cry, when we move our hand
with anger or stretch out our hand in order to give, there are different bodily phenomena caused by
different mental states. Bodily phenomena and also the physical phenomena outside arise because
of their own conditioning factors and they have to fall away. Science also teaches the momentary
change of physical phenomena, but the aim of the Buddha’s teachings is completely different, the
aim is detachment from all phenomena. The “eye of wisdom” which sees impermanence is
different from a microscope through which one watches the change of the smallest physical units.
The wisdom which directly realizes the momentary impermanence of phenomena eventually leads
to detachment.
Our life can be compared with the flux of a river. A river seems to keep its identity but in reality
not one drop of water stays the same while the river is flowing on and on. In the same way what
we call a “person” seems to keep its identity, but in reality there are mere passing mental
phenomena and physical phenomena. These phenomena arise because of their appropriate
conditions and then fall away. It can be noticed that people have different characters, but what is
called “character” are phenomena which have been conditioned by phenomena in the past. Since
our life is an unbroken series of moments of consciousness arising in succession, the past moments
can condition the present moment and the present moment can condition the future moments.
There were wholesome and unwholesome moments in the past and these condition the arising of
wholesome and unwholesome moments today. What is learnt today is never lost, moments of
understanding today can be accumulated and in that way understanding can develop.
We conceive life as a long duration of time, lasting from the moment of birth until death. If the
momentary arising and vanishing of each reality is taken into consideration, it can be said that
there is birth and death at each moment. Seeing arises but it does not last, it falls away imme-
diately. At another moment there is hearing, but it does not last either. Thinking changes each
moment, there is thinking of different things all the time. It can be noticed that there can only be
thinking of one thing, not more than one thing, at a time. It may seem that thinking can last, but in
reality there are different moments of consciousness succeeding one another extremely rapidly.
Feelings change, there is pleasant feeling at one moment, at another moment there is unpleasant
feeling and at another moment again indifferent feeling. The Buddha taught that what is
impermanent is suffering, in Påli dukkha3. Bodily pain and mental suffering due to the
changeability of things are forms of dukkha which are more obvious. The truth of dukkha, however,
comprises more than that. The truth of dukkha pertains to all physical phenomena and mental
states which are impermanent. They are unsatisfactory because, after they have arisen, they are
there merely for an extremely short moment and then they disappear completely. The truth of
dukkha is deep and difficult to understand.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (V, Mahå-vagga, Book XII, Kindred Sayings about the Truths,
Chapter 2, §1) that the Buddha, after his enlightenment, when he was staying in the Deerpark at
Isipatana, near Vårånasi, preached to a group of five monks. He explained to them the four noble
Truths: the Truth of dukkha, the Truth of the origin of dukkha, the Truth of the ceasing of dukkha,
which is nibbåna, and the Truth of the Path leading to the ceasing of dukkha. We read with regard
to dukkha:
Birth is dukkha, decay is dukkha, sickness is dukkha, death is dukkha; likewise sorrow and grief,

3 The Påli term dukkha is to be preferred, since the word “suffering” does not cover completely the meaning of the first
noble Truth.
 • 15

woe, lamentation and despair. To be conjoined with what we dislike; to be separated from what
we like,—that also is dukkha. Not to get what one wants,—that also is dukkha. In short, these
five groups of grasping are dukkha.
The five groups (in Påli khandhas) of grasping are all physical phenomena and mental phenomena
of our life which have been classified as five groups. They are: the group of physical phenomena,
and four groups of mental phenomena comprising: the group of feelings, of perceptions, of mental
activities (including all wholesome and unwholesome qualities) and of consciousness. These five
groups comprise all phenomena of life which arise because of their own conditions and then fall
away. Seeing is dukkha, because it arises and falls away. Colour is dukkha, pleasant feeling is
dukkha, even wholesome mental states are dukkha, they all are impermanent.
There may be theoretical understanding of the fact that all that can be experienced is
impermanent and therefore unsatisfactory or dukkha. The Truth of dukkha, however, cannot be
realized through theoretical understanding alone. There can be thinking of the impermanence of
everything in life, but it is extremely difficult to realize through one’s own experience the arising
and falling away, thus, the breaking up from moment to moment of phenomena. Through the
development of the eightfold Path there can eventually be direct understanding of the imper-
manence of the phenomena of life and of their nature of dukkha.
All phenomena are impermanent. There should be precise understanding of what that “all” is.
Otherwise there cannot be the realization of impermanence and dukkha. We read in the Kindred
Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, First Fifty, Chapter 3, §23, The all) that the Buddha said to
the monks while he was at Såvatthí:

Monks, I will teach you the all. Do you listen to it.

And what, monks, is the all? It is eye and visible object, ear and sound, nose and scent, tongue
and savour, body and tangible object, mind and mind-states. That, monks, is called the “all”.
Whoso, monks, should say: “Rejecting this all, I will proclaim another all,—it would be mere talk
on his part, and when questioned he could not make good his boast, and further would come to
an ill pass. Why so? Because, monks, it would be beyond his scope to do so.

From this sutta we see that the Buddha’s teaching is very concrete, that it pertains to all realities of
daily life:
the seeing of visible object through the eyes;
the hearing of sound through the ears;
the smelling of odours through the nose;
the tasting of flavours through the tongue;
the experience of tangible object through the bodysense;
the experience of mental objects through the mind.
When one first comes into contact with the Buddhist teachings one may be surprised that the
Buddha speaks time and again about realities such as seeing and hearing. However, the “all” has
to be known and investigated. There is such a great deal of ignorance of mental phenomena and
physical phenomena. Generally one is inclined to be absorbed in thinking about people one saw or
words one heard; one never paid attention to seeing itself or hearing itself. One may even doubt
whether it is useful to do so. Seeing and hearing themselves are neither wholesome nor
unwholesome, but immediately after seeing and hearing all kinds of defilements are bound to
arise. All the different moments of life should be investigated thoroughly, so that there can be
elimination of delusion about them.
There are different degrees of understanding realities. Thinking about realities and about their
impermanence is theoretical understanding and this is not the realization of the true nature of
realities. Theoretical understanding, however, can be the foundation for direct understanding of the
realities which appear in daily life.
As we study the Buddhist scriptures we will learn about the realities which are to be understood.
There are three parts or “baskets” of the Buddha’s teachings: the Vinaya, the Suttanta or
Discourses and the Abhidhamma or “higher teachings”. The Vinaya is the “Book of Discipline” for
the monks. The Suttanta are discourses of the Buddha held at different places to different people.
The Abhidhamma is a detailed exposition of all mental phenomena and physical phenomena and
16 • The Buddha’s Path

also of their conditioning factors and their different ways of conditional relations. Although these
three parts of the teachings are different in form, they point to the same goal: the eradication of
defilements through the direct realization of the truth. When one studies the different realities
which are explained in detail in the Abhidhamma, the goal should not be forgotten: the
development of direct understanding of realities when they appear. There is also Abhidhamma in
the suttas. The sutta about the “All” I quoted above is an example of this. The deep meaning of the
suttas cannot be understood without a basic study of the Abhidhamma. The field of the
Abhidhamma is immense and we cannot grasp the whole contents. However, when one begins to
study it, at least in part, one will see that it can be of great assistance for the understanding of our
life. Some people have doubt as to the authenticity of the Abhidhamma, they doubt whether it is
the teaching of the Buddha himself. As one studies the Abhidhamma one will see for oneself that
the Abhidhamma teaches about phenomena which can be experienced at this moment. The Abhi-
dhamma deals with seeing, visible object, with all experiences through the senses and the mind,
with all wholesome qualities, with all defilements. The different parts of the scriptures are one, they
are the Buddha’s teachings.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, Second Fifty, Chapter I, §53,
Ignorance) about the elimination of ignorance. We read about a conversation of a monk with the
Buddha about this subject:

“By how knowing, lord, by how seeing does ignorance vanish and knowledge arise?”
“In him that knows and sees the eye as impermanent, monk, ignorance vanishes and
knowledge arises. In him that knows and sees visible objects…seeing-consciousness…eye-
contact…the pleasant, unpleasant or neutral feeling arising dependant on eye-contact as
impermanent, monk, ignorance vanishes and knowledge arises…”

The same is said about the realities pertaining to the ear, the nose, the tongue, the bodysense and
the mind. All these phenomena have to be investigated in order to know them as they are.
There is seeing, and shortly after that there is attachment to what is seen but most of the time
there is ignorance of these phenomena. Even when there is no pleasant feeling on account of what
is seen there can still be clinging. There is clinging time and again to seeing, to visible object, to
hearing, to sound, to all that can be experienced. We would not like to be without eye-sense or ear-
sense and this shows that there is clinging. We want to continue seeing, hearing and experiencing
all the objects which present themselves through the senses. What is seen and what is experienced
through the other senses falls away immediately, but we erroneously believe that things last, at
least for a while. Because of our delusion we keep on clinging. When we do not get what we want,
when we lose people who are dear to us, or things we possess, we are sad or even in despair. It is
attachment which conditions aversion or sadness. When we do not get what we like there is dislike.
All such mental states are realities of daily life and, instead of suppressing them, they can be
investigated when they appear. Then their different characteristics can be distinguished.
Each phenomenon has a different characteristic and it arises because of different conditions. For
example, when we are in the company of relatives or friends, we can notice that there are different
moments of consciousness. There are moments of attachment, moments that there is clinging to
our own pleasant feeling on account of the company of dear people. It may seem that we think of
other people’s happiness, but we are merely attached to our own happiness. There are other
moments, however, that we sincerely think of the other people’s wellbeing and happiness, that we
do not think of ourselves. Attachment and unselfish kindness have different characteristics and
gradually their difference can be learnt when they appear. It may seem complicated to analyse
one’s mental states. One can, however, lead one’s life naturally, one can enjoy all the pleasant
things of life, and at the same time develop more understanding of different moments of
consciousness which arise, be it clinging, unselfish kindness or generosity. In that way there can be
a more precise understanding of the different characteristics of phenomena.
When one begins to investigate the different phenomena of one’s life, one realizes that there is
such an amount of ignorance. It is beneficial to realize this, because that is the beginning of
understanding. There is ignorance of realities such as seeing, hearing or thinking. It is not known
precisely when there is seeing and when there is attachment to what is seen. Realities arise and
 • 17

fall away very rapidly. There is clinging to the objects which are experienced and their arising and
falling away is not realized. There is ignorance of the suffering and the unsatisfactoriness inherent
in all conditioned realities. Ignorance and clinging are the conditions for rebirth into a new
existence, for continuation in the cycle of birth and death. When there is rebirth, there is suffering
again, there will again be old age, sickness and death.
It is difficult to grasp the truth of dukkha, but one can begin to develop more understanding of
the phenomena which appear in one’s life. The Buddha taught Dhamma in order that people could
investigate all realities. The word “dhamma” has different meanings, but in its widest sense
dhamma is everything which is real and which has its own characteristic. Seeing is dhamma,
attachment is dhamma, anger is dhamma. They are realities which can be experienced by
everybody. We can read about seeing, attachment or anger, but when these realities occur we can
learn to distinguish their different characteristics. Knowledge of realities can be acquired through
the study of the Abhidhamma, but this knowledge should be applied so that there can eventually
be direct understanding of realities. We are full of attachment, anger, avarice, conceit, jealousy, full
of defilements, but understanding of all these realities can be developed. If dislike, for example,
would be suppressed, instead of knowing its characteristic when it appears, there would be
ignorance of the way it is conditioned. It would not be known that it is attachment which conditions
dislike. If there is ignorance of what is wholesome and what is unwholesome, wholesome qualities
could not be developed. Understanding can be developed of the countless moments of attachment
which arise after seeing, hearing and the other experiences through the senses. All realities arise
because of their own conditions.
The development of direct understanding of realities is the Path leading to the end of dukkha.
The development of this Path is very gradual and takes a long time. The characteristics of the
different realities which appear have to be thoroughly investigated and understood. In that way it
can be gradually seen that they arise each because of their own conditions. What arises because of
conditions has to fall away, it is impermanent. The impermanence of realities, their momentary
breaking up, can only be realized at a later stage of the development of understanding. Eventually
there can be the realization of the fact that all conditioned realities which arise and fall away are
dukkha. There are different degrees of understanding the Truth of dukkha. When one attains
enlightenment one has understood the Truth of dukkha, of the origin of dukkha, of the ceasing of
dukkha and of the way leading to the ceasing of dukkha.
18 • The Buddha’s Path
 • 19

Chapter 3
The Truth of non-self

All phenomena of life are impermanent and dukkha. Seeing, colour, hearing, sound, feeling, anger,
greed or generosity, they all arise because of their own conditions and then they fall away
immediately. There is no abiding ego or “self” who could cause the arising of these phenomena or
exert control over them. Realities which are impermanent and dukkha are non-self.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, First Fifty, Chapter 1, §1,
impermanent, the personal) that the Buddha, while staying at the Jeta Grove near Såvatthí, said to
the monks:

The eye, monks, is impermanent. What is impermanent, that is dukkha. What is dukkha, that is
void of the self. What is void of the self, that is not mine; I am not it; it is not my self. That is
how it is to be regarded with perfect insight of what it really is.
The ear is impermanent…The nose is impermanent…The tongue is impermanent…The body is
impermanent…The mind is impermanent. What is impermanent, that is dukkha. What is dukkha,
that is void of the self. What is void of the self, that is not mine; I am not it; it is not my self. That
is how it is to be regarded with perfect insight of what it really is….

We then read that through insight all clinging to the senses and the mind is eradicated and that
there are consequently no more conditions for rebirth. In the following suttas the same is said with
regard to colour, sound, scent, savour, tangible object and mind-object. They are impermanent,
dukkha and void of the self.
The truth of non-self, in Påli anattå, is an essential element of the Buddha’s teachings. This truth
has been taught by the Buddha alone, it cannot be found outside the Buddhist teachings. Those
who come into contact with Buddhism for the first time may be bewildered, even repelled by the
truth of non-self. They wonder what the world would be without a self, without other people. Do we
not live with and for other people? It is difficult to grasp the truth of non-self and its implications in
daily life.
What is called in conventional language a “person” or “self” is merely a temporary combination
of physical phenomena and mental phenomena, which are depending on each other. They have
been classified as five groups, in Påli khandhas: one group of all physical phenomena and four
groups of mental phenomena—feelings, perceptions, mental activities and consciousness. The five
khandhas are in a flux, in a constant process of formation and dissolution. There is nothing lasting,
nothing eternal, nothing unchanging in life.
The khandhas which arise, fall away and do not return. Present khandhas are different from past
khandhas but they are conditioned by past khandhas, and present khandhas condition in their turn
future khandhas. We read in the Dialogues of the Buddha (I, number IX, Potthapåda Sutta) that the
Buddha explained to Citta about the three modes of personality: the past, the present and the
future personality. They are different, but the past conditions the present and the present
conditions the future. We read that the Buddha explained this by way of a simile:

Just, Citta, as from a cow comes milk, and from the milk curds, and from the curds butter, and
from the butter ghee, and from the ghee junket; but when it is milk it is not called curds, or
butter, or ghee, or junket; and when it is curds it is not called by any of the other names…
Just so, Citta, when any one of the three modes of personality is going on, it is not called by the
name of the other. For these, Citta, are merely names, expressions, turns of speech, designations
in common use in the world. And of these a Tathågata4 (one who has won the truth) makes use
indeed, but is not led astray by them.

We call by such or such a name what are actually the five khandhas. People have different
characters, different personalities. In reality there is nothing static in what is called a person. The
4 Literally, “Thus-gone”, epithet of the Buddha.
20 • The Buddha’s Path

present personality is different from the past personality, but it has originated from the past
personality. We read in the commentary to the Debates (to the Kathåvatthu, Chapter I, the Person,
33, 34):
…Given bodily and mental khandhas, it is customary to say such and such a name, a family.
Thus, by this popular turn of speech, convention, expression, is meant: “there is the person”…
The Buddhas have two kinds of discourse, the popular and the philosophical. Those relating to a
being, a person, a deva (divine being), a “brahmå”,…are popular discourses, while those
relating to impermanence, dukkha, non-self, the khandhas, the elements, the senses…are
discourses on ultimate meaning…A discourse on ultimate meaning is, as a rule, too severe to
begin with; therefore the Buddhas teach at first by popular discourse, and then by way of
discourse on ultimate meaning…
The Enlightened One, best of speakers, spoke two kinds of truth, namely, the conventional truth
and the ultimate truth, a third is not known.
Therein, a popular discourse is true in conventional sense. A discourse on ultimate realities is
also true, and as such, characteristic of things as they are…
Before studying the Buddhist teachings we only knew conventional truth: the truth of the world
populated by people and animals, the world of persons, of self. Through the Buddhist teachings we
learn about the ultimate truth: the mental phenomena and physical phenomena which are
impermanent.
The truth of non-self is ultimate truth. It is deep and hard to penetrate. It has been taught by way
of similes in the Buddhist scriptures and in the commentaries. The great commentator
Buddhaghosa, in his book the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), illustrates the truth of non-self
with similes from Buddhist scriptures. The Path of Purification is a comprehensive exposition of the
Buddha’s teaching based on old commentaries and the tradition of the monks in Sri Lanka, written
in the fifth century A.D. Buddhaghosa explains that when one thinks of a whole of mind and body,
one clings to the concept of person, whereas when this “whole” is seen as different elements which
are impermanent, one will lose the perception of “self”:
We read in the Path of Purification (XVIII, 25, 26):

As with the assembly of parts

The word “chariot” is countenanced,
So, when the khandhas are present,
“A being” is said in common usage5.

Again, this has been said: “Just as when a space is enclosed with timber and creepers and grass
and clay, there comes to be the term ‘house’, so too, when a space is enclosed with bones and
sinews and flesh and skin, there comes to be the term ‘material form’6.”

Further on (XVIII, 28) we read:

So in many hundred suttas it is only mentality-materiality that is illustrated, not a being, not a
person. Therefore, just as when the component parts such as axles, wheels, frame, poles, etc.
are arranged in a certain way, there comes to be the mere term of common usage “chariot”,
yet in the ultimate sense when each part is examined, there is no chariot—and just as when the
component parts of a house such as wattles, etc. are placed so that they enclose a space in a
certain way, there comes to be the mere term of common usage “house”, yet in the ultimate
sense there is no house,…so too, when there are the five khandhas of clinging, there comes to
be the mere term of common usage “a being”, “a person”, yet in the ultimate sense, when
each component is examined, there is no being as a basis for the assumption “I am” or “I”; in
the ultimate sense there is only mentality-materiality. The vision of one who sees in this way is
called right vision.

5 see Kindred Sayings I, 135

6 see Middle Length Sayings I, number 28
 • 21

If life can be considered as existing in just one moment, it will be less difficult to understand the
truth of non-self. In the Mahå-Niddesa (number 6, Decay) the Buddha explains that life is extremely
short. In the ultimate sense it lasts only as long as one moment of consciousness. Each moment of
consciousness which arises falls away completely, to be succeeded by the next moment which is
different.
We read in the Path of Purification (XX, 72) a quotation from the Mahå-Niddesa text about the
khandhas which are impermanent:

No store of broken states, no future stock;

Those born balance like seeds on needle points.
Break-up of states is fore-doomed at their birth;
Those present decay, unmingled with those past.
They come from nowhere, break up, nowhere go;
Flash in and out, as lightning in the sky.

One is used to thinking of a self who coordinates all the different experiences through the senses
and the mind, a self who can see, hear and think all at the same time, but in reality there can be
only one moment of consciousness at a time which experiences one object. At one moment life is
seeing, at another moment life is hearing and at another moment again life is thinking. Each
moment of our life arises because of its own conditions, exists for an extremely short time and
then falls away. Seeing arises dependant on eye-sense, on colour and on other factors. It exists just
for a moment and then it is gone. Seeing arises and falls away very rapidly, but then there are
other moments of seeing again and this causes us to erroneously believe that seeing lasts. The
seeing of this moment, however, is different from seeing which is just past. Colour which appears
at this moment is different from colour which is just past. How could there be a self who exerts
control over seeing or any other reality? Realities such as kindness and anger arise because of
their own conditions, there is no self who could exert control over them. We would like to speak
kindly, but when there are conditions for anger, it arises. We may tell ourselves to keep silent, but,
before we realize it, angry words have been spoken already. There was anger in the past and this
has been accumulated. That is why it can arise at any time. Anger does not belong to a person, but
it is a reality. We are used to identifying ourselves with realities such as anger, generosity, seeing
or thinking, but it can be learnt that they are mental phenomena, arising because of their own
conditions. We are used to identifying ourselves with our body, but the body consists of changing
physical phenomena, arising because of their own conditions. Bodily phenomena are beyond
control; ageing, sickness and death cannot be prevented. Realities come and go very rapidly, they
can be compared with a flash of lightning. One cannot exercise any power over a flash of lightning,
it is gone as soon as it has been noticed. Evenso, one cannot exert control over the mental and
physical phenomena of one’s life.
The outer appearance of things deludes us as to what is really there: fleeting phenomena which
are beyond control. We read in the commentary to the Dhammapada (Buddhist Legends II, Book IV,
Story 2) about a monk who meditated on a mirage, but was unable to reach the state of perfection.
He decided to visit the Buddha and on his way he saw a mirage. We read that he said to himself:
“Even as this mirage seen in the season of the heat appears substantial to those who are far off,
but vanishes on nearer approach, so also is this existence unsubstantial by reason of birth and
decay.”
We read that he meditated on this mirage. Wearied from his journey he bathed in the river
Aciravatí and then sat near a waterfall:

…As he sat there watching great bubbles of foam rising and bursting, from the force of the
water striking against the rocks, he said to himself, “Just so is this existence also produced and
just so does it burst.” And this he took for his subject of meditation.
The Teacher, seated in his perfumed chamber, saw the Elder and said, “Monk, it is even so. Like
a bubble of foam or a mirage is this existence. Precisely thus is it produced and precisely thus
does it pass away.” And when he had thus spoken, he pronounced the following stanza:
22 • The Buddha’s Path

“He who knows that this body is like foam, he who clearly comprehends that it is of the nature
of a mirage,
Such a man will break the flower-tipped arrows of Måra and will go where the King of Death will
not see him.”

We read that the monk at the conclusion of this stanza reached the state of perfection. Måra
represents all that is evil, he is the King of Death. The person who has eradicated all defilements
will not be reborn, there will not be for him anymore old age, sickness and death, thus, the “King of
Death” will not see him anymore.
Life is like a mirage, we are time and again deceived and tricked by the outer appearance of
things. We believe that what we experience can last, at least for a while, and that there is a self
who experiences things, a lasting personality. We take our wrong perceptions to be true, we have a
distorted view of realities. Through the development of precise understanding of different realities
which appear one at a time, our distorted view can be corrected.
It is difficult to understand and accept that whatever arises does so because of its own conditions
and that it is beyond control. People generally want to control their lives, to take their destinies in
their own hands. It can, however, even on the theoretical level, be understood that it is impossible
to control one’s life. One cannot control one’s body, one cannot control the different moments of
consciousness which arise. When there is, for example, the tasting of a delicious sweet, there is
bound to be clinging to the flavour immediately after having tasted it. Tasting arises dependent on
tasting-sense, on flavour which impinges on tasting-sense and on other conditions; clinging to the
flavour arises because of its own conditions, because of the accumulation of the tendency to
clinging. Different moments of consciousness succeed one another so rapidly that it seems that
several of them can occur at the same time. So long as there is no precise understanding they
cannot be distinguished from each other. In reality only one moment of consciousness can arise at
a time. I will give an example of different moments of consciousness, arising each because of their
own conditions. Someone had given me a huge teddybear which I put in a chair. Time and again it
happened that when I walked past it at dusk there were moments of fear before I realized that it
was a teddybear. There was seeing which experienced colour or visible object impinging on the
eye-sense, and then, before knowing that there was a teddybear, there were many other moments
of consciousness. There can be fear on account of what is seen, before it is known that it is a
harmless object. There were moments of recognizing and defining and when there was the
registration that there was only a toy, the fear was gone. This example illustrates that there are
different conditions for the different moments of consciousness which arise. They arise each
because of their own conditions and in a particular order. They arise and fall away so rapidly that
there would not even be time to control or direct them. There is no mind, no soul which lasts,
merely rapidly changing moments of consciousness.
It is inevitable that questions arise with regard to the implication of the truth of non-self in one’s
life. People generally have questions as to the existence of a free will. If there is no self, only empty
phenomena which appear and disappear, can there be a free will, can one have a free choice in the
taking of decisions in life? Are a free will and self-control not essential elements of human life? The
truth of non-self seems to imply that one’s whole life is determined, even predestined, by
conditions. The answer is that a free will presupposes a lasting personality who can exert power
over his will. Since there is no “self”, merely impermanent phenomena arising because of
conditions, there is no free will independent of conditions. The will or desire to act can be
wholesome at one moment and unwholesome at another moment. When there is anger, there is
volition which is unwholesome, and it can instigate words of anger. When there is generosity, there
is volition which is wholesome, it can motivate deeds of generosity. There can be the decision to do
particular things, such as the development of generosity or of understanding, but there is no
person who decides to do this. There are different moments of decision arising because of different
conditions. What one decides to do depends on past accumulations of wholesomeness and
unwholesomeness, on one’s education, on the friends one associates with. It may be felt that,
since accumulations of wholesomeness and unwholesomeness in the past condition one’s actions,
speech and thoughts today, one would be a helpless victim of these accumulated conditions. What
is the sense of life if everything is determined. So long as there is clinging to a concept of self there
 • 23

is enslavement, no freedom. When understanding is developed which can eliminate the clinging to
a self one becomes really free. Also the development of understanding is conditioned, it is
conditioned by previous moments of understanding, by association with someone who can explain
the Dhamma, by the study of the Buddhist teachings. Whatever we think or do is dependent on
conditions which operate in our life in an intricate way. The seventh book of the Abhidhamma deals
entirely with the different conditions for all mental and physical phenomena of life, with the aim to
help people to have more understanding of these conditions. Even freedom is dependent on
conditions. The more understanding of realities develops, the more will there be the letting go of
clinging to the importance of self, the clinging to wrong perceptions of reality. Eventually all
defilements can be eradicated by right understanding and is this not what can be called the
highest freedom?
In order to be able to understand the truth of non-self, the difference has to be known between
what is real in the ultimate sense and what is real in conventional sense. It is difficult to clearly
know the difference and I will deal with this subject again later on. Seeing, hearing, colour, sound
or thinking are real in the ultimate sense. This does not mean that they are abstract categories.
They have each their own characteristic and they can be directly experienced. Seeing, for example
has a characteristic which is different from the characteristic of hearing. These characteristics do
not change, they are the same for everybody. Seeing is always seeing, hearing is always hearing,
no matter how one names them. Concepts or ideas such as person, world, animal, are conventional
realities one can think of, but they are not real in the ultimate sense. Thinking of concepts such as
person or animal is not necessarily unwholesome; we can think of them in a wholesome way or in
an unwholesome way. However, we delude ourselves if we take concepts for realities. It is essential
to learn the difference between realities and concepts, otherwise there cannot be the development
of the Buddha’s Path.
So long as understanding has not been developed to the stage that the momentary breaking up
of physical phenomena and mental phenomena has been realized, it is impossible to see things as
they really are. We believe that seeing lasts for a while and that what is seen also lasts. Our world
seems to be full of people, we believe that we really see them. In reality seeing doesn’t last and
colour which is seen doesn’t last either. When we “see” people the situation is the same as
watching the projected images on a screen which are rapidly changing. We “see” the image of a
person or a thing, but the outer appearance is misleading. In reality there are many different
moments arising and falling away, succeeding one another. There are processes of seeing,
recognizing, classifying, defining and thinking. When it seems that we see a “whole”, the image of
a person, it is actually thinking which is conditioned by seeing, by the experience of what is visible.
The Buddha spoke about all that can be experienced through the senses and through the mind in
order to help people to develop understanding of realities and to know the truth about them, to
realize them as impermanent, dukkha and not self. Seeing is a reality, but it is not self, hearing is a
reality, but it is not self, thinking is a reality, but it is not self.
A question which may arise is the following: if people do not exist, what is the sense of
developing kindness, which has to be directed towards people, what is the sense of committing
oneself to the improvement of the world? The answer is that knowing the truth about realities is no
impediment to deal with people, to perform deeds of kindness and to commit oneself to the
improvement of the world. Buddhism does not propagate a passive attitude towards the world, on
the contrary, it promotes the performing of one’s tasks with more unselfishness, with more
wholesomeness. We usually think of people in an unwholesome way, with clinging, aversion and
delusion. We cling to an image of ourselves and also to images of other people. We have an image
of how they should behave towards us. When someone else does not conform to the image we
have of him we are disappointed or even angry. Clinging to images we form up conditions many
kinds of defilements, such as conceit, jealousy, avarice or possessiveness. Through the Buddhist
teachings we can learn to think of people in the right way, that is, without clinging to false images.
While we are in the company of people and talk to them there can be the development of
understanding of realities which appear through the senses and the mind. The realisation of the
truth that there is no lasting person or self, merely fleeting phenomena, does not mean that one
has to shun one’s task in society. The Buddha himself was caring for other people, he was thinking
of his disciples, he was intent on the welfare of all beings, but he had no wrong view of an abiding
24 • The Buddha’s Path

person, of a self. He was an example of kindness, patience and compassion. He visited sick monks
and looked after them, he preached Dhamma for forty-five years. He exhorted people to develop
kindness and compassion towards other beings. Even when one has realized the truth of non-self
one can still think of beings, but instead of thinking with clinging, with selfishness, there are
conditions to think more often in the wholesome way, and this is to the benefit of oneself and
others.
There is no lasting substance or self in the combination of fleeting physical phenomena and
mental phenomena we call “person”. Neither is there a “higher self” outside. Some people believe
that what we could call a self will after death be dissolved into a “higher self” into the “All”, or the
cosmos. This is not the Buddha’s teaching. Even nibbåna, the unconditioned reality, is not self. All
conditioned phenomena of life are impermanent, dukkha and not self. The unconditioned reality,
nibbåna, does not have the characteristics of impermanence and dukkha, but it does have the
characteristic of non-self.
We read in the Dhammapada (verse 277-279):

All conditioned realities are impermanent.

Who perceives this fact with wisdom,
Straightaway becomes dispassionate towards suffering.
This is the Path to Purity.

All conditioned realities are dukkha.

Who perceives this fact with wisdom,
Straightaway becomes dispassionate towards suffering.
This is the Path to Purity.

All dhammas are non-self.

Who perceives this fact with wisdom,
Straightaway becomes dispassionate towards suffering.
This is the Path to Purity.

The text states that all dhammas are non-self. Nibbåna is not a conditioned reality, but it is real, it
is dhamma. Therefore, when, the text states that all dhammas are non-self, nibbåna is included.
The development of the eightfold Path is in fact the development of understanding of ultimate
realities: of seeing, colour, hearing, sound, of all that can be experienced through the senses and
the mind. The reader may find it monotonous to read in the texts of the scriptures time and again
about these realities. The aim of the teaching on ultimate realities, however, is the eradication of
the concept of self. The clinging to the concept of self has to be eradicated first before there can be
the elimination of other defilements. When a person can be seen as five khandhas, mere elements,
which are arising and vanishing, there are conditions for being less inclined to attachment and
aversion towards the vicissitudes of life, such as praise and blame, gain and loss, which play such
an important role in our life. We read in “The Simile of the Elephant’s Footprint” (Middle Length
Sayings I, number 28) that the Buddha’s disciple Såriputta explained to the monks realities by way
of elements. He explained that the body should not be seen as “I”, “mine”, or “I am”. We read:

…Your reverences, if others abuse, revile, annoy, vex this monk, he comprehends: “This painful
feeling that has arisen in me is born of sensory impingement on the ear, it has a cause, it is not
without a cause. What is the cause? Sensory impingement is the cause.” He sees that sensory
impingement is impermanent, he sees that feeling… perception…mental activities are
impermanent, he sees that consciousness is impermanent. His mind rejoices, is pleased,
composed and is set on the objects of the element…

We are inclined to blame other people when they speak in a disagreeable way, instead of realizing
that there is merely sound impinging on the ear-sense, elements impinging on elements. So long
as there is clinging to a self realities cannot be seen as mere elements. This sutta makes clear that
it is beneficial to understand the truth of non-self. It can only be realized very gradually, in
 • 25

developing understanding of the realities included in the five khandhas.

26 • The Buddha’s Path

Chapter 4
The mind

The Buddha taught the truth of non-self. What is called the mind or the soul is not a self, but ever-
changing mental elements which are arising and falling away. The implication of this truth is
difficult to grasp. Before coming into contact with Buddhism we considered the mind to be the core
and essence of the human personality. We considered the mind as that which thinks, takes
decisions and charts the course of our life. In order to understand the Buddha’s teaching on the
mind as non-self, it is necessary to have a more detailed knowledge of the mind. The word mind is
misleading since it is associated with particular concepts of Western philosophy, it is usually
associated merely with thinking. The mind according to the Buddhist teaching experiences or
cognizes an object, and this has to be taken in its widest sense. I prefer therefore to use the Påli
term citta (pronounced “chitta”). Citta is derived from the Påli term “cinteti”, being aware or
thinking. Citta is conscious or aware of an object.
“Mind”, “soul” or “spirit” are “conventional realities”. Through the Buddhist teachings we learn
about ultimate realities as I explained in the preceding chapter. All mental activities we used to
ascribe to “our mind” are carried out by citta, not by one citta, but by many different cittas. Cittas
are moments of consciousness which are impermanent, they are arising and falling away, succeed-
ing one another. Our life is an unbroken series of cittas. If there were no citta, we would not be
alive, we could not think, read, study, act or speak. When we walk or when we stretch out our hand
to take hold of something, it is citta which conditions our movements. It is citta which perceives the
world outside; if there were no citta nothing could appear. The world outside appears through eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. We think of what is seen, heard or experienced through
the other senses. There are not merely cittas which think, the cittas which think are alternated with
cittas which see, hear or experience objects through the other senses. When we touch something
which is hard or soft, there are cittas which experience tangible object through the bodysense, and
then there are cittas which think of what was touched, a table or a chair.
Before we studied the Buddhist teachings we did not consider the mind as a reality which can see
or hear. The Buddha taught that also seeing and hearing are cittas. There is a great variety of cittas
which each experience an object. The citta which sees, seeing-consciousness, experiences an
object: visible object or colour. It experiences visible object through the eye-sense. Eye-sense is the
“doorway” through which seeing-consciousness experiences visible object. Hearing-consciousness
experiences sound through the doorway of the ear-sense. Seeing and hearing are entirely different
cittas which are depending on different conditions. Cittas experience objects through the doorways
of eye, ear, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. Before studying the Buddhist teachings we did not
pay attention to seeing as being a citta experiencing visible object through the eye-door, or to
hearing as being a citta experiencing sound through the ear-door. Cittas, objects and doorways are
ultimate realities taught by the Buddha.
One may doubt the usefulness of knowing details on cittas, objects and doorways. It is important
to know more thoroughly the phenomena of our life which are occurring all the time. We are
deluded as to the truth when we believe that they are lasting and that they are “self”, or belonging
to a “self”, that we can exert control over them. The Buddha taught that they are impermanent,
dukkha and non-self. These characteristics are not abstract categories, they pertain to seeing, eye-
sense, visible object, to all phenomena which are arising and falling away from moment to
moment. Since understanding of the truth of these phenomena can only gradually develop, we
should begin to investigate them more closely. In the ultimate sense there are merely mental
phenomena and physical phenomena. So long as they cannot be distinguished from each other,
there cannot be a precise knowledge of them.
The citta which sees, seeing-consciousness, is a mental phenomenon, it experiences an object. It
is dependent on eye-sense, which is a physical phenomenon. Eye-sense does not see but it has the
quality of receiving colour, so that seeing-consciousness can experience that colour. Colour or
visible object is also a physical phenomenon, it cannot experience anything. Seeing, hearing and
 • 27

the experiences through the other senses are dependent on conditions. If there were no doorways
the different sense objects could not be experienced, and consequently what we call “the world
outside” could not appear. When we are fast asleep, without dreaming, the world does not appear.
We do not know who our parents or friends are, we do not know the place where we are living.
When we wake up the world around us appears again. We can verify that there is impingement of
the sense objects on the appropriate senses and this is the condition for the experience of the
world around us. There are cittas which see, hear and experience the other sense objects, and
these experiences condition thinking about the world of people and things. We are usually
absorbed in our thoughts concerning the people and things around us and we do not realize that it
is citta which thinks. We could not think of “self”, person or possessions, which are conventional
realities, if there were not the ultimate realities of colour, sound and the other sense objects and
the cittas which experience them through the appropriate doorways.
There can be merely one citta at a time, experiencing one object. It seems that several cittas can
occur at the same time, but in reality this is not so. Different cittas, such as seeing and hearing,
experience different objects and are dependent on different doorways. Seeing, hearing and
thinking are different cittas arising at different moments. We can notice that seeing is not hearing,
that they are different experiences. If they would occur at the same time we would not be able to
know that they are different. Cittas arise and fall away very rapidly; the citta which has fallen away
is immediately succeeded by the next citta. It seems that seeing, hearing or thinking can last for a
while, but in reality they exist merely for an extremely short moment.
There is a great variety of cittas which arise because of their appropriate conditions. There are
cittas which see, hear, experience objects through the other senses and think about these objects.
The cittas which see, hear, smell, taste or experience an object through the bodysense neither like
nor dislike the object, they do not react to the object in an unwholesome or a wholesome way.
These types of citta are neither kusala, wholesome, nor akusala, unwholesome. However, shortly
after they have fallen away there are cittas which react to the objects experienced through the
senses either in an unwholesome way or in a wholesome way. Thus, there are kusala cittas, there
are akusala cittas, and there are cittas which are neither kusala nor akusala. Time and again there
is seeing or hearing and on account of the object which is experienced there are cittas which are
either kusala or akusala. When there is thinking, there is either kusala citta or akusala citta. There
are also cittas which motivate good or bad actions and speech. When we give a present there are
wholesome cittas, kusala cittas with generosity which motivate our giving. When we speak harsh
words, there are unwholesome cittas, akusala cittas with anger which motivate our speech.
Different inclinations to kusala and akusala have been accumulated. Accumulated tendencies are
like microbes, they are lying dormant, but they can appear at any time when there is an
opportunity for them to appear. In this connection the term “subconsciousness” is used in Western
psychology, designating that part of the mind which is not ordinarily known, but which shows itself
for example in dreams. The term subconsciousness is misleading, it implies something static. In
reality there are accumulated tendencies, but they are not static, they are accumulating from
moment to moment; they are conditions for the arising of kusala citta or akusala citta later on.
Each moment of kusala citta or akusala citta arising today is a condition for the arising of kusala
citta or akusala citta in the future. Each citta which arises falls away, but since it is succeeded by
the next citta without any interval, the process of accumulation can go on from moment to
moment.
There are different types of kusala citta and of akusala citta. It is important to learn more about
them in order to understand ourselves, the way we behave towards others in action and speech,
and the way we react towards pleasant and unpleasant events. It is citta which motivates good
deeds and evil deeds. We read in the Middle Length Sayings (II, number 78, Discourse to
Samaùamaùèikå) that the Buddha explained to the carpenter Pañcakaòga about akusala cittas and
kusala cittas:

And which, carpenter, are the unskilled moral habits? Unskilled deed of body, unskilled deed of
speech, evil mode of livelihood—these, carpenter, are called unskilled moral habits. And how,
carpenter, do these unskilled moral habits originate? Their origination is spoken of too. It should
be answered that the origination is in the citta. Which citta? For the citta is manifold, various,
28 • The Buddha’s Path

diverse. That citta which has attachment, aversion, ignorance—originating from this are
unskilled moral habits…

The Buddha also said of skilled moral habits that they originate from the citta, the citta which is
without attachment, aversion and ignorance. Thus, all evil deeds originate from akusala citta and
all wholesome deeds originate from kusala citta.
Akusala can be described as an unhealthy state of mind, as unskilled, blameworthy, faulty,
unprofitable, as having unhappy results. Kusala can be described as a healthy state of mind, as
skilful, faultless, profitable, as having happy results.
We read in the above quoted sutta that the citta is manifold, various, diverse. The akusala citta
with attachment is quite different from kusala citta with generosity. What types of reality are
attachment and generosity? Are they cittas or are they other types of reality? They are mental
qualities, mental factors which can accompany citta. Attachment is an unwholesome mental
quality, a defilement, whereas generosity is a wholesome mental quality. Citta can think, motivate
actions or speech for example, with attachment, with anger, with generosity, with compassion.
There is only one citta at a time, but it is accompanied by several mental factors or mental co-
adjuncts, and these condition the citta to be so various. Greed, avarice, anger, jealousy or conceit
are unwholesome mental factors which can accompany akusala citta. Generosity, loving-kindness,
compassion or wisdom are wholesome mental factors which can accompany kusala citta. The
mental factors which accompany citta in various combinations arise and fall away together with
the citta.
The commentary to the first book of the Abhidhamma, the Expositor (I, Part II, Chapter I, 67),
uses a simile of the king and his retinue. Just as the king does not come without his attendants, the
citta does not arise alone but is accompanied by several mental factors. As to the cittas which arise
all the time in daily life, it can be said that citta is the chief, the principal, in knowing the object,
and that the mental factors assist the citta. The citta which thinks, for example with generosity, is
the chief in knowing the object, and generosity assists the citta to think in the wholesome way. The
citta which thinks with jealousy is the chief in knowing the object, and jealousy assists the citta to
think in the unwholesome way.
Among the unwholesome mental factors which accompany akusala citta there are three which
are called “roots”, namely: attachment, aversion and ignorance. Among the wholesome mental
factors which accompany kusala citta there are three roots, namely: non-attachment, non-aversion
and wisdom. The word “root” is used in the Buddhist teachings, since it is the firm support for the
citta, being an important condition, just as the root of a tree is the firm support for the tree, the
means of providing saps, necessary for its growth. The unwholesome roots of attachment, aversion
and ignorance which can be associated with akusala citta have many shades and degrees; they
can be coarse or more subtle. Attachment can be so strong that it motivates bad deeds such as
stealing or lying, but it can also be of a more subtle degree, a degree of attachment which does not
motivate any deed. Attachment can be expecting something pleasant for oneself, wishing, liking,
longing, affection, self-indulgence, lust, possessiveness or covetousness. Even when we hope that
other people like us, when we wish to have a good name, there are akusala cittas rooted in
attachment. When we, for example, give a present to someone else there is generosity, but there
can also be moments of hoping or expecting to gain something in return for our gift. Such
expectations are motivated by clinging. Akusala is not the same as what is generally meant by sin
or immorality. Also the more subtle degrees of attachment which do not motivate bad deeds are
akusala, they are unhelpful, harmful. They are accumulated from moment to moment and thus
attachment increases evermore. Clinging is deeply rooted and it is important to know our deep
rooted tendencies. Affection is a form of attachment which is in society not regarded as harmful.
One feels affection for parents, relatives, children or friends. It should be understood, however, that
when there is affection, there is actually clinging to one’s own pleasant feeling, derived from being
in the company of a loved one. When there is mourning for someone who has died, there is
sadness conditioned by clinging to oneself. Affection conditions fear of loss, aversion and sadness.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Part VIII, Kindred Sayings about Headmen, §11) that the
Buddha, while staying at Uruvelakappa, explained to the headman Bhadragaka that clinging is the
cause of dukkha. We read that Bhadragaka said:
 • 29

“Wonderful, lord! Strange it is, lord, how well said is this saying of the Exalted One:
‘Whatsoever dukkha arising comes upon me,—all that is rooted in desire. Desire is indeed the
root of dukkha.’
Now, lord, there is my boy,—Ciravåsi is his name. He lodges away from here. At the time of
rising up, lord, I send off a man, saying: ‘Go, my man, inquire of Ciravåsi.’ Then, lord, till that man
comes back again, I am in an anxious state, fearing lest some sickness may have befallen
Ciravåsi.”
“Now, what do you think, headman? Would sorrow and grief, woe, lamentation and despair
come upon you if your boy Ciravåsi were slain or imprisoned or had loss or blame?”
“Lord, if such were to befall my boy Ciravåsi, how should I not have sorrow and grief, woe,
lamentation and despair?”
“But, headman, you must regard it in this manner: ‘Whatsoever dukkha arising comes upon me,
—all that is rooted in desire, is joined to desire. Desire is indeed the root of dukkha.’ ”

It is impossible to be without clinging so long as the state of perfection has not been reached. We
cannot force ourselves not to have clinging, but it is beneficial to realize when there is clinging,
even when it is of a subtle degree, and when there is detachment. There is attachment when we
like landscapes, when we enjoy shopping or talking to friends, or even when we get up in order to
fetch a glass of water. Attachment can be accompanied by pleasant feeling or by indifferent
feeling. When there is indifferent feeling there can still be attachment, but we may not notice it.
Aversion is another unwholesome root. Aversion dislikes the object which is experienced, whereas
attachment likes it. Aversion cannot arise at the same time as attachment, but it is conditioned by
it. Aversion has many shades and degrees, it can be dissatisfaction, frustration, disappointment,
dejection, sadness, fear, grief, despair, revulsion, resentment, moodiness or irritability. Unpleasant
feeling invariably goes together with this unwholesome root. When there is even a slight feeling of
uneasiness there is citta rooted in aversion. When we have envy or stinginess there is citta rooted
in aversion. In the case of envy, one dislikes it that someone else enjoys pleasant things, one
wants to obtain them for oneself. In the case of avarice one does not want to share one’s
possessions with someone else. Aversion can also motivate killing, harsh speech rudeness or
cruelty.
Another unwholesome root is ignorance. This is not the same as what is meant by ignorance in
conventional language. In Buddhism ignorance has a specific meaning: it is ignorance of the
characteristic of kusala and of akusala, of the truth of non-self, of the four noble Truths, in short, of
ultimate realities. There are many degrees of ignorance. Ignorance is the root of all evil. Whenever
there is citta rooted in attachment and citta rooted in aversion, there is also the root of ignorance.
When one hears a pleasant sound, attachment is likely to arise and then there is ignorance as well.
When one hears a harsh sound, aversion is likely to arise and then there is ignorance as well.
Ignorance does not know the realities which arise, it does not know that attachment and aversion
are akusala. Ignorance is like darkness or blindness. When there is ignorance the real nature of
realities is covered up.
The three wholesome roots of non-attachment, non-aversion and wisdom have many shades and
degrees. Non-attachment can be unselfishness, generosity, renunciation or dispassion. Each kusala
citta is rooted in non-attachment. Whenever there is kusala citta, there is no clinging at that
moment but detachment. Each kusala citta is rooted not only in non-attachment, it is also rooted in
non-aversion. Non-aversion has many degrees: it can be loving-kindness, forbearance or
endurance. Loving-kindness is directed towards beings, and forbearance or endurance can also
pertain to situations and things. When the temperature is too hot or too cold there is bound to be
dislike. When the benefit of forbearance is seen, one is not disturbed by the temperature and one
does not complain. Wisdom is the third wholesome root. Wisdom does not accompany each kusala
citta. Wisdom is a condition for the arising of kusala citta more often. Wisdom or understanding in
Buddhism is understanding of realities. It has many degrees, it can be theoretical understanding of
realities or direct understanding of the reality which appears. It can be understanding of kusala as
kusala, of akusala as akusala, of good and evil deeds and their results, of the truth of non-self, of
the four noble Truths. Understanding can be gradually developed. The direct understanding of
30 • The Buddha’s Path

realities leads to the eradication of defilements.

When there is kusala citta there are no attachment, aversion or ignorance with the citta. Kusala
citta motivates wholesome deeds and speech. It depends on accumulations of kusala and akusala
in the past what type of citta arises. Good friends or bad friends one associates with are also an
important condition for the arising of kusala cittas or akusala cittas. When one associates with a
wise friend there are conditions for the arising of kusala citta more often. There are many more
akusala cittas arising than kusala cittas because of the accumulated defilements which condition
them, but this is unnoticed. Just as we do not notice the amount of dirt on our hands until we wash
them, evenso do we not know the amount of defilements until understanding of realities is
developed.
Citta experiences pleasant and unpleasant objects through the senses and through the mind-
door. When a pleasant object is experienced, attachment is likely to arise and when an unpleasant
object is experienced, aversion is likely to arise. It is natural that pleasant objects are liked and
unpleasant objects are disliked. It seems that we are ruled by the objects which are experienced.
The pleasant object or unpleasant object is a condition for the citta which arises, but there is
nothing compulsive in the nature of the object that could determine the reaction towards it. It
depends on one’s accumulated inclinations whether one reacts in a wholesome way or in an
unwholesome way to the pleasant and unpleasant objects which are experienced through the
senses and through the mind-door. After seeing, hearing or the experience of objects through the
other senses there can be “unwise attention” or “wise attention” to the object. When there is
unwise attention to the object, there are akusala cittas, and when there is wise attention to the
object, there are kusala cittas. When there is a pleasant object, there can be attachment and in
that case there is unwise attention. We may, for example, only be intent on our own enjoyment of
the pleasant object and not inclined to share it with others. Whereas, when there is wise attention,
we are inclined to share a pleasant object with others, and then there are kusala cittas with
generosity. When there is an unpleasant object, there can be aversion and thus there is unwise
attention. Someone else may for example speak harsh words to us and most of the time we dislike
such speech, we even blame that person for his harsh speech. Aversion, however, does not
necessarily have to arise. When it is remembered that the person who speaks harshly makes
himself unhappy there may be compassion instead of anger or aversion. When there is wise
attention there can be forbearance and patience even when the object is unpleasant.
It is beneficial to learn more details about the many different types of citta: kusala citta, akusala
citta and citta which is neither kusala nor akusala. When there is ignorance of akusala and kusala,
the disadvantage of akusala and the benefit of kusala cannot be seen. We long for pleasant objects
and we dislike unpleasant objects. Through the Buddhist teachings one learns that whatever arises
is dependent on conditions. Sometimes there are conditions for the experience of pleasant objects
and sometimes for the experience of unpleasant objects, nobody can exert control over the cittas
which arise. Pleasant objects cannot last and therefore clinging to them will only lead to frustration
and sadness. Time and again there is the arising of attachment, aversion and ignorance on account
of objects experienced through eyes, ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. There is
enslavement to objects which arise and then fall away immediately. When the foolishness of such
infatuation is realized, there are conditions to develop understanding of the realities of life. One will
understand that there are countless akusala cittas arising on account of the objects experienced
through the senses, akusala cittas which were not noticed before. When the characteristics of
kusala and akusala are seen more clearly, there are conditions for the development of the roots of
non-attachment, non-aversion and wisdom. These are the roots of kusala cittas which motivate the
abstaining from unwholesome actions and the performing of wholesome deeds and speech.
As we have seen, there is a great variety of cittas. All cittas have in common that they cognize an
object, but cittas are different as they are accompanied by different mental factors and experience
different objects. Seeing always experiences visible object and hearing always experiences sound,
but the reactions towards the objects and the thoughts about them vary for different people. When
someone else, for example, speaks harsh words, there is the hearing of sound, and afterwards
there is thinking of the meaning of the words, thinking of the person who speaks, thinking of
conventional realities. Each person lives in his own world of thinking. We react to what is
experienced not only with our thoughts, but also with action and speech. At the moments we do
 • 31

not perform good deeds or we do not develop understanding, we think, act and speak with akusala
cittas. Citta determines our behaviour, citta is called in the scriptures “the leader of the world”. We
read in the Kindred Sayings (I, Sagåthå-vagga, Chapter I, The Devas, Part 7, §2, Citta), the following
verse:

Now what is that whereby the world is led?

And what is that whereby it is drawn along?
And what is that above all other things
That brings everything beneath its sway?

It is citta whereby the world is led,

And by citta it is drawn along,
And citta it is above all other things
That brings everything beneath its sway.

In order to grasp the nature of our own life and the lives of others, it is essential to understand
what citta is. In order to have more understanding of what citta is, the difference between
conventional truth and ultimate truth has to be known. Conventional truth is the truth we were
always familiar with before we studied the Buddhist teachings; it is the conventional world of
person, of “self”, of things which exist. Ultimate truth are mental phenomena and physical
phenomena. Cittas are mental phenomena, they experience something. Bodily phenomena, such
as the sense organs, and physical phenomena outside do not experience anything. Citta can
experience both mental phenomena and physical phenomena. The physical phenomena and
mental phenomena of our life arise, exist just for an extremely short moment and then vanish.
Ultimate realities have each their own characteristic which can be directly experienced when it
appears, without the need to think about it. By theoretical understanding we will not know what
citta is. Only if there can be the development of direct understanding of the citta appearing at this
moment, no matter it is seeing, hearing or thinking, will we truly know what citta is. When the
diversity of cittas and their manifold conditions are seen more clearly the truth of non-self will
gradually be better understood. One will be motivated to seek the elimination of delusion about the
realities of one’s life, of the wrong view of self, of all forms of clinging, aversion and ignorance.
32 • The Buddha’s Path

Chapter 5
Deeds and their Results

There are many types of cittas, moments of consciousness. Cittas can be kusala, wholesome,
akusala, unwholesome, or neither kusala nor akusala. The sense-impressions such as seeing or
hearing are neither kusala nor akusala, but shortly after they have arisen and fallen away there are
cittas which react to the object experienced by the sense-impressions, and they react either in a
wholesome way or in an unwholesome way. There are more often akusala cittas which can be
rooted in attachment, aversion or ignorance, than kusala cittas which are rooted in non-attachment
and non-aversion, and which may be rooted in wisdom as well. Akusala cittas can motivate evil
deeds and kusala cittas can motivate good deeds. We read in the Gradual Sayings (V, Book of the
Tens, Ch. 17, §8, Due to greed, hatred and delusion) that the Buddha said to the monks:
Monks, the taking of life is threefold, I declare. It is motivated by greed, hatred and delusion.
Taking what is not given…sexual misconduct…falsehood…spiteful speech…harsh language…
idle babble…covetousness…ill-will and wrong view is threefold, I declare. It is motivated by
greed, hatred and delusion.
Thus, monks, greed is the originator of a chain of causal action, hatred is the originator of a
chain of causal action, delusion is the originator of a chain of causal action. By destroying greed,
hatred and delusion comes the breaking up of the chain of causal action.
We read about a “chain of causal action”. The Påli term kamma, also known in its Sanskrit form
karma, literally means action or deed. A good deed brings a pleasant result and a bad deed brings
an unpleasant result. The results of our own deeds come to us sooner or later, this is the law of
kamma and result, and nobody can alter the operation of this law. The Buddha’s teaching on
kamma and result is difficult to grasp. It is not a dogma one has to accept. There can be theoretical
understanding of kamma and result, but by theoretical understanding this law cannot be fully
comprehended. Only by direct understanding of the physical phenomena and mental phenomena
of our life the condition of kamma which produces result can be seen more clearly. Therefore it
should not be expected that the law of kamma and result can be fully understood when we begin
to investigate the Buddha’s teaching on this subject.
A deed done in the past can produce result later on. Kamma can be compared to a seed
developing into a tree which bears fruit later on. Evenso, a bad deed, for example killing, can
produce an unpleasant result such as illness or pain. A good deed, for example a deed of
generosity, can produce a pleasant result, such as the receiving of beautiful things. When we think
of a deed and its result we usually think of a deed which has an effect on someone else. In order to
understand the law of kamma and its result we should not think in terms of the conventional
realities of persons and situations, but we should have understanding of the ultimate realities of
cittas and their accompanying mental factors and of physical phenomena, realities which arise and
then fall away immediately. We cannot be sure whether someone else performs kusala kamma or
not from the outward appearance of things. We may see someone else giving things away but
there may not be the performing of a deed of generosity. The giving may be motivated by selfish
motives, and then giving is not kusala kamma. It is the wholesome or unwholesome intention or
volition which constitutes kusala kamma or akusala kamma. The terms kusala kamma and akusala
kamma can be used in the sense of good deeds and evil deeds, but when we are more precise
kamma is the intention or volition motivating deeds performed through bodily action, through
speech and through the mind. When we speak of the different types of kusala kamma and akusala
kamma we should remember that kamma is intention or volition, a mental reality. Kamma is a
mental factor accompanying citta, and it arises and falls away together with the citta.
How can a deed performed in the past produce its result later on? Kamma, or the volition which
accompanies the citta when a good deed or a bad deed is performed, falls away immediately
together with the citta. However, since each citta which falls away is succeeded by the next citta,
kamma can be accumulated from moment to moment. Its dynamic force is carried on and when
 • 33

the time is ripe it can produce its result. That is the chain of causal action we read about in the
above quoted sutta. The same sutta mentions the kinds of akusala kamma performed through
body, speech and mind. Not every akusala citta is of the intensity of akusala kamma which can
produce a result. When there is clinging to a pleasant sight or sound there is akusala citta but not
akusala kamma which could produce a result. Clinging, however, has many degrees. It can be more
subtle or it can be strong, such as covetousness, the desire for someone else’s property. This has
the intensity of akusala kamma when one plans to take away what belongs to someone else.
Kusala kamma comprises abstaining from evil deeds as well as the performing of good deeds,
deeds of generosity and mental development, such as the study of the Buddha’s teachings and the
development of understanding of the realities of our life.
Moments of happiness and misery alternate in our life. The experiences of pleasant objects and
unpleasant objects through the senses do not occur by chance, they must have a cause: kamma is
the cause. We read in the Gradual Sayings (IV, Book of the Eights, Chapter I, §5, Worldly Failings)
that the Buddha said to the monks:

Monks, these eight worldly conditions obsess the world; the world revolves round these eight
worldly conditions. What eight?
Gain and loss, fame and obscurity, blame and praise, bodily ease and pain.
Monks, these eight worldly conditions obsess the world, the world revolves round these eight
worldly conditions.

Gain, loss, obscurity and fame,

And censure, praise, bodily ease, pain-
These are man’s states—impermanent,
Of time and subject unto change.
And recognizing these the sage,
Alert, discerns these things of change;
Fair things his mind never agitate,
Nor foul his spirit vex. Gone are
Compliance and hostility,
Gone up in smoke and are no more.
The goal he knows. In measure full
He knows the stainless, griefless state.
Beyond becoming has he gone.

The person who has reached the state of perfection has equanimity towards the vicissitudes of life.
He is freed from the chain of causal action, there is no more rebirth for him. So long as one is full of
attachment, aversion and ignorance, one wants pleasant objects and dislikes unpleasant objects.
However, the experience of pleasant objects and unpleasant objects is not in any one’s power, it
depends on kamma which produces result. One day there is gain, the next day loss; one day there
is praise, the next day blame. Sometimes we are healthy, sometimes we suffer from sickness and
pain. The experience of pleasant or unpleasant objects through the senses is not a reward or a
punishment. The idea of reward or punishment stems from the conception of a supreme being, a
God, who is the judge of man’s deeds. The cause of the experience of pleasant and unpleasant
objects through the senses is within ourselves: it is kamma. There is seeing and hearing of pleasant
and unpleasant objects time and again. Seeing and hearing are the results of kusala kamma or
akusala kamma. These results arise just for a moment and then they fall away. When we define
what was seen or heard or think of the nature of the object, the moments of result have fallen
away already. It is hard to tell whether seeing or hearing is the result of kusala kamma or of
akusala kamma. Thinking of what was seen or heard is not result; when there is thinking there is
kusala citta or akusala citta, but mostly akusala citta. In order to understand the ultimate realities
of kamma and its result we have to be very precise. Seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and the
experience of tangible object through the bodysense are cittas which are results of kamma. Our
reactions in a wholesome or in an unwholesome way to the objects which are experienced are not
results of kamma, they are kusala citta or akusala citta. Kusala citta and akusala citta can be called
34 • The Buddha’s Path

the active side of life, since they can perform good deeds and bad deeds which will cause the
appropriate results later on. The cittas which are results of one’s deeds can be called the passive
side of life. We have to receive results, whether we like it or not.
Cittas arise because of their own conditions, they are beyond control. Sometimes it seems that
we ourselves can cause the enjoyment of pleasant objects. However, there have to be the right
conditions for the enjoyment of pleasant objects and enjoyment cannot last as long as we wish. We
can enjoy pleasant music by turning on the radio, but kamma is the cause of hearing, not a self. It
also depends on conditions whether we can afford a radio or not. One may live in poverty and not
be able to afford a radio. It is due to kamma if one is born into a poor family and has to live in
uncomfortable circumstances. It is due to kamma if one is born into a family which is well-to-do
and if one can live in comfort.
In order to understand that birth into pleasant surroundings and in unpleasant surroundings is
the result of kamma we have to go back to the first moment of a lifespan. There was a citta at the
first moment of our life, and this is the rebirth-consciousness. This citta must have a cause and the
cause is in the past, it is kamma. Birth is result, we could not select our parents, nor time and place
of our birth. The first moment of life is called rebirth-consciousness because there is not only this
present life, there were also past lives. It is difficult to understand that kamma of the past produces
the birth of a being. We can notice, however, that people are born into different circumstances,
with different bodily features and different mental capacities. This does not happen by chance,
there must be conditions for such differences. There are different kammas which cause different
kinds of birth. In the “Discourse on the Lesser Analysis of Deeds” (Middle Length Sayings III,
number 135) we read that Subha asks the Buddha what the cause is of the different results human
beings experience from the time of their birth:

“Now, good Gotama, what is the cause, what is the reason that lowness and excellence are to
be seen among human beings while they are in human form? For, good Gotama, human beings
of short lifespan are to be seen and those of long lifespan; those of many and those of few
illnesses; those who are ugly, those who are beautiful; those who are of little account, those of
great account; those who are poor, those who are wealthy; those who are of lowly families,
those of high families; those who are weak in wisdom, those who are full of wisdom.”

The Buddha answered Subha:

”Deeds are one’s own, brahman youth, beings are heirs to deeds, deeds are matrix, deeds are
kin, deeds are arbiters. Deed divides beings, that is to say by lowness and excellence.”

Some people are born in countries where there is war and famine, others in countries where there
is peace and prosperity. This does not happen by chance; kamma, a deed performed in the past, is
the cause. If kamma is the cause of birth, what is then the role of the parents? Parents are also a
condition for the birth of a child, but they are not the only condition. Kamma produces at the first
moment of life the citta which is the rebirth-consciousness. The new human being which comes to
life consists of mental phenomena and bodily phenomena. The physical phenomena which arise at
the first moment of life must also have a cause: kamma is the cause. Thus, at the first moment of
life there is mental result as well as physical result of kamma. Kamma is not the only factor from
which bodily phenomena originate. There are four factors in all: kamma, citta, temperature and
nutrition. After kamma has produced bodily phenomena at the first moment of life, the other
factors also produce bodily phenomena. As to the factor of temperature, there has to be the right
temperature for the new being in the womb in order to develop. When the mother takes food,
nutrition is suffused in the body and then nutrition is also producing bodily phenomena for the
being in the womb. Citta is a condition as well for bodily phenomena arising throughout our life. If
there were no citta we could not stay alive, we could not move, we could not perform any
activities. If we remember the four factors which produce bodily phenomena, namely kamma, citta,
temperature and nutrition, it will help us to understand that the body does not belong to a self.
What we call “my body” consists of bodily phenomena which arise because of different conditions
and then fall away.
Kamma produces bodily phenomena at the first moment of a lifespan and also throughout life. It
 • 35

is kamma which produces the sense organs of eyesense, earsense, smellingsense, tastingsense
and bodysense. The sense organs which are the physical results of kamma are the means for the
experiences which are the mental results of kamma: seeing, hearing and the other sense
impressions. Thus, kamma produces result at the first moment of life, it produces the births of
beings, and in the course of life it also produces pleasant and unpleasant results in the form of
experiences through the senses.
Kamma can cause rebirth in unhappy and in happy planes of existence. Besides the human plane
of existence there are other planes of existence. Birth in an unhappy plane is the result of akusala
kamma and birth in a happy plane is the result of kusala kamma. Hell planes and the animal world,
for example, are unhappy planes. The human plane and heavenly planes are happy planes. It may
be felt by some that the existence of hell planes and heavenly planes is mythology. It should be
remembered that conventional terms are used to designate different degrees of unpleasant results
and pleasant results of kamma. Birth in a hell plane is an unhappy rebirth because in such a plane
there are conditions for the experience of intense suffering. Birth in a heavenly plane is a happy
rebirth because in such a plane there are conditions for the experience of pleasant objects. Life in a
hell plane or in a heavenly plane does not last forever. There will be rebirth again and it depends
on kamma in which plane rebirth-consciousness will arise. Birth in the human plane is the result of
kusala kamma, but in the course of life there are conditions for the experience of both pleasant and
unpleasant objects through the senses, depending on the different kammas which produce them.
It may happen that someone who has obtained wealth with dishonest means lives in luxury. How
can bad deeds have pleasant results? It is not possible for us to find out which deed of the past
produces its corresponding result at present. A criminal can receive pleasant results but these are
caused by good deeds. His bad deeds will produce unpleasant results but it is not known when. In
the course of many lives good deeds and bad deeds were performed and we do not know when it is
the right time for a particular kamma to produce result. A good deed or a bad deed may not
produce result during the life it was performed, but it may produce result in the following life or
even after countless lives have passed. In the scriptures it is said that when kamma has ripened its
fruit is experienced. We read in the Dhammapada, (verses 119 and 120):

Even an evil-doer sees good so long as evil ripens not; but when it bears fruit, then he sees the
evil results.
Even a good person sees evil so long as good ripens not; but when it bears fruit, then the good
one sees the good results.

Several other conditions are needed for akusala kamma or kusala kamma to produce their
appropriate results. The time when one is born or the place where one is born can be a favourable
or an unfavourable condition for kusala kamma or for akusala kamma to produce result. For
example, when one lives in a time of war there are more conditions for akusala kamma and less
conditions for kusala kamma to produce result. A particular kamma may be prevented from
producing result when there is a very powerful counteractive kamma which has preponderance. For
example, when someone is wealthy and lives in comfort, there are pleasant results for him, caused
by kusala kamma. However, he may suddenly lose his wealth and be forced to live in miserable
circumstances. His loss is caused by akusala kamma which has ripened so that it can produce
unpleasant result. This is an example which shows that the way different kinds of kamma operate
in our life is most intricate.
Time and again there is result in the form of the experience of pleasant and unpleasant objects
through the senses and after such experiences there are kusala cittas or akusala cittas, but more
often akusala cittas. There is likely to be attachment to pleasant objects and aversion towards
unpleasant objects. Like and dislike alternate in our life. Attachment and aversion are of many
degrees, they do not always have the intensity to motivate evil deeds. In that case there is no
accumulation of kamma, but there is accumulation of defilements. Attachment and aversion arise
and then fall away, but the conditions for these defilements are accumulated so that they can arise
again. There are different types of condition which operate in our life. Kamma is one type of
condition, it can produce result in the form of rebirth, or, in the course of life, in the form of the
experience of pleasant or unpleasant objects through the senses. Defilement is another type of
36 • The Buddha’s Path

condition, it is the condition for the arising again of defilements. On account of pleasant and
unpleasant results of kamma defilements may arise which are so strong that they motivate the
committing of evil deeds. Thus, the result of kamma can condition defilements and defilements can
condition the committing of akusala kamma which will in its turn produce result. This process is like
an ever-turning wheel.
The Buddha’s teaching on past lives, the present life and future lives, on the cycle of birth and
death, is difficult to grasp. We can have more understanding of this teaching if we can see that, in
the ultimate sense, life lasts merely as long as one moment of citta which arises and falls away. We
are used to thinking in conventional terms of person, situation, life and death. In the conventional
sense life starts at the moment of conception and it ends at the moment of death. In the ultimate
sense there is birth and death at each moment a citta arises and falls away. The citta which has
fallen away conditions the arising of the next citta. There has to be a citta arising at each moment,
there is no moment without citta. Cittas arise in succession in the current of life. When the end of a
lifespan approaches, the last citta, the dying-consciousness, falls away, but it is succeeded by the
next citta. That citta is the first citta of a new life, namely the rebirth-consciousness. There can be
theoretical understanding of death and rebirth, but all doubts can only be eliminated by the
development of direct understanding of the mental phenomena and physical phenomena which
arise and fall away. If there is direct understanding of the conditions for the citta which arises at
this moment, doubt about rebirth can be eliminated. Just as the citta of this moment is succeeded
by the next citta, evenso the last citta of this life will be succeeded by a following citta, the rebirth-
consciousness.
It is dukkha to be in the cycle of birth and death. Why do we have to receive an unpleasant result
of a deed committed in a past life? In a past life one was another being, different from what one is
now. But why should we receive the result of a deed committed in the past by another being? A
deed in the past which produces result now was committed by a being from which we have
originated. It is indeed sorrowful that unpleasant results have to be received for evil deeds which
may have been committed many lives ago. This is the law of kamma and its result, and it operates,
whether we like it or not. A person in this life is different from what he was in a past life, but all that
was accumulated in the past, kusala kamma and akusala kamma, defilements and good qualities,
all accumulations have been carried on from moment to moment and they condition what is called
the present personality. The Path of Purification (XVII, 167) explains:
And with the stream of continuity there is neither identity nor otherness. For if there were
absolute identity in a stream of continuity, there would be no forming of curd from milk. And yet
if there were absolute otherness, the curd would not be derived from the milk… So neither
absolute identity nor absolute otherness should be assumed here.
The rebirth-consciousness has not been transferred from the past life to this life, it is completely
new. However, the conditions for its arising stem from the past. The Path of Purification (166)
illustrates this with similes. An echo is not the same as the sound but it originates from the sound.
The impression of a seal stamped on wax is not the same as the seal itself, but it originates from
the seal. These similes clarify that the present life is different from the past life, but that it is
conditioned by the past. There is no transmigration or reincarnation of a self. The person who is
reborn consists of five “groups of existence”, the “khandhas”, namely physical phenomena and
mental phenomena which are arising and falling away. There is no permanent, unchanging
substance which passes from one moment to the next one, from the last moment of life to the first
moment of a new life. We read in the scriptures about the former lives of the Buddha and his
disciples. The “Birth Stories” relate the former lives of the Buddha when he was still a Bodhisatta
and accumulated wisdom and all the other excellent qualities, the “Perfections”, which were the
right conditions to become a Buddha in his last life. There were accumulations of wisdom and of
the Perfections, but not a person, not a self who accumulated these. There were only the khandhas
arising and falling away. Since each citta is succeeded by the next one within the current of
countless lives, accumulations are carried on from one life to the next life.
Can one speak of evolution in the succession of different lives, a development from animal life to
the human life and then to life in heavenly planes? There is no specific order in the kinds of
rebirths, there is not necessarily development from life in lower planes to higher planes. In reality
rebirth depends on the kamma which produces it. Kusala kamma may produce rebirth in a
 • 37

heavenly plane and after that it may be the right time for akusala kamma to produce rebirth in a
hell plane. Only the person who has attained enlightenment has no more conditions for an unhappy
rebirth. When one has reached the state of perfection all defilements have been eradicated and
thus there are no more conditions for any kind of rebirth. This means the end of dukkha.
The Buddha, in the night he attained enlightenment, had penetrated the conditions for being in
the cycle of birth and death and also the conditions for being freed from this cycle. Kamma which
produces rebirth is part of a whole chain of conditions for the phenomena which constitute the
cycle of birth and death. It is like a vicious circle of interdependently arising phenomena, forming a
chain of twelve links, the first of which is ignorance and the last one death. This is called
“Dependent Origination”. The “Dependent Origination” is an essential part of the Buddha’s
teachings. Ignorance is mentioned as the first cause of the interdependently arising phenomena of
the cycle. So long as ignorance has not been eradicated there are still conditions for the
performing of kamma which produces rebirth. At rebirth there is the arising of mental phenomena
and physical phenomena. There is the experience of objects through the senses and the mind-door.
On account of the objects which are experienced different feelings arise and feeling in its turn
conditions craving. Due to craving there is clinging which conditions the performing of kamma and
this produces again rebirth. So long as there is birth there is old age and death, and thus there is
no end to dukkha. This is the teaching on the “Dependent Origination” which shows the conditions
stemming from the past life for phenomena in the present life, and conditions of the present life for
phenomena in the future.
Ignorance is mentioned as the first factor of the Dependent Origination, but no first beginning of
the cycle has been revealed. The Path of Purification (XIX, 20) explains:

There is no doer of a deed

Or one who reaps the deed’s result;
Phenomena alone flow on—
No other view than this is right.
And so, while kamma and result
Thus causally maintain their round,
As seed and tree succeed in turn,
No first beginning can be shown.

It is of no use to speculate about the beginning of the cycle. The Buddha taught that when
ignorance has been eradicated by wisdom, there aren’t any more conditions for the performing of
kamma, and thus no conditions for rebirth. Through wisdom there can be the reversal of the vicious
circle made up by the links of the Dependent Origination. This means the end of the cycle, the end
of dukkha. The commentary to the first book of the Abhidhamma, the Expositor (I, Part I, Chapter I,
44) explains by way of a simile the conditions leading to the continuation of the cycle and those
leading to the end of it :

…“leading to accumulation” are those states which go about severally arranging (births and
deaths in) a round of destiny like a bricklayer who arranges bricks, layer by layer, in a wall.
“Leading to dispersion” are those states which go about destroying that very round, like a man
who continually removes the bricks as they are laid by the mason.

When understanding has been developed to the degree that enlightenment is attained there will
be “dispersion”, the removal of the conditions for being in the cycle.
The teaching on the Dependent Origination explains why we are in this life, why we have to
suffer old age, sickness and death. It explains the conditions for our life, for what we call our body
and our mind. We may know in general that mind and body are dependent on conditions, but
through the study of the Buddha’s teachings we will know more in detail what these conditions are
and how they operate from birth to death. It is kamma which produces bodily phenomena from the
first moment of life and also throughout life. Besides kamma, citta, temperature and nutrition also
produce bodily phenomena. Kamma produces throughout life the sense-organs, the physical
38 • The Buddha’s Path

conditions for the pleasant and unpleasant experiences which are the mental results of kamma. We
are heirs to kamma, it is unavoidable that there are loss, pain and other adversities of life. There
are many kinds of kamma which were performed in the past, and what is done cannot be undone.
When it is the right time kamma produces its appropriate result. Ignorance of cause and result in
life conditions aversion and frustration on account of unpleasant experiences and this means more
suffering. Understanding of the cause of suffering does not mean the immediate elimination of
grief and depression. However, understanding can help one to be less overcome by despair about
what is unavoidable, what is beyond control. More understanding means less suffering. The Buddha
did not only teach that life is dukkha, he also taught the release from dukkha, namely the
development of the wisdom which can eradicate ignorance and all defilements.
• 39
40 • The Buddha’s Path

Chapter 6
Good deeds and a wholesome life

Not to do evil, to cultivate good, to purify one’s mind,—

this is the teaching of the Buddhas.

(Dhammapada, verse 183).

All religions encourage people to abstain from evil, to perform good deeds and to lead a
wholesome life. In which way is Buddhism different from other teachings? What is kusala,
wholesome, is kusala, and what is akusala, unwholesome, is akusala, no matter who performs it, no
matter which religion he professes. Buddhism, however, is different from other teachings in so far
as it explains the source of wholesomeness: the different cittas which perform good deeds. The
Buddha explained in detail all the different cittas and their accompanying mental factors and also
the conditions for their arising. He helped people to know the characteristic of kusala and of
akusala. In that way the cittas which arise in daily life can be investigated and the different
degrees of kusala and of akusala can be known by one’s own experience. When we think of good
deeds such as giving or helping, we usually have in mind the outward situation, we think of
persons who perform deeds. The outward appearance of things, however, can be misleading. It
depends on the nature of the citta whether there is the performing of wholesomeness or not. We
can only know ourselves the nature of our own citta. It is essential to know when the citta is kusala
citta and when it is akusala citta.
The performing of what is wholesome comprises not only deeds of generosity but also good
moral conduct as well as mental development. It is important to learn more details of the different
ways of kusala which can be performed. In the Buddhist teachings the ways of wholesomeness can
be classified as threefold, namely as generosity, good moral conduct and mental
development. Learning about these ways is in itself a condition for the development of kusala in
one’s daily life.
The performing of deeds of generosity is included in the first of the threefold classification of
wholesomeness, but the giving away of things may not always be kusala kamma. There may be
moments of sincere generosity, but they are likely to be alternated with akusala cittas. We may
expect something in return for our gift, and then there are akusala cittas rooted in attachment. Or
we may find that our gift was too expensive and we may feel regret about it. Then there are
akusala cittas with stinginess which are rooted in aversion. The person who receives our gift may
not be grateful and therefore we may be annoyed or sad. We are inclined to pay attention mostly
to the effect of our deeds on others. In order to develop what is wholesome there should be no
preoccupation with the reactions of others towards our good deeds. Through the Buddhist
teachings one learns to investigate the different moments of citta which motivate one’s deeds.
Generosity arises with kusala citta, it does not depend on gratefulness of other people. When one
is intent on the development of what is wholesome, there will be no disturbance by other people’s
reactions. Is it not a selfish attitude to be constantly occupied with one’s own cittas? On the
contrary, when one comes to know when the citta is kusala citta and when akusala citta, one will
be able to develop more wholesomeness and this is beneficial for oneself as well as for one’s
fellowmen. We have accumulated countless defilements and thus the arising of kusala citta is very
rare. When there are conditions for generosity, there are at such moments no stinginess, no
clinging to one’s possessions. The development of kusala promotes a harmonious society.
Generosity is an inward reality, it arises with kusala citta. Even when there is no opportunity for
the giving of material things to others there are other ways of generosity which can be developed.
The appreciation of someone else’s good deeds which can be expressed by words of approval and
praise is a way of generosity. I learnt of this way of kusala in Thailand where it is widely practised.
People bow their head with clasped hands and say, “anumodana”, which is the Påli term for
 • 41

thanksgiving or satisfaction. In this way they express their appreciation of someone else’s kusala.
At such a moment the citta is pure, free from jealousy or stinginess. One may be stingy not only
with regard to possessions, but also with regard to words of praise. Appreciation of someone else’s
kusala is one way of eliminating stinginess. When one learns of this way of kusala there will be
more conditions for speaking about others in a wholesome way. We are inclined to speak about
other people’s akusala, but when we have confidence in the benefit of kusala we can change our
habits. We can learn to speak in the wholesome way.
Another way of generosity is giving other people the opportunity to appreciate one’s good deeds.
Is this not a condition for pride? When one tries to impress others there is akusala citta. However,
when one has the sincere inclination to help others to have kusala citta it is a way of generosity
which is called “the extension of merit”. It depends on the citta whether there is this way of kusala
or not. Extension of merit does not mean that other people can receive the results of kusala
kamma we performed. Each being receives the result of the kamma he performed himself.
Extension of merit means helping others to have kusala citta on account of our kusala. In this way
we can also help beings in other planes of existence, provided they are in planes where they can
notice our good deeds and are able to appreciate them. In Buddhist countries it is a good custom
to express with words and gestures the dedication of one’s good deeds to the departed. When a
meal or robes have been offered to monks, one pours water over one’s hands while the monks
recite words of blessing. In this way one expresses one’s intention to dedicate one’s kusala to other
beings.
There are several more aspects of generosity. Abstaining from killing, lying and other evil deeds
can be seen as an aspect of generosity. In abstaining from evil deeds which harm other beings one
gives them a gift, one gives them the opportunity to live in peace. When we, for example, abstain
from killing insects we give the gift of life. Another aspect of giving is forgiving the wrongdoings of
someone else. When someone else speaks insulting words to us we may have aversion and
conceit. When we think, “Why is he doing that to me”, we think in terms of “he” and “me”, and
then there is comparing, with conceit. Ther can be conceit not only when we think of ourselves as
higher than someone else, but also when we think of ourselves as equal or less than someone else.
Conceit prevents us from forgiving. When we are stubborn and proud, the citta is harsh, impliable.
When we see the benefit of kusala we can forgive. At that moment the citta is gentle, without hate
or conceit. One wishes the other person to be happy. For this way of generosity one does not have
to look for material things to be given, it can be performed without delay. Knowing that forgiving is
an act of generosity can inspire us to forgive more readily.
Another aspect of generosity, included in the first of the threefold classification of the ways of
wholesomeness, is the explanation of Dhamma. When one explains the Buddha’s teaching to
others, one helps them to develop right understanding of the realities of life. This is the way
leading to the elimination of suffering and therefore, the gift of Dhamma is the highest gift.
Not only generosity, but also good moral conduct is a way of wholesomeness. This is the
second of the threefold classification of wholesomeness. There are many aspects to moral conduct
or morality. Abstaining from evil deeds as well as good actions performed through body and speech
are included in this way of kusala. We may believe that we are leading a wholesome life so long as
we do not harm anybody. However, we should investigate whether the citta which arises is kusala
citta or akusala citta. Then we will discover that we are full of defilements. The Buddha taught in
detail on all unwholesome and wholesome mental factors which accompany cittas in different
combinations. He explained all the different degrees of akusala and kusala. It is necessary to know
whether kusala citta or akusala citta motivates our actions and speech, because the outward
appearance of our actions and speech is misleading. We may speak in a pleasant way, but we may
do so with selfish motives. We may flatter someone else in order to obtain a favour or in order to
be liked by him. Then there is not wholesome speech, but speech motivated by attachment. We
have to know our attachment, aversion, jealousy and conceit, we have to know all our defilements.
Abstaining from evil deeds is good moral conduct. There are three unwholesome deeds
performed through bodily action: killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. There are four
unwholesome verbal actions: lying, slandering, rude speech and idle, useless talk. As regards
killing, this is the killing on purpose of any living being, insects included. Also ordering someone
else to kill is included in this type of akusala kamma. Does this mean that Buddhists should be
42 • The Buddha’s Path

vegetarians? The Buddha did not teach people to abstain from eating meat. The monks had to
accept any kind of food which was offered to them by the layfollowers. The Buddha explained to
the monks that they could eat meat unless they had seen, heard or suspected that an animal was
killed especially for them. We read in the Book of Discipline (Vinaya IV, Mahå-vagga VI, on
Medicines, 237) that the general Síha attained enlightenment after having listened to the Buddha.
He offered a meal which included meat to the Buddha and the order of monks. The Nigaùìhas, who
were of another teaching, found fault with the offering of meat. We read that after the meal the
Buddha explained to the monks:

“Monks, one should not knowingly make use of meat killed on purpose (for one). Whoever
should make use of it, there is an offence of wrong-doing. I allow you, monks, fish and meat
that are quite pure in three respects: if they are not seen, heard, suspected (to have been killed
on purpose for a monk).”

This answer may not be satisfactory to everyone. One may wonder whether one indirectly
promotes the slaughtering of animals by buying meat. It would be good if there were no
slaughtering at all, no violence. The world, however, is not an Utopia. Animals are slaughtered and
their meat is sold. If one in the given situation buys meat and eats it, one does not commit an act
of violence. While one kills there is akusala citta rooted in aversion; killing is an act of violence.
While one eats meat there may be attachment or dislike of it, but there is no act of violence
towards a living being.
The observing of precepts is included in good moral conduct. When one undertakes the
observance of precepts one makes the resolution to train oneself in abstaining from akusala. There
are precepts for monks, novices and nuns, and there are precepts for layfollowers. At the present
time the order of nuns does not exist any more, although we can in Buddhist countries still see
women who have retired from worldly life and try to live as a nun. The monks, as we will see, are
under the obligation to observe many rules. For laypeople there are five precepts, but on special
occasions they can undertake eight precepts. The precepts are not worded in the form of
commandments, forbidding people to commit akusala. They are principles of training one can
undertake with the aim to have less akusala.
The five moral precepts layfollowers can observe are the foundation for good moral conduct.
When one undertakes them one makes the resolution to train oneself in abstaining from the
following unwholesome deeds: killing living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and the
taking of intoxicants, including alcoholic drinks. When one is in circumstances that one could
commit an evil deed through body and speech but one abstains from it with kusala citta, there is
good moral conduct.
Abstaining from slandering, rude speech and idle talk are not among the five precepts for
laypeople. Abstaining from them, however, is kusala kamma. We may be in situations where we are
tempted to speak evil, but when we abstain with kusala citta from slandering there is good moral
conduct. When someone else scolds us we may abstain from talking back. However, if we keep
silent with aversion there isn’t good moral conduct. We have to investigate the citta in order to
know whether there is good moral conduct or not. Abstaining from useless, idle talk is hard to
observe. Most of the time we engage in idle talk about pleasant objects, such as delicious food,
nice weather or journeys. We may think that such conversations are good since we do not harm
other people. Through the Buddhist teachings we learn to investigate the cittas which motivate
such conversations. We can find out that we speak mostly with attachment about pleasant objects
and in this way accumulate ever more attachment. We do not have to avoid such conversations,
but it is beneficial to know the nature of the citta which motivates our speech. When there are
conditions for kusala citta we can speak about pleasant subjects with kindness and consideration
for other people. Only the person who has reached the state of perfection has no more conditions
to engage in idle talk. He has eradicated all kinds of akusala, also the subtle degrees.
Committing evil through bodily action or speech for the sake of one’s livelihood is wrong
livelihood. When one abstains from wrong livelihood there is right livelihood. One may, for
example, be tempted to tell a lie in order to obtain more profit in one’s business. If one abstains
from such speech there is right livelihood.
 • 43

It is hard to observe the precepts perfectly in all circumstances. If one has confidence in the
benefit of kusala, one can gradually train oneself in observing the precepts. One may generally not
be inclined to kill insects, but when one’s house is full of fleas one may be tempted to kill. Killing
may sometimes seem a quick and easy way to solve one’s problems. One needs more effort to
abstain from killing, but if one has confidence in kusala one will look for other ways to solve one’s
problems and abstain from killing. However, only those who have attained enlightenment will
never transgress the five precepts, not even for the sake of their health or their life. The
development of right understanding of the realities of our life leads to the perfection of moral
conduct.
Paying respect to those who deserve respect is included in good moral conduct. In Buddhist
countries it is a tradition to pay respect to parents, teachers, elderly people, monks and novices. At
such moments there is an opportunity to give expression to one’s appreciation for their good
qualities, for their wisdom and guidance, and the assistance they have given. We see layfollowers
paying respect to monks by clasping their hands and bowing their head, or by prostrating the body
and touching the floor with the forehead, the forearms and knees. When one has not lived in a
Buddhist country one may wonder why people are paying respect to monks in such a humble way.
The monks have retired from worldly life in order to lead a life of detachment. Even if they are not
perfect, they can remind us of those who have reached perfection. In Buddhist countries one can
also see people prostrating themselves before a Buddha statue. This is not idol worship or a way of
praying to the Buddha. One cannot pray to the Buddha since he is not in a heavenly plane or in any
other place. He has passed away completely not to be reborn again. One can remember the
Buddha’s virtues, his wisdom, compassion and purity, and give expression to one’s respect for his
virtues in gesture and speech. It depends on the individual’s inclination in which way he shows
respect. One may show respect to someone out of selfish motives, such as desire for favours, but
in that case the citta is akusala citta. When one pays respect or shows politeness with a sincere
inclination, it is kusala citta. At such a moment there is no attachment or pride.
Another way of kusala kamma included in good moral conduct is helping other people through
speech and deeds. In order to know whether there is this way of wholesomeness or not we have to
investigate the cittas which motivate helping. One may help someone with selfish motives or with
reluctance, and that is not kusala kamma. Helping with unselfish kindness is good moral conduct.
At such a moment there is detachment. We are inclined to be lazy and to be attached to our own
comfort, but in order to help someone we have to renounce our own comfort and make an effort for
kusala. When kusala citta arises we are able to think of someone else’s welfare. Also listening to
other people when they talk about their problems and giving them our attention is a way of helping
them.
In the Buddhist scriptures, including the Jåtakas (the Buddha’s Birth Stories), there are many
practical guidelines for a life of goodwill and benevolence in one’s social relations. There are
guidelines for kings to reign with justice and compassion, and these can be applied by all in
government service. We read in the “Kútadanta Sutta” (Dialogues of the Buddha I, sutta 5) that the
Buddha told the Brahman Kútadanta about a King who wanted to offer a great sacrifice and asked
his chaplain advice. The chaplain advised the King about a sacrifice for the sake of which no living
being would be injured. He said to the King that, instead of punishing the bandits who were
marauding the country, the King could improve the economic situation, a way which would be
more effective in suppressing crime. The King should give grain to farmers, capital to traders,
wages and food to those in government service. Then tensions would be solved and there would be
an end to disorder. The King followed the chaplain’s advice and made abundant gifts. The Buddha
explained to Kútadanta that a sacrifice is not only the giving of material things, but that it can also
be dedication to spiritual matters, namely having confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the
“Sangha”, the community of enlightened disciples, as well as mental development, including the
development of the wisdom leading to perfection.
The “Sigålovåda sutta” (Dialogues of the Buddha III, sutta 31) contains the layman’s social ethics.
The Buddha explained to Sigåla that there should be love and goodwill in the relations between
parents and children, teachers and pupils, husband and wife, employees and servants, laypeople
and those who have retired from worldly life. The Buddha warned Sigåla of all the consequences of
bad moral conduct and of the danger of evil friendship. A bad friend appropriates a friend’s
44 • The Buddha’s Path

possessions, pays mere lip-service and flatters. Whereas a good friend gives good counsel,
sympathizes and does not forsake one in misfortune, he is even willing to sacrifice his life for his
friend. A good friend is intent on one’s spiritual welfare. We read:

He restrains you from doing evil,

he encourages you to do good,
he informs you of what is unknown to you,
he points out to you the path to heaven.

The Buddhist principles of goodwill and tolerance can be applied in today’s world in the community
where one lives, on the national level and on the international level, including development
cooperation. One can apply these principles more effectively if one at the same time develops
understanding of the different cittas which arise, kusala cittas and akusala cittas. This
understanding will prevent one from taking for kusala what is akusala. It is necessary to get to
know the selfish motives with which we may act and speak, to get to know our many defilements.
Otherwise our deeds and speech will not be sincere.
For a layman it is difficult to observe good moral conduct in all circumstances. He may find
himself in situations where it is hard to abstain from akusala kamma, such as killing. The person
who has inclinations to monkhood leaves the household life in order to be able to observe good
moral conduct more perfectly. There is good moral conduct of the layman and there is good moral
conduct of the monk. The monk’s moral conduct is of a higher level. He leads a life of non-violence
and contentment with little. He has renounced worldly life in order to dedicate himself completely
to the study and practice of the Dhamma and to the teaching of it to layfollowers.
We read in the Book of Analysis (the Second Book of the Abhidhamma, 12, Analysis of
Absorption) about the life of a monk:

Herein a monk dwells restrained and controlled by the fundamental precepts, endowed with
(proper) behaviour and a (suitable) alms resort, seeing danger in (his) slightest faults,
observing (the precepts) he trains himself in the precepts, guarded as to the doors of the sense
faculties, in food knowing the right amount, in the first watch of the night and in the last watch
of the night practising the practice of vigilance, with intense effort and penetration practising
the practice of development of enlightenment states…

The goal of monkhood is the eradication of all defilements through the development of wisdom, the
attainment of the state of perfection. The monk is under the obligation to observe two-hundred and
twenty-seven training rules. Apart from these there are many other rules which help him to reach
his goal. They are contained in the Vinaya, the Book of Discipline for the monk. We read that every
time a monk did not live up to the principles of monkhood, the Buddha laid down a rule in order to
help him. The Vinaya should not be separated from mental development, in particular the
development of understanding of the mental phenomena and physical phenomena of life.
Otherwise there would be the mere outward observance of the rules, no purification of the mind.
How could one “see danger in the slightest faults” if there is no right understanding of the realities
of his life, including the different cittas which arise?
The task of the monk is the development of understanding of the Dhamma and explaining the
Dhamma to others. His task is the preservation of the Buddha’s teachings. Social work is not the
task of the monk, it is the task of the layman. The Rules of Discipline, dating from the Buddha’s
time about two-thousand five-hundred years ago, are still valid today. Shortly after the Buddha’s
passing away the first Great Council was held at Råjagaha under the leadership of the Buddha’s
disciple Mahå-Kassapa. We read in the Illustrator of Ultimate Meaning (commentary to the “Good
Omen Discourse” of the “Minor Readings”, of the Khuddaka Nikåya) that five hundred monks who
had reached the state of perfection were to recite all the texts of the Buddha’s teachings. We read
that when Mahå-Kassapa asked which part they would rehearse first, the monks answered:
“The Vinaya is the very life of the Teaching; so long as the Vinaya endures, the Teaching
endures, therefore let us rehearse the Vinaya first.”
 • 45

The monk should train himself in fewness of wishes. He is allowed the use of the four requisites of
robes, almsfood, lodging and medicine, but they are not his personal property, they belong to the
Order of monks. He is dependant on layfollowers for receiving these requisites and he should be
contented with whatever he receives. These requisites are the monk’s livelihood and he should
train himself in purity of livelihood.
It is important also for laypeople to learn more about the monk’s moral conduct. The monk and
the layman have different lifestyles, but the layman can benefit from the study of the Vinaya and
apply some of the rules in his own situation in daily life. The rules can also help the layman to “see
danger in the slightest faults”, to scrutinize his cittas when he, as a layman, is in similar situations
as the monk. Both monks and laymen can train themselves in good moral conduct in action and
speech as well as in wholesome thoughts. We read, for example, in the Vinaya (II, Suttavibhaòga,
Expiation XVI) that monks took possession of the best sleeping places, which were assigned to
monks who were elders. The Buddha thereupon laid down a rule, stating that such conduct was an
offence. Such an incident can also remind a layman not to ensure the best place for himself in a
room, in a bus or train. One may think that one is entitled to the best place, but this is conceit. One
can find out that there is at such a moment no kindness and compassion, but akusala citta. When
we read in the Vinaya about the monk’s daily life and about the situations where he was tempted
to neglect his purity of moral conduct, we can be reminded of our own defilements, it can help us
to recognize our deeply rooted faults and vices.
The monk should remember that the four requisites of robes, food, lodging and medicine are to
be used so that he can stay healthy and dedicate himself to his task of the development of
understanding of realities. The monk should not hint to lay-followers what kind of food he would
like, he should not indulge in clinging to the requisites by hoarding food or robes. The monk should
not try to obtain the requisites with improper means, such as by pretending to be more advanced
in mental development than he really is. He may out of hypocrisy reject gifts, so that layfollowers
believe that he is a person with fewness of wishes and then give to him more abundantly. The
monk may try to impress others by his deportment. We read in the Path of Purification (I, 70):

…Here someone of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, eager to be admired, (thinking) “Thus people
will admire me”, composes his way of walking, composes his way of lying down; he walks
studiedly, stands studiedly, sits studiedly, lies down studiedly; he walks as though
concentrated, stands, sits, lies down as though concentrated; and he is one who meditates in
public…

The Path of Purification explains that desire for requisites can motivate speech with akusala citta.
We read (I, 72) about different kinds of unwholesome speech:

Ingratiating chatter is endearing chatter repeated again and again without regard to whether it
is in conformity with truth and Dhamma. Flattery is speaking humbly, always maintaining an
attitude of inferiority. Bean-soupery is resemblance to bean soup; for just as when beans are
being cooked, only a few do not get cooked, the rest get cooked, so too the person in whose
speech only a little is true, the rest being false, is called a “bean soup”; his state is bean-
soupery.

Not only monks, also laypeople can be insincere in their deportment and speech in order to obtain
something desirable. We should check whether our speech is “bean-soupery”. We may to some
extent speak what is true and to some extent what is not true. We may believe that there is no
harm in “bean-soupery”, but we accumulate at such a moment the tendency to lying.
The monk should train himself in virtue concerning the requisites. He should use them without
greed and reflect wisely on their use. We read in the Path of Purification (I, 85) about the use of
almsfood:

…Reflecting wisely, he uses alms food neither for amusement nor for intoxication nor for
smartening nor for embellishment, but only for the endurance and continuance of this body, for
the ending of discomfort, and for assisting the life of purity…
46 • The Buddha’s Path

Food is bound to be an object of attachment and it can also be an object of aversion. If one reflects
wisely on the use of food there is kusala citta. It is natural that one enjoys delicious food, but if one
remembers that food is like a medicine for the body, one will be less inclined to overeating, which
is the cause of laziness. It is the monk’s duty to reflect wisely on the use of the requisites, but also
for laypeople there can be conditions for wise consideration of the things they use in daily life.
The monk should not indulge in sleep, in the company of people and in idle, useless talk. We read
in the Gradual Sayings (V, Book of the Tens, Chapter VII, §9, Topics of talk) that while the Buddha
was staying near Såvatthí at Jeta Grove, some of the monks were indulging in idle talk, namely talk
on kings, robbers, ministers, food, relatives, villages and other useless topics. The Buddha asked
them what they were talking about and then said that such idle, useless talk was improper for
them. He pointed out that there were ten topics of talk monks should engage in:

Talk about wanting little, about contentment, seclusion, solitude, energetic striving, virtue,
concentration, insight, release, release by knowing and seeing…

It is beneficial also for laypeople to find out which types of citta motivate talking. Even though one
cannot change one’s habits yet, it is beneficial to know the different types of cittas which motivate
one’s actions and speech.
The monk should train himself in purity in all his actions and speech. There are four kinds of
purification of the monk’s moral conduct: restraint with regard to the disciplinary rules, the
guarding of the sense doors, virtue concerning his livelihood, virtue concerning his requisites. With
regard to the “guarding of the sense faculties”, we read in the Middle Length Sayings (I, Sutta 27,
The Lesser Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant’s Footprint):

…Having seen visible object with the eye, having heard a sound with the ear, having smelt an
odour with the nose, having tasted a flavour with the tongue, having touched a tangible object
through the bodysense, having cognised a mental object through the mind, he neither adheres
to the whole, nor to the details. And he strives to ward off that through which evil, unskilled
states of mind, greed and sorrow, would predominate, if he remained with unguarded senses;
and he watches over his senses, restrains his senses.

When there is understanding of visible object, sound and the other realities as they are, as
impermanent and not self, one will be less infatuated by them. In this sense we have to understand
the words “watching” and “restraint”. It is by understanding, by wisdom, that there will be the
“guarding of the sense faculties”.
As we read in the Dhammapada (verse 183), it is the teaching of the Buddha to abstain from evil,
to develop what is wholesome and to purify one’s mind. Through mental development there can
be purification of the mind, the elimination of what is impure, unwholesome. Mental development
is the third of the threefold classification of the ways of wholesomeness. For mental development
right understanding or wisdom is necessary, whereas the first way of wholesomeness, generosity,
and the second way of wholesomeness, good moral conduct, can be performed also without right
understanding. One may perform deeds of generosity, abstain from evil or help others because it is
one’s nature to do so, even without understanding of one’s cittas. When there is right under-
standing of the different cittas which arise, there can be the development of more wholesome
states. Through the development of understanding of one’s cittas one will discover all one’s weak
points, even the slightest faults, and this means that there is less delusion about oneself. It is
beneficial to discover that whenever there is no performing of kusala, our actions, speech and
thoughts are akusala.
We read in the Gradual Sayings (Book of the Twos, Chapter 2, §7) about deeds of commission and
omission. We read that the bråhmin Jånussoùi asked the Buddha why some beings were reborn in
Hell. The Buddha explained that it was owing to deeds of commission and omission. The Buddha
said:
 • 47

“Now in this connection, bråhmin, a certain one has committed bodily immoral acts, and
omitted bodily moral acts…and the same as regards speech and thought. Thus, bråhmin, it is
owing to commission and omission that beings…are reborn in Hell…”

We read that the Buddha then explained that through the commission of kusala kamma and the
omission of akusala kamma beings were reborn in Heaven. This text is a reminder not to neglect
wholesome deeds. When there is omission of kusala, it will condition regret and worry later on.
When kusala is performed with the aim to have less defilements, there will be more motivation to
abstain from akusala, to develop kusala and to purify the mind. When more understanding of cittas
and their accompanying mental factors is developed, confidence in the benefit of kusala will grow.
When there is the direct realization of the truth of non-self, one will clearly see that kusala citta
arises because of its own conditions, that there is no person or self who performs it. Then kusala
will be purer, and moral conduct will become enduring. The understanding of the truth of non-self
however, is the result of a gradual development, it cannot be realized within a short time. It is the
development of direct understanding of the mental phenomena and physical phenomena of life.
This is a way of kusala kamma which is included in mental development.
Selfishness, envy, stinginess, anger, conceit and other defilements disturb our social life. Such
defilements motivate us to engage in wrong action and wrong speech. In this way we harm both
ourselves and others. If we train ourselves to live according to the principles of loving-kindness,
compassion, tolerance and gentleness, as taught by the Buddha, it is to the benefit of ourselves
and society. At the moment of the performance of wholesomeness, the citta is pure, without
defilements; there is no attachment, no aversion or hate, no ignorance. We read in the
Dhammapada (verses 3-5):

“He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me”, the hatred of those who harbour
such thoughts is not appeased.
“He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me”, the hatred of those who do not
harbour such thoughts is appeased.
Hatreds never cease by hatred in this world; by love alone they cease. This is an ancient
principle.

We cannot live up to such high principles unless there is the development of understanding which
will eventually lead to the eradication of defilements. We can, however, begin to apply ourselves to
the ways of wholesomeness we are able to perform at this moment. All kinds of wholesomeness
which are included in the threefold classification of generosity, good moral conduct and mental
development are to the welfare of ourselves as well as our fellow beings.
48 • The Buddha’s Path
 • 49

Chapter 7
Mental development and meditation

Mental development is the third of the threefold classification of wholesomeness. Mental

development includes tranquil meditation as well as the development of insight wisdom. The first
way of wholesomeness, generosity, and the second way of wholesomeness, good moral conduct,
can be performed also without understanding of the cittas which arise, of kusala and akusala. For
mental development, however, understanding is necessary. The understanding which arises in
mental development is of different degrees, as we will see.
The study of the Buddha’s teachings, the Dhamma, and the explaining of it to others
are included in mental development. When one listens to the explanation of the Dhamma and
reads the scriptures, one learns what is kusala and what is akusala, one learns about kamma and
its result and about the ways to develop wholesomeness. One learns that realities are
impermanent, suffering, dukkha, and non-self, anattå. In order to develop understanding of the
Dhamma, one should not only listen, one should also carefully consider what one hears and test its
meaning. Explaining the Dhamma to others is included in mental development. Both speaker and
listener can benefit, because they can be reminded of the need to verify the truth of the Dhamma
in their own life. Understanding acquired through the study of the Dhamma is the foundation for
tranquil meditation and insight meditation which are also included in mental development.
Tranquil meditation7 and insight meditation8 have each a different aim and a different way of
development. For both kinds of meditation right understanding of the aim and the way of
development is indispensable. In tranquil meditation one develops calm by concentrating on a
meditation subject in order to be temporarily free from sense impressions and the attachment
which is bound up with them. Insight meditation is the development of direct understanding of all
realities occurring in daily life. The goal of insight meditation is the eradication of wrong view and
all other defilements. Insight or insight wisdom is not theoretical understanding of mental
phenomena and physical phenomena, it is understanding which directly experiences the
characteristics of realities.
There are many misunderstandings with regard to the word “meditation”. Some people want to
meditate without understanding what meditation is, what its object and its aim are. Meditation is
seen as escapism, a way to be free from the problems of daily life. One believes that when one sits
in a quiet place and concentrates on one object one can become relaxed and free from worry.
Relaxation is desirable, but it is not the aim of mental development.
As regards tranquil meditation, this is the development of calm. It is essential to have right
understanding of what calm is. True calm has to be wholesome, it is freedom from defilements. As I
explained before, akusala citta can be rooted in three unwholesome roots: attachment, aversion
and ignorance. These roots have many degrees, they can be coarse or more subtle. Kusala citta is
rooted in the wholesome roots of non-attachment and non-aversion and it may be rooted as well in
wisdom or understanding. In order to have right understanding of one’s cittas one should
investigate them in daily life. Otherwise one may take for kusala what is akusala. It is generally
believed that if there is no aversion, no annoyance, there is calm. One should know, however, that
when there is no aversion there is not necessarily kusala citta. There may be a subtle attachment
to silence and then there is akusala citta, no calm. Calm is among the wholesome mental factors
arising with each kusala citta. For example, when there is generosity and when there is good moral
conduct, there is also calm. At such moments there are no attachment, aversion and ignorance,
the citta is pure. The moments of kusala citta, however, are very rare, and soon after they have
fallen away akusala cittas arise. Since the moments of calm arising with the kusala cittas are so
few, the characteristic of calm may not be noticeable. The aim of tranquil meditation is to develop
calm with a meditation subject. Only when there is right understanding of the difference between

7 In Påli: samatha.
8 In Påli: vipassanå
50 • The Buddha’s Path

the moments of akusala citta and of kusala citta can calm be developed.
Even before the Buddha’s time there were wise people who saw the disadvantages of sense
impressions and the clinging to them. They were able to develop calm to a high degree, even to
the degree of absorption9. Absorption is not what is generally understood as a trance. At the
moments of absorption only the meditation subject is experienced and sense impressions such as
seeing or hearing do not occur. The citta with absorption is of a plane of consciousness which is
higher than the sensuous plane of consciousness, that is, the cittas of our daily life which
experience sense objects. At the moments of absorption there is a high degree of calm, one is not
infatuated with sense objects and defilements are temporarily subdued. There are different stages
of absorption and at each subsequent stage there is a higher degree of calm. However, by
absorption defilements cannot be eradicated. After the moments of absorption have fallen away,
there are seeing, hearing and the other sense impressions again, and on account of them
defilements arise again. Even if one has not accumulated the inclination and skill for the
development of a high degree of calm, it is still useful to have some general knowledge about its
development. This will help one to eliminate misunderstandings about tranquil meditation and
insight meditation. It will help one to see the difference between these two kinds of meditation.
For tranquil meditation it is essential to have a keen understanding of the characteristic of calm
and of the way to develop calm with a suitable meditation subject. The Path of Purity (Chapters IV-
XII) describes forty meditation subjects which can condition calm. Among the meditation subjects
are disks (kasinas), recollection of the excellent qualities of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the
enlightened disciples, meditations on corpses, mindfulness of death, loving-kindness, mindfulness
of breathing. A meditation subject does not necessarily bring about calm. Only when there is right
understanding of calm and the way to develop it, calm can grow. Moreover, it depends on a
person’s inclinations which meditation subject is suitable for him as a means to develop calm. It is
generally believed that calm is developed by means of concentration. It should be known,
however, that there can be right concentration and wrong concentration. Concentration is a mental
factor which accompanies each citta. As I explained before, there is one citta arising at a time, but
each citta is accompanied by several mental factors which each perform their own function while
they assist the citta in experiencing an object. Each citta can experience only one object and it is
concentration or one-pointedness which has the function of focusing on that object. Thus,
concentration can be kusala, akusala or neither kusala nor akusala. When concentration
accompanies akusala citta it is wrong concentration. If one tries very hard to concentrate there
may be attachment to one’s practice, or there may be aversion because of tiredness, and at such
moments there is no calm. If there is right understanding of calm and of the way to develop it,
there is also right concentration without there being the need to try to concentrate. It is right
understanding which has to be emphasized, not concentration.
Mindfulness of breathing is generally believed to be an easy subject of meditation, but this is a
misunderstanding; it is one of the most intricate subjects. If one tries to concentrate on breath
without right understanding of this subject there will be clinging instead of calm. Breath is a bodily
phenomenon which is conditioned by citta. It can appear as hardness, softness, heat or pressure.
Those who want to develop this subject and have accumulated conditions to develop it have to be
mindful of breath where it touches the tip of the nose or the upper-lip. However, breath is very
subtle, it is most difficult to be mindful of it. The Path of Purification (VIII, 208) states:

For while other meditation subjects become clearer at each higher stage, this one does not: in
fact, as he goes on developing it, it becomes more subtle for him at each higher stage, and it
even comes to the point at which it is no longer manifest.

We read further on (VIII, 211):

…But this mindfulness of breathing is difficult, difficult to develop, a field in which only the
minds of Buddhas, “Silent Buddhas” 10, and Buddhas’ sons are at home. It is no trivial matter,
nor can it be cultivated by trivial persons. In proportion as continued attention is given to it, it
9 In Påli: jhåna.
10 A Silent Buddha is an Enlightened One who has found the Truth all by himself, but who has not accumulated excellent
qualities to the extent that he can teach the Truth to others.
 • 51

becomes more peaceful and more subtle. So strong mindfulness and understanding are
necessary here.

“Buddhas’ sons” are the Buddha’s disciples who had accumulated great wisdom and who were
endowed with excellent qualities. Thus, this subject is not suitable for everybody.
We cling to breath since our life depends on it. Breathing stops when our life comes to an end.
When this subject is developed in the right way, it has to be known when there is clinging to breath
or to calm; it has to be known when there is akusala citta and when kusala citta. Otherwise it is
impossible to develop calm with this subject. It is difficult to know the characteristic of breath, one
may easily take for breath what is not breath. Following the movement of the abdomen is not
mindfulness of breathing. Some people do breathing exercises for the sake of relaxation. While one
concentrates on one’s breathing, one cannot think of one’s worries at the same time and then one
feels more relaxed. This is not mindfulness of breathing, which has as its aim the temporary
release from clinging. Mindfulness of breathing is extremely difficult and if one develops it in the
wrong way, there is wrong concentration, there is no development of wholesomeness. For the
development of this subject one has to lead a secluded life and many conditions have to be
fulfilled.
Does one have to lead a secluded life for the development of all meditation subjects? There are
different degrees of calm and if one has accumulated the inclination and capacity to cultivate a
high degree of calm, even the degree of absorption, a secluded life is one of the conditions which
are favourable for the attainment of it. However, only very few people can reach absorption, as the
Path of Purification states. Even if one has no inclination to develop a high degree of calm there
can be conditions for moments of calm in daily life. Some of the meditation subjects, such as the
development of loving-kindness, can be a condition for calm in daily life. It is felt by some that for
the development of this subject one has to be alone and one has to concentrate on thoughts of
loving-kindness. The development of loving-kindness is not a matter of concentration but of right
understanding. Loving-kindness can and should be developed when one is in the company of other
people. It has to be clearly understood when there is unselfish kindness and when there is selfish
affection. Moments of loving-kindness are likely to be followed by moments of attachment. Right
understanding of one’s different cittas is indispensable for the development of this subject, as it is
for the development of all subjects of meditation. The Path of Purification (IX, 2) explains that in
order to develop loving-kindness one should consider the danger of ill-will and the advantage of
patience. It states that one cannot abandon unseen danger and attain unknown advantages. Thus
we see again that right understanding is emphasized. We may dislike someone and we may be
impatient about his behaviour. When we see the disadvantages of unwholesome thoughts there
may be conditions for thoughts of kindness instead. That person may not treat us in a friendly way,
but we can still consider him as a friend. True friendship does not depend on other people’s
behaviour, true friendship depends on the kusala citta. When we feel lonely, because we miss the
company of friends, we should investigate our own citta. Is there loving-kindness with the citta?
This point of view can change our outlook on our relationship with our fellowmen, and as a
consequence our attitude can become less selfish. Loving-kindness can be extended to anybody,
also to people whom we do not know, whom we pass on the street. We tend to be partial, we want
to be kind only to people we like, but that is a selfish attitude. When there is true loving-kindness
there is impartiality as well. We tend to think of others mostly with akusala citta, with cittas rooted
in attachment or aversion. When we learn, however, what loving-kindness is, there can be
conditions for wholesome thoughts instead, and then there is calm. Calm can naturally arise when
there are the right conditions. When one tries very hard to have thoughts of loving-kindness in
order to induce calm there is attachment instead of true calm which has to be wholesome. Thus,
this is not the way to develop the meditation subject of loving-kindness.
Not all meditation subjects are suitable for everybody. There are meditation subjects on corpses
in different stages of decay, but for some people such a subject can condition aversion instead of
calm. Recollection on Death is a meditation subject which can condition calm in daily life. We are
confronted with death time and again, and instead of sadness we can reflect with kusala citta on
the impermanence of life. We can be reminded that even at this moment our body is subject to
decay, constituted as it is by physical phenomena, elements, which arise and then fall away. In the
52 • The Buddha’s Path

ultimate sense death is not different from what occurs at this moment.
Is it necessary to develop calm before one develops insight? Some people believe that when the
mind is calm first, it will be easier to develop insight afterwards. It should be remembered that
tranquil meditation and insight meditation have each a different aim and a different way of
development. Tranquil meditation has as its aim to be free from seeing, hearing and the other
sense impressions, in order to subdue clinging to sense objects. Insight meditation is the
development of direct understanding of all realities of daily life: of seeing, hearing and the other
sense impressions, of sense objects and also of the defilements arising on account of them. In this
way the wrong view of self and all other defilements can be completely eradicated. Tranquil
meditation should not be considered a necessary preparation for the development of insight. The
Buddha did not set any rules with regard to tranquil meditation as a requirement for the
development of insight. Individual inclinations are different. It depends on one’s accumulated
inclinations whether one applies oneself to tranquil meditation or not. People in the Buddha’s time
who had accumulated great skill developed calm even to the degree of absorption. In order to
attain enlightenment, however, they still had to develop insight, direct understanding of realities,
stage by stage. They had to have right understanding also of the citta which attained absorption in
order not to take absorption for “self”. There were many people in the Buddha’s time who attained
enlightenment without having developed a high degree of calm first.
The aim of tranquil meditation is the subduing of defilements, but, even when absorption is
attained, they cannot be eradicated. When there are conditions, akusala cittas arise again. In the
development of insight any reality which appears, no matter whether it is pleasant or unpleasant,
kusala or akusala, is the object of understanding. Defilements should be understood as they are: as
realities which arise because of their own conditions and which are not self. So long as defilements
are still considered as “self” or “mine” they cannot be eradicated. The development of insight does
not exclude calm, there are also conditions for calm in the development of insight. When
defilements are eradicated stage by stage there will be more calm. When defilements are
completely eradicated there is no more disturbance by akusala and this is the highest degree of
calm.
The development of insight which is included in mental development, is the development of
direct understanding of realities, of the mental phenomena and physical phenomena of our life.
The development of calm could be undertaken also by people before the Buddha’s time.
Absorption was the highest degree of kusala which could be attained before the Buddha’s
enlightenment. The development of insight however, can only be taught by a Buddha. He taught
the truth of impermanence, suffering, dukkha, and non-self, anattå. What is called a person or an
ego is only a temporary combination of mental phenomena and physical phenomena11 which arise
and then fall away immediately. Through the development of insight there can be the direct
experience of the truth and the eradication of defilements at the attainment of enlightenment.
When, however, understanding of realities is only theoretical, the truth of impermanence, dukkha
and anattå is not grasped; there is still clinging to concepts and ideas of persons, the ego, the
world. As I explained in chapter 3, there are two kinds of truths: the conventional truth and the
ultimate truth. Conventional truth is the world of people and of the things around us, the world of
houses, trees and cars, thus the things we have always been familiar with. When we study the
Buddha’s teachings we learn about ultimate truth. Ultimate realities are mental phenomena, cittas
and their accompanying mental factors, and physical phenomena. Nibbåna is an ultimate reality
but this can only be experienced when enlightenment is attained. Seeing is an ultimate reality, a
citta which experiences visible object through the eye-sense. Seeing can only arise when there are
eye-sense and visible object, it arises because of its own conditions. The same is true for hearing
and the other sense impressions. There is only one citta at a time which experiences one object.
After seeing, hearing and the other sense impressions there are kusala cittas and akusala cittas.
Kusala cittas with generosity may arise, or akusala cittas with attachment, aversion or stinginess.
All these realities arise because of their own conditions. There is no self who can control these
realities or cause their arising. They arise just for a moment and then they fall away immediately.
Because of ignorance we do not grasp the true nature of realities, their nature of impermanence,
dukkha and non-self. Ignorance covers up the truth. Insight, the direct understanding of realities, is

11 Mental phenomena and physical phenomena are called in Påli: nåma and rúpa.
 • 53

developed in order to eliminate ignorance and wrong view. Direct understanding of realities is
different from theoretical understanding, but theoretical understanding is the foundation for direct
understanding.
The object of insight, of direct understanding, is ultimate truth, not conventional truth.
Conventional truth are concepts which are objects of thinking. For example, after seeing we think
of the shape and form of a person or thing. That is not seeing, but thinking of concepts. A concept
is not real in the ultimate sense. Ultimate realities have each their own characteristic which is
unchangeable, and which can be directly experienced when it appears. Seeing is an ultimate
reality, it has its own characteristic. It is real for everybody. Its name may be changed, but its
characteristic cannot be changed. Anger is an ultimate reality, it has its own characteristic which
can be experienced by everybody. In order to be able to develop direct understanding of ultimate
realities it is essential to know the difference between ultimate realities and concepts. One does
not have to avoid thinking of concepts, because the thinking itself is an ultimate reality which
arises because of its own conditions and which has its own characteristic. Thus, thinking can be the
object of understanding when it appears. Every reality which arises because of conditions can be
the object of direct understanding. Since concepts are not real in the ultimate sense and do not
have characteristics which can be directly experienced, they are not objects of direct
understanding.
How can direct understanding be developed? There has to be mindfulness or awareness12 of
the reality appearing at the present moment in order that direct understanding of it can be
developed. There are many levels of mindfulness. It is a wholesome mental factor which accom-
panies each kusala citta. It is heedful or non-forgetful of what is wholesome. When there is
mindfulness, the opportunity for wholesomeness is not wasted by negligence or laziness.
Mindfulness prevents one from committing unwholesome deeds, it is like a “guard”. There is
mindfulness with generosity, with good moral conduct, and with the development of calm. In the
development of calm there is mindfulness of the meditation subject, so that calm can develop.
When insight, the direct understanding of realities, is developed, there is mindfulness which is non-
forgetful, aware, of the reality appearing at the present moment: a mental phenomenon or a
physical phenomenon. At the very moment of mindfulness direct understanding of that reality can
gradually develop. Thus, when there is mindfulness with the development of insight, the
opportunity for the investigation of what appears at the present moment is not wasted.
Mindfulness and understanding are different realities, they are mental factors which each have a
different function while they arise with kusala citta in the development of insight. Mindfulness is
non-forgetful of the reality appearing at the present moment through one of the six doorways, but
it does not have the function of understanding that reality. Understanding investigates the true
nature of the reality which appears, but in the beginning it cannot be clear understanding. It is
merely learning and studying the characteristic of the phenomenon appearing at the present
moment. It develops very gradually, there are many degrees of understanding. The moment of
mindfulness is so short, it falls away immediately. In the beginning mindfulness and understanding
are still weak and thus one cannot be sure what their characteristics are.
Mindfulness in the development of insight is aware of one object at a time, either a mental
phenomenon or a physical phenomenon. It is aware of an ultimate reality, not of a concept such as
a person or a thing. The whole day there is touching of different things, such as a chair, a plate, a
cup, a cushion. Usually there is thinking of concepts, one defines the things one touches, one
knows what they are used for. When one has learnt about ultimate realities and there are
conditions for mindfulness, however, it can be aware of one reality, such as hardness or softness
appearing through the bodysense. At that very moment there can be a beginning of right
understanding of that reality: it can be seen as only a physical reality, an element, arising because
of conditions. One may touch a precious piece of chinaware, but it should be remembered that
through touch the reality of hardness, not the chinaware, can be experienced. Hardness is tangible
object, it is an ultimate reality which has its own characteristic. When there is mindfulness of that
reality there is no attachment. When mindfulness has fallen away, there may be moments of
thinking of that piece of chinaware, there may be thinking with attachment. Attachment to
pleasant things is real, it does not have to be shunned as object of mindfulness. In order to develop

12 In Påli: sati
54 • The Buddha’s Path

understanding of ultimate realities it is essential to know when the object which is experienced is a
concept and when an ultimate reality.
Mental phenomena and physical phenomena appear time and again. Through the bodysense
hardness, softness, heat and cold can be experienced. They have their own characteristics and
when mindfulness arises it can be directly aware of them. It can be verified by one’s own
experience that hardness is only a physical element, no matter whether it is in the body or in the
things outside. Direct understanding of ultimate realities will gradually lead to detachment from
the idea of “my body” and “my mind”, from the idea of self. Through earsense sound is
experienced. One usually pays attention to the origin or the quality of sound, one pays attention to
the voice of someone or to music. At such moments there is thinking of concepts. When there are
conditions for the arising of mindfulness, it can be aware of the characteristic of sound, a physical
phenomenon which can be heard. It appears merely for a moment and then it falls away. Sound
does not belong to anyone, it is merely an element, non-self. Is it helpful to know this? Knowing
that even the sound of music one enjoys is only a physical element seems very prosaic. One can
enjoy the pleasant things of life, but in between there can be a moment of developing under-
standing of ultimate realities. Sound is real, hearing is real, enjoyment of music is real, they are all
realities which can be known as they are: impermanent and non-self.
Different objects can be experienced through one doorway at a time. Hearing experiences sound
through the ears. Seeing experiences visible object or colour through the eyes. Hearing cannot see,
seeing cannot hear, there is only one citta at a time. There is no self who sees or hears, the seeing
sees, the hearing hears. Through the development of insight one can verify that there is no self
who coordinates seeing, hearing and all the other experiences. In the ultimate sense life is one
moment of experiencing an object. When we are thinking of a person or a thing, we have an image
of a “whole”, and then the object at that moment is a concept. At the moment of mindfulness,
however, only one reality at a time, appearing through one of the six doorways, is the object.

A mental phenomenon knows or experiences something, whereas a physical phenomenon does

not experience anything. It is essential to learn the difference between these two kinds of
phenomena. We tend to consider body and mind as a “whole”, as a person or self. When there is
mindfulness of one reality at a time, we learn that there are only different mental elements and
physical elements arising and falling away. When sound appears there is also hearing, the
experience of sound. Sound and hearing have different characteristics. Sound does not experience
anything, whereas hearing experiences an object, the object of sound. When visible object appears
there is also seeing, the experience of visible object. Visible object does not experience anything,
whereas seeing experiences an object, visible object. When there is mindfulness it is aware of only
one object, either a physical reality or a mental reality. Each citta experiences only one object, and
thus when mindfulness accompanies the citta, it can be aware of only one object at a time. It is
very difficult to distinguish sound from hearing and visible object from seeing. Only when insight,
direct understanding of realities, has been developed, physical realities and mental realities can be
distinguished from each other. So long as there is confusion about the difference between what is
mental and what is physical, there is still an image or a concept of a “whole”. When there is no
precise understanding of one reality at a time, its arising and falling away, its impermanence,
cannot be directly understood.
There is no self who can choose the object of awareness or who can direct mindfulness to such or
such object. Mindfulness is non-self, it arises because of its own conditions. It is unpredictable of
what object mindfulness will be aware: either a mental reality or a physical reality. The
characteristic of mindfulness cannot be understood by theoretical knowledge, by describing its
nature. Only when mindfulness arises can one know what it is. It arises when there are the right
conditions. The right conditions are: listening to the Dhamma as it is explained by someone with
right understanding, and studying and considering Dhamma. Theoretical understanding of ultimate
realities and remembrance of what one has learnt are a necessary foundation for the development
of direct understanding. If one has expectations about the arising of mindfulness, if one tries to
concentrate on realities, or tries to observe them, there is clinging to an idea of self who can direct
mindfulness, and this is counteracting to the arising of mindfulness.
In the beginning one is bound to take for mindfulness what is not mindfulness but thinking. When
 • 55

one thinks, “This is attachment”, there is no direct awareness of the characteristic of the reality
which appears. There can still be a concept of “my attachment”. Then attachment is not
understood as a conditioned reality which is non-self. When one reality appears through one of the
six doors, there can be a moment of investigation or study of its characteristic, and that is the
beginning of understanding of its true nature, its nature of non-self. At such a moment there is
mindfulness, mindfulness of the reality appearing at the present moment. Even one extremely
short moment of mindfulness and investigation of an ultimate reality is beneficial, because in that
way mindfulness and understanding can be accumulated. Then there are conditions for their
arising again later on and in that way direct understanding can grow.
Direct understanding of realities can develop only very gradually. There are different stages of
insight, and in order that these stages can arise, understanding has to become very keen. The first
stage of insight is the stage that the difference between the reality which is mental and the reality
which is physical can be clearly distinguished. As I explained, this is difficult, since one tends to
confuse realities such as seeing and visible object or hearing and sound. The arising and falling
away, the impermanence of realities, can be penetrated only at a later stage of insight.
All the realities of one’s daily life, also defilements, can be the objects of direct understanding.
Defilements can eventually be eradicated when they are are understood as they are: as non-self. If
one tries to change one’s life in order to create conditions for insight, or if one tries to suppress
defilements in order to have more awareness, one is led by clinging and this is not the right way.
One should come to understand all realities, the mental and physical phenomena which naturally
arise in daily life.
The development of insight, of direct understanding of realities, is very intricate and there cannot
be an immediate result when one begins to develop it. Is it worth while to begin with its
development, even though it takes more than one life to reach the goal? It is beneficial to begin
with its development. Theoretical understanding does not eliminate delusion when there is seeing,
hearing and the other experiences through the senses and the mind-door. On account of the
objects which are experienced there is bound to be attachment, aversion and ignorance. If there is
at least a beginning of the development of direct understanding we will be able to verify that our
life is one moment of experiencing an object through one of the six doors. When there is seeing, its
characteristic can be investigated. It can be understood that it is only a mental reality arising
because of its own conditions, not a person or self. It sees what appears through eye-sense. When
visible object appears it can be understood that it is only a physical reality, appearing through eye-
sense, not a person or thing. All realities appearing through the six doors can be understood as
they are, as non-self. Through direct understanding of realities wrong view about them can be
eliminated.
We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, Third Fifty, Chapter 5, §152, Is
there a Method?), that the Buddha spoke to the monks about the method to realize through direct
experience the end of dukkha:

“Herein, monks, a monk, seeing visible object with the eye, either recognizes within him the
existence of lust, malice and illusion, thus: ‘I have lust, malice and illusion,’ or recognizes the
non-existence of these qualities within him, thus: ‘I have not lust, malice and illusion.’ Now as
to that recognition of their existence or non-existence within him, are these conditions, I ask, to
be understood by belief, or inclination, or hearsay, or argument as to method, or reflection on
reasons, or delight in speculation?”
“Surely not, lord.”
“Are not these states to be understood by seeing them with the eye of wisdom?”
“Surely, lord.”
“Then, monks, this is the method by following which, apart from belief… a monk could affirm
insight thus: ‘Ended is birth, lived is the righteous life, done is the task, for life in these conditions
there is no hereafter.’”

We then read that the same is said with regard to the experiences through the doorways of the
ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. The development of understanding of all that is real, also
of one’s defilements, is the way leading to the eradication of defilements, to the end of rebirth.
56 • The Buddha’s Path

This is the end of dukkha.

 • 57

Chapter 8
The eightfold Path

The development of the eightfold Path leads to the goal of the Buddha’s teachings: the end of
dukkha, suffering. As I explained in chapter 2, the Buddha taught the four noble Truths: the Truth of
dukkha, of the cause of dukkha, which is craving, of the ceasing of dukkha, which is nibbåna, and
of the Path leading to the ceasing of dukkha. We read in the Kindred Sayings (V, The Great
Chapter, Book XII, Kindred Sayings about the Truths, chapter II, §1) that the Buddha, while he was
dwelling at Isipatana, in the Deerpark, spoke to the company of five monks:

Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone forth as a wanderer.
What two?
Devotion to the pleasures of sense, a low practice of villagers, a practice unworthy,
unprofitable, the way of the world (on the one hand); and (on the other) devotion to self-
mortification, which is painful, unworthy and unprofitable.
By avoiding these two extremes the Tathågata has gained knowledge of that middle path which
gives vision, which gives knowledge, which causes calm, special knowledge, enlightenment,
Nibbåna.
And what, monks, is that middle path which gives vision…Nibbåna?
Verily, it is this noble eightfold way, namely: Right view13, right thinking, right speech, right
action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration…

When there is direct awareness and right understanding of any reality which appears in daily life,
there is at that moment no devotion to sense pleasures nor self-mortification. One is on the middle
way, and that is the eightfold Path. When direct understanding of realities has been developed
stage by stage, the wrong view of self can be eradicated. Then it is clearly understood that what is
taken for a person or self are in reality merely mental phenomena and physical phenomena which
arise and then fall away immediately. When the realities which arise because of their own
conditions have been understood as they are, as impermanent, dukkha and non-self,
enlightenment, can be attained. At that moment nibbåna is experienced. Nibbåna is the
unconditioned reality, the reality which does not arise and fall away. There are four stages of
enlightenment and at these stages defilements are progressively eradicated. First the wrong view
of self has to be eradicated because the other defilements cannot be eradicated so long as they
are taken for “self”. All defilements are eradicated when the fourth and last stage of enlightenment
has been attained, the stage of the perfected one, the “arahat”. He has eradicated ignorance and
all forms of clinging completely, there are no more latent tendencies of defilements left. Ignorance
and clinging are conditions for rebirth again and again, for being in the cycle of birth and death.
When ignorance and clinging have been eradicated there will be the end of the cycle of birth and
death, the end of dukkha.
The development of the eightfold Path leads to the cessation of dukkha. In order to know what
the eightfold Path is, the eight Path factors as enumerated in the above-quoted sutta have to be
examined more closely. They are mental factors14 which can accompany citta. As I explained
before, there is one citta arising at a time, but it is accompanied by several mental factors which
each perform their own function while they assist the citta in cognizing an object. Mental factors
can be akusala, kusala or neither kusala nor akusala, in accordance with the citta they accompany.
When the eightfold Path is being developed, the mental factors which are the Path factors perform
their own specific functions in order that the goal can be attained: the eradication of defilements.
From the beginning it should be remembered that there is no self, no person, who develops the
Path, but that it is citta and the accompanying mental factors which develop the Path. As we read
in the sutta, the eight Path factors are the following:

13 Right understanding of realities.

14 In Påli: cetasika.
58 • The Buddha’s Path

right understanding
right thinking
right speech
right action
right livelihood
right effort
right mindfulness
right concentration

Right understanding is the first and foremost factor of the eightfold Path. What is right
understanding of the eightfold Path? There are many levels and degrees of understanding. There
can be theoretical understanding of the Buddha’s teachings on mental phenomena and physical
phenomena. However, the Path factor right understanding is not theoretical understanding of
realities. When it is developed it is the direct understanding of the true nature of physical
phenomena and mental phenomena appearing in daily life. When right understanding begins to
develop, however, it cannot yet be clear, direct understanding immediately. The mental
phenomena and physical phenomena which appear in daily life have to be investigated over and
over again. As I explained in chapter 7, not concepts but ultimate realities are the objects of direct
understanding. The characteristics of seeing, visible object, hearing, sound, attachment or
generosity can be investigated by right understanding of the eightfold Path. In that way they can
be seen as only conditioned realities which are non-self. When there are conditions for the arising
of right understanding it arises and investigates the reality which presents itself at that moment
through one of the six doors. Right understanding arises and then falls away immediately together
with the citta it accompanies, but it is accumulated and therefore there are conditions for its
arising again. In this way understanding can develop; it develops, there is no person who develops
it. Right understanding can penetrate the characteristics of impermanence, dukkha and non-self
and it can eventually realize the four noble Truths.
Right thinking is another Path factor. Right thinking is not the same as what we mean by thinking
in conventional sense. When we use the word thinking in conventional language we mean thinking
of a concept, an event or a story. In the ultimate sense thinking is a mental factor which
accompanies many types of citta, although not every type. Thinking “touches” or “hits” the object
which citta experiences and in this way assists the citta in cognizing that object. The mental factor
thinking experiences the same object as the citta it accompanies. The object can be a concept and
also an ultimate reality, a mental phenomenon or a physical phenomenon. Thinking arises merely
for an extremely short moment together with the citta and then it falls away with the citta.
Thinking can be akusala, kusala or neither akusala nor kusala. When it is akusala it is wrong
thinking and when it is kusala it is right thinking. The Path factor right thinking arises together with
the Path factor right understanding. The object of the Path factor right thinking is an ultimate
reality, the reality which appears at the present moment. In the beginning there will be doubt
whether the reality appearing at the present moment is a physical reality, such as visible object, or
a mental reality, such as seeing. When right understanding is only beginning to develop there is
not yet precise understanding of the difference between the characteristics of these realities. The
function of the Path factor right thinking is “touching” the reality appearing at the present moment
so that right understanding can investigate its characteristic. In that way precise understanding of
that object can be developed, until there is no more confusion between the characteristic of a
mental reality and a physical reality. Right thinking assists right understanding to penetrate the
true nature of realities: the nature of impermanence, dukkha and non-self. Thus we see that the
Path factor of right thinking is essential for the development of understanding.
There are three Path factors which are the factors of good moral conduct15: right speech, right
action and right livelihood. They have the function of abstaining from wrong speech, wrong action
and wrong livelihood. Wrong livelihood is wrong speech and wrong action committed for the sake of
one’s livelihood. When there are conditions for abstaining from these kinds of akusala kamma the
factors of good moral conduct perform the function of abstention. They arise one at a time. When

15 In Påli: síla
 • 59

there is abstention from wrong action such as killing, there cannot be at the same time abstention
from wrong speech. The development of right understanding will condition good moral conduct,
but only after enlightenment has been attained good moral conduct becomes enduring. The person
who has attained the first stage of enlightenment has no more conditions for the committing of
akusala kamma which can produce an unhappy rebirth. Thus, right understanding of realities bears
directly on one’s moral conduct in daily life. As we have seen, the three mental factors which are
the abstentions from evil moral conduct arise one at a time, depending on the given situation. At
the moment of enlightenment, however, all three Path factors which are good moral conduct arise
together. The reason is that they perform at that moment the function of eradicating the cause of
misconduct as to speech, action and livelihood. Latent tendencies of defilements are eradicated so
that they do not arise anymore. As I explained before, defilements are eradicated at different
stages of enlightenment and it is only at the fourth and final stage that all akusala is eradicated.
Right effort is another Path factor. Effort or energy is a mental factor which can arise with kusala
citta, akusala citta and citta which is neither kusala nor akusala. Its function is to support and
strengthen the citta. When effort or energy is kusala it is the condition for courage and
perseverance in the performing of kusala. Energy is right effort of the eightfold Path when it
accompanies right understanding of the eightfold Path. It is the condition for perseverance with the
investigation and study of the reality appearing at the present moment, be it a mental
phenomenon or a physical phenomenon. Energy and patience are indispensable for the
development of right understanding. There must be awareness of mental phenomena and physical
phenomena over and over again, in the course of many lives, so that right understanding can see
realities as they are, as impermanent, dukkha and non-self. When we hear the word effort we may
have a concept of self who exerts an effort to develop right understanding. Effort is non-self, it is a
mental factor which assists right understanding. When there is mindfulness of a reality and
understanding investigates its nature, there is at that moment also right effort which performs its
function. It does not arise because of one’s wish, it arises because of its own conditions.
Right mindfulness is another factor of the eightfold Path. As I explained in chapter seven, there
are many levels of mindfulness. There is mindfulness with each kusala citta and its function is to be
heedful, non-forgetful of what is wholesome. Mindfulness is a factor of the eightfold Path when it
accompanies right understanding of the eightfold Path. There may be theoretical understanding of
realities acquired through reading and thinking. One may think in the right way of the phenomena
of life which are impermanent and non-self. However, in order to directly experience the truth there
must be mindfulness of the reality which appears at the present moment. The moment of
mindfulness is extremely short, it falls away immediately. However, during that moment
understanding can investigate the characteristic of the reality which appears, and in this way
understanding can develop very gradually. Right understanding arises together with right mindful-
ness, but they have each a different function. Right mindfulness is heedful, attentive or conscious
of the reality which appears but it does not investigate its nature. It is the function of right
understanding to investigate and penetrate the true nature of the reality which appears at the
present moment.
Right concentration is another factor of the eightfold Path. Concentration or one-pointedness is a
mental factor arising with each citta. Citta experiences only one object at a time and concentration
has the function to focus on that one object which citta experiences. Concentration can accompany
kusala citta, akusala citta and citta which is neither kusala nor akusala. Right concentration is
concentration which is wholesome. There are many kinds and degrees of right concentration. As
we have seen in chapter 7, there is right concentration in tranquil meditation. When calm is
developed to the extent that absorption is attained, there is a high degree of concentration which
focuses on the meditation subject. There are no more sense impressions such as seeing or hearing
and defilements are temporarily subdued. There is also right concentration in the development of
direct understanding of realities. The Path factor right concentration accompanies right
understanding of the eightfold Path. It focuses rightly on the reality which appears at the present
moment and which is the object of right understanding. There is no need to make a special effort
to concentrate on mental phenomena and physical phenomena. If one tries to concentrate there is
clinging to an idea of “my concentration”, and then there is no development of right under-
standing. When there are conditions for the arising of right mindfulness and right understanding,
60 • The Buddha’s Path

there is right concentration already which focuses on the reality presenting itself at that moment.
Some people believe that one should first develop morality, after that concentration and then
right understanding. However, all kinds of kusala, be it generosity, good moral conduct or calm can
develop together with right understanding. There is no particular order in the development of
wholesomeness. Kusala citta is non-self, anattå. When one reads the scriptures one will come
across texts on the development of right concentration which has reached the stage of absorption.
This does not imply that all people should develop calm to the degree of absorption. As I explained
in chapter 7, it depends on the individual’s accumulations whether he can develop it or not. The
Buddha encouraged those who could develop calm to the degree of absorption to be mindful of
realities in order to see also absorption as non self. There are many aspects to each subject which
is explained in the teachings and one has to take these into account when one reads the scriptures.
Otherwise one will read the texts with wrong understanding. The Buddha’s teachings are subtle
and deep, not easy to grasp. We read in the Kindred Sayings (V, The Great Chapter, Kindred
Sayings about the Truths, chapter II, §. 9, Illustration) that the Buddha said to the monks:

Monks, the noble Truth of This is dukkha… This is the arising of dukkha…This is the ceasing of
dukkha… This is the practice that leads to the ceasing of dukkha, has been pointed out by me.
Therein are numberless shades and variations of meaning. Numberless are the ways of
illustrating this noble truth of, This is the practice that leads to the ceasing of dukkha.
Wherefore, monks an effort must be made to realize: This is dukkha, This is the arising of
dukkha, This is the ceasing of dukkha, This is the practice leading to the ceasing of dukkha.

The eightfold Path must be developed in daily life. One should come to know all realities, also one’s
defilements, as they arise because of their own conditions. One cannot change the reality which
arises, it is non-self. Misunderstandings as to the development of right understanding are bound to
arise if one has not correctly understood what the objects of mindfulness and right understanding
are. Therefore I wish to stress a few points concerning these objects. Some people believe that a
quiet place is more favourable for the development of right understanding. They should examine
themselves in order to find out which types of citta motivate their thinking. If laypeople want to live
as a monk in order to have more opportunity to develop right understanding, they are led by
desire. It is due to conditions, to one’s accumulated inclinations, whether one is a monk or a
layman. Both monk and layman can develop understanding, each in his own situation. Then one
will come to understand one’s own accumulated inclinations. The development of the eightfold
Path is the development of right understanding of all realities which arise because of their own
conditions, also of one’s attachment, aversion and other defilements. In order to remind people of
the realities which can be objects of mindfulness and right understanding, the Buddha taught the
“Four Applications of Mindfulness”. These Four Applications contain all mental phenomena and
physical phenomena of daily life which can be objects of mindfulness and right understanding.
They are: Contemplation of the Body, which comprises all physical phenomena, Contemplation of
Feeling, Contemplation of Citta and Contemplation of Dhammas, which comprises all realities not
included in the other three Applications of Mindfulness. Contemplation in this context does not
mean thinking of realities. It is direct awareness associated with right understanding. We read in
the “Satipaììhåna Sutta” (Middle Length Sayings I, 10) that the Buddha, while he was dwelling
among the Kuru people at Kammåssadamma, said to the monks:

This is the only way, monks, for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and
lamentation, for the destruction of suffering and grief, for reaching the right path, for the
attainment of nibbåna, namely, the Four Applications of Mindfulness.

The teaching on the factors of the eightfold Path as well as the teaching on the Four Applications of
Mindfulness pertain to the development of right understanding of realities in daily life, but they
each show different aspects. The teaching on the Path factors shows us that for the development
of right understanding there are, apart from the factor right understanding, other Path factors
which are the conditions for right understanding to perform its function in order that the goal can
be reached, the eradication of defilements. In explaining the Four Applications of Mindfulness the
 • 61

Buddha encouraged people to be mindful in any situation of their daily life. In the Contemplation of
Citta is first mentioned citta with attachment and this can remind us not to shun akusala as object
of mindfulness. The Buddha explained that there can be mindfulness of realities no matter whether
one is walking, standing, sitting or lying down, no matter what one is doing. Those who develop
tranquil meditation and attain calm, even to the degree of absorption, can be mindful of realities.
The Buddha showed that there isn’t any reality which cannot be object of mindfulness and right
understanding. When one develops right understanding of any reality which appears there is no
need to think of the Four Applications of Mindfulness or of the Path factors.
The Buddha’s teaching on the development of right understanding of realities is deep, it is not
easy to grasp what mindfulness and right understanding are. For this reason I would like to give a
further explanation of objects of mindfulness which present themselves in daily life. Some people
believe that mindfulness is being conscious of what one is doing. If one is conscious of what one is
doing, such as reading or walking, there is thinking of concepts, no awareness of realities. There is
clinging to an idea of self who reads or walks. No matter what one is doing there are mental
phenomena and physical phenomena and understanding of them can be developed. When one, for
example, is watching T.V., there can be thinking of a story which is being enacted. However, there
is not only thinking, there are also seeing, visible object, hearing, sound, feeling or remembrance.
Most of the time there is forgetfulness of realities, there is thinking of concepts. However, in
between the moments of thinking there can be mindfulness of one reality appearing through one of
the six doors, an ultimate reality which is either a mental reality or a physical reality. The
characteristics of different realities can gradually be learnt. When we read a book we think of the
meaning of the letters and of the story. But there are also moments of seeing merely what is
visible, of what appears through eye-sense. It is because of remembrance that we know the
meaning of what we read. Remembrance is a mental factor arising together with the citta, it is not
self. Also remembrance can be understood as it is. It seems that thinking occurs at the same time
as seeing, but they are different cittas with different characteristics.The characteristics of different
realities can be investigated, no matter whether we are seeing, reading, hearing or paying
attention to the meaning of words. When this has been understood we will see that objects of
awareness are never lacking in our daily life. There are six doorways, there are objects experienced
through these six doorways and there are the realities which experience these objects. That is our
life.
Right understanding develops very gradually, it has to be developed during countless lives before
it can become full understanding of all realities which appear. There are several stages of insight in
the course of the development of right understanding. Even the first stage of insight, which is
merely a beginning stage of insight, is difficult to reach. At this stage the different characteristics of
the mental reality and of the physical reality which appear are clearly distinguished from each
other. At each higher stage of insight understanding becomes keener. The objects of understanding
are the same: the mental phenomena and physical phenomena which appear, but understanding
of them becomes clearer. When conditioned realities have been clearly understood as
impermanent, dukkha and non-self, there can be the experience of nibbåna, the unconditioned
reality. The citta which experiences nibbåna is a “supramundane” citta16, it is of a plane of citta
which is higher than the plane of cittas which experience sense objects or the plane of cittas with
absorption. All eight Path factors accompany the supramundane citta at the moment of
enlightenment. Defilements are subsequently eradicated at four stages of enlightenment. The
supramundane cittas which experience nibbåna arise and then fall away immediately. The person
who has not yet attained the fourth and final stage of enlightenment, still has defilements, but
there are no more conditions to commit akusala kamma to the degree that it can produce rebirth in
an unhappy plane of existence.
When one reads the words “enlightenment” and “supramundane”, one may imagine that
enlightenment is something mysterious, that it cannot occur in daily life. However, it is the function
of right understanding to penetrate the true nature of realities in daily life, and when it has been
developed to the degree that enlightenment can be attained, the supramundane citta which
experiences nibbåna can arise in daily life. Enlightenment can be attained even shortly after
akusala citta has arisen, if right understanding has penetrated its true nature. We read in the

16 In Påli: lokuttara citta.

62 • The Buddha’s Path

Psalms of the Sisters (Therígåthå, Canto I, 1) that a woman attained enlightenment in the kitchen.
When she noticed that the curry was burnt in the oven she realized the characteristic of
impermanence inherent in conditioned realities and then attained enlightenment. Events in daily
life can remind us of the true nature of realities. If understanding could not develop in daily life it
would not be true understanding. We read that people in the Buddha’s time could attain
enlightenment even while they were hearing the Buddha preach or just after his sermon. One may
wonder how they could attain enlightenment so quickly. They had accumulated the right conditions
for enlightenment during innumerable lives and when time was ripe the supramundane cittas could
arise.
The development of understanding from the beginning phase to full understanding is an infinitely
long process. That is the reason why many different conditioning factors are needed to reach the
goal. The study of the teachings, pondering over them, understanding of the way of development
of the eightfold Path are conditions for mindfulness and direct understanding of realities. However,
apart from these conditions there are others which are essential. Ignorance, clinging and the other
defilements are deeply rooted and hard to eradicate. Therefore, in order to reach the goal, the
eradication of defilements, all kinds of kusala have to be accumulated together with the
development of right understanding. The Buddha developed during innumerable lives, even when
he was an animal, all kinds of excellent qualities, the “Perfections”. These were the necessary
conditions for the attainment of Buddhahood. Also his disciples had developed the Perfections life
after life before they could attain enlightenment. Since the accumulation of the Perfections is
essential in order to be able to develop the eightfold Path I would like to explain what these
Perfections are.
The ten Perfections are the following:

liberality
good moral conduct
renunciation
wisdom
energy
patience
truthfulness
determination
loving-kindness
equanimity

The Buddha, when he was still a Bodhisatta, developed all these Perfections to the highest degree.
For those who see as their goal the eradication of defilements, all these Perfections are necessary
conditions for the attainment of this goal, none of them should be neglected.
First of all I wish to give an illustration of the development of the Perfections by the Bodhisatta
during the life when he was the ascetic Akitti. We read in the Basket of Conduct (Cariyå-piìaka, I,
Conduct of Akitti) that the Buddha spoke about the Perfection of liberality he accumulated in that
life. Sakka, King of the Devas (divine beings) of the “Threefold Heaven” came to him in the disguise
of a brahman, asking for almsfood. Akitti had for his meal only leaves without oil or salt, but he
gave them away wholeheartedly and went without food. We read:

And a second and third time he came up to me. Unmoved, without clinging, I gave as before.
By reason of this there was no discolouration of my physical frame. With zest and happiness,
with delight I spent that day.
If for only a month or for two months I were to find a worthy recipient, unmoved, unflinching, I
would give the supreme gift.
While I was giving him the gift I did not aspire for fame or gain. Aspiring for omniscience I did
those deeds (of merit).

Akitti performed this generous deed in order to accumulate conditions for the attainment of
Buddhahood in the future. The commentary to this text, the Paramatthadípaní, states that Akitti
 • 63

accumulated all ten Perfections while he was giving his gift.

The Perfection of liberality is developed in order to have less clinging to possessions. We cling to
material things because we want the “self” to be happy. If we do not learn to give away material
things, how could we ever get rid of clinging to the concept of self? Akitti also accumulated good
moral conduct, wholesomeness by action and speech. He was helping the brahman in giving him
food. He accumulated renunciation. Renunciation is not merely renunciation of the household life.
All kinds of wholesomeness are forms of renunciation, of detachment. One renounces clinging to
oneself, to one’s own comfort. Akitti renounced his own comfort when he went without food for
three days. Akitti accumulated the Perfection of wisdom. The Perfection of wisdom is not only right
understanding of the eightfold Path, it comprises all levels of wisdom. The Bodhisatta, even when
he was an animal, accumulated the Perfection of wisdom. He knew akusala as akusala, kusala as
kusala, he knew the right conditions for the attainment of Buddhahood. When he gave food to the
brahman, there was energy or courage, which is indispensable for each kind of kusala. Energy
strengthens the kusala citta so that good deeds can be performed. He had patience, he was glad to
endure hunger for three days, and had there be an opportunity for a longer period of time to give
away his food, he would have fasted longer, even for one or two months. He also accumulated the
Perfection of truthfulness. Truthfulness has several aspects. It is not only truthfulness in speech but
also sincerity in action and thought. Kusala must be known as kusala and akusala as akusala. One
should not delude oneself with regard to one’s faults and vices, even when they are more subtle. It
should be known that when one is giving a gift with selfish motives, there is no sincere inclination
to kusala, that one may take akusala for kusala. Akitti had a sincere inclination to give and did not
expect any benefit for himself. The Perfection of truthfulness is indispensable for the development
of right understanding. One has to be sincere with regard to what one has understood and what
one has not understood yet, otherwise there cannot be any progress. The Bodhisatta accumulated
determination, he had an unshakable determination to persevere with the development of
understanding and the other Perfections until he would reach the goal. He had loving-kindness, he
thought of the brahman’s welfare, not of himself. There was equanimity, he had no aversion even
though he went without food for three days. He had equanimity towards the vicissitudes of life.
Right understanding of kamma and the result of kamma conditions equanimity.
This text illustrates that the Perfections can be accumulated when a good deed is being
performed. As we have seen, there are ten kinds of good qualities which have been classified as
the Perfections. Good qualities are not always Perfections. They are Perfections only when the aim
of the performing of kusala is the diminishing of defilements and eventually their eradication at
enlightenment. The accumulation of the ten Perfections together with the development of right
understanding of realities is the application of the Buddha’s teachings in daily life. There may not
be mindfulness of ultimate realities very often, but there are many opportunities to accumulate
other kinds of kusala, the Perfections. It is encouraging to know that all kinds and levels of kusala
can be Perfections, helpful conditions to reach the goal. Even when we help other people in giving
them good advice or in consoling them when they are in distress can be an opportunity for the
accumulation of the Perfections, conditions to diminish selfishness and other defilements.
The Development of the eightfold Path which leads to enlightenment seems to be far-fetched for
an ordinary person. It is such a long way before the goal can be reached. There will be more
confidence in the Buddha’s teachings when one sees that what he taught can be verified and
applied in one’s own life. The development of understanding can only be very gradual, just as
learning a new skill such as a foreign language has to be very gradual. The Perfection of patience is
indispensable for the development of right understanding of realities. Learning about the Path-
factors which each perform their own function helps us to see that no self, no person develops
right understanding. We do not have to adopt a particular life-style for the development of
understanding. Understanding can develop when it is assisted by the other Path-factors and
supported by other conditions, including the Perfections. There should be no discouragement about
the long way which lies ahead. There can at least be a beginning of understanding of the reality
appearing at the present moment through one of the six doors.
The Buddha taught the conditions for the development of what is good and wholesome and the
conditions for the eradication of defilements. In developing the Buddha’s Path one will come to
know one’s ignorance of realities, one’s selfishness and other defilements. The change from
64 • The Buddha’s Path

selfishness to detachment, from ignorance to understanding is immense. How could such changes
take place within a short time? It is a long process. Also the Buddha and his disciples had to walk a
long way in order to gain full understanding of the four noble Truths and freedom from the cycle of
birth and death. We read in the Kindred Sayings (V, Kindred Sayings about the Truths, chapter III,
§1, Knowledge) that the Buddha, while he was staying among the Vajjians at Koìigåma, said to the
monks:

Monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating four noble Truths that we have run on,
wandered on, this long, long road, both you and I. What are the four?
Through not understanding, not penetrating the noble truth of dukkha, of the arising of dukkha,
of the ceasing of dukkha, of the way leading to the ceasing of dukkha, we have run on, wandered
on, this long long road, both you and I.
But now, monks, the noble truth of dukkha is understood, is penetrated, likewise the noble
truth of the arising, of the ceasing of dukkha, of the way leading to the ceasing of dukkha is
understood, is penetrated. Uprooted is the craving to exist, destroyed is the channel to
becoming, there is no more coming to be…
 • 65

Selected texts
from the Påli Canon

‘Straight’ is the name that Road is called, and ‘Free

From Fear’ the Quarter whither thou art bound.
Thy Chariot is the ‘Silent Runner’ named,
With Wheels of Righteous Effort fitted well.
Conscience the Leaning-board; the Drapery
Is Heedfulness; the Driver is the Norm,
I say, and Right Views, they that run before.
And be it woman, be it man for whom
Such chariot doth wait, by that same car
Into Nibbåna’s presence shall they come.

Kindred Sayings 1, Ch I, § 6
66 • The Buddha’s Path

…In safety and in bliss

May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Whatever breathing beings there may be,
No matter whether they are frail or firm,
With non excepted, be they long or big
Or middle-sized, or be they short or small
Or thick, as well as those seen or unseen,
Or whether they are dwelling far or near,
Existing or yet seeking to exist,
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Let no one work another one’s undoing
Or even slight him at all anywhere;
And never let them wish each other ill
Through provocation or resentful thought.
And just as might a mother with her life
Protect the son that was her only child,
So let him then for every living thing
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being,
And let him too with love for all the world
Maintain unbounded consciousness in being
Above, below, and all around in between,
Untroubled, with no enemy or foe…

Karaniya Mettå-sutta
(Sutta Nipåta, vs. 143-152)
 • 67

Thus have I heard: On a certain occasion the Exalted One was staying near Såvatthí, at Jeta Grove
in Anåthapiùèika’s Park. Now at that time the only son, dear and delightful, of a certain lay-follower
had died. And a great number of lay-followers, with clothes and hair still wet (from washing), came
to visit the Exalted One, and on coming to him saluted him and sat down at one side. As they sat
thus the Exalted One said to those lay-followers: ‘How is it, upåsakas, that ye come here at an
unseasonable hour?’
At these words that lay-follower said this to the Exalted One: ‘Sir, my only son, dear and
delighful, has died. That is why we come with hair and clothes still wet at an unseasonable
hour.’Thereupon the Exalted One, seeing the meaning of it, at that time gave utterance to this
verse of uplift:

In bondage to the dear and sweet, many a deva,

many a man,
Worn with woe, submit themselves to the Lord of
Death’s command.
But they who, earnest night and day, cast aside the
lovely form,
They dig up the root of woe, the bait of Death so hard
to pass.

Udåna II, vii

68 • The Buddha’s Path

…at Såvatthí, Sister Vajirå, rising early… plunged into the depths of Dark Wood, and seated herself
at the foot of a certain tree for noonday rest. Then Måra the evil one, desirous to arouse fear,
wavering, and dread in her, desirous of making her desist from being alone, went up to her, and
addressed her in verse:-
By whom was wrought this ‘being’? Where is he
Who makes him? Whence doth a being rise?
Where doth the being cease and pass away?
Then Sister Vajirå thought: ‘Who now is this, human or non-human, that speaketh verse? Sure ’t is
Måra the evil one that speaketh verse, desirous of arousing in me fear, wavering, and dread,
desirous of making me desist from being alone.’ And the Sister, knowing it was Måra, replied in
verse:-
‘Being’! Why dost thou harp upon that word?
’Mong false opinions, Måra, hast thou strayed.
Mere bundle of conditioned factors, this!
No ‘being’ can be here discerned to be.
For just as, when the parts are rightly set,
The word ‘chariot’ ariseth [in our minds],
So doth our usage covenant to say:
‘A being’ when the aggregates are there.
Nay, it is simply Ill that rises, Ill
That doth persist, and Ill that wanes away.
Nought beside Ill it is that comes to pass,
Nought else but Ill it is doth cease to be.
Then Måra the evil one thought: ‘Sister Vajirå knows me,’ and sad and sorrowful he vanished there
and then.

Kindred Sayings 1, Ch v, § 10
 • 69

No doing of any kind of evil,

Perfecting profitable skill,
And purifying one’s own heart:
This is the Buddha’s dispensation.
Dhammapada 183

Sorrow disguised as joy, the hateful as the loved,

Pain in the form of bliss the heedless overwhelms.
Udåna II, viii

‘Wisdom is best,’ the good confess,

Like the moon in starry skies;
Virtue, fortune, righteousness,
Are the handmaids of the wise.
Jåtaka 402

Not the unworthy actions of others,

Not their deeds of commission or omission,
But one’s own deeds of commission and omission,
Should one regard.
Dhammapada verse 50

Let a man overcome anger by non-anger,

let him overcome evil by good,
let him overcome the miser by liberality,
let him overcome the liar by truth.
Dhammapada 223
70 • The Buddha’s Path

Reborn in this Buddha-age through our Bodhisat, as the son of Princess Yasodharå, he was reared
with a great retinue of nobles. The circumstances of his entering the Order are recorded in the
Khandhaka. And he, his knowledge ripened by gracious words in many Sutta passages, conjured up
insight, and so won arahantship. Thereupon, reflecting on his victory, he confessed aññå17:

Twice blest of fortune am I whom my friends

Call ‘Lucky Råhula.’ for I am both
Child of the Buddha and a Seer of truths;
Yea, and intoxicants are purged from me;
Yea, and there’s no more coming back to be.
Ar’hant am I, worthy of men’s offerings;
‘Thrice skilled’ my ken is of ambrosial things.

Blinded are beings by their sense-desires,

Spread o’er them like a net; covered are they
By cloack of craving; by their heedless ways
Caught as a fish in mouth of funnel-net,
But I, that call of sense abandoning,
Have cut and snapt the bonds of devil’s lure.
Craving with craving’s root abolishing;
Cool am I now; extinct is fever’s fire.

Råhula § 294-298
Psalms of the Brethren,

17the perfect knowledge of the arahat

 • 71

Passing by

…so standing the deva spoke this verse before the Exalted One:

The hours pass by. Nights drive us ever on.

Stages of life in turn abandon us:
Whoso doth contemplate this fear of death,
Let him so act that merit brings him bliss.

[the Exalted One:]

The hours pass by. Nights drive us ever on.

Stages of life in turn abandon us:
Whoso doth contemplate this fear of death,
Let him reject the bait of all the worlds,
Let him aspire after the final peace.

Kindred Sayings I, Ch I, §4
72 • The Buddha’s Path

The Exalted One said…

‘Monks, there is a darkness of interstellar space, impenetrable gloom, such a murk of darkness as
cannot enjoy the splendour of this moon and sun, though they be of such mighty magic power and
majesty.’
At these words a certain monk said to the Exalted One:
‘Lord, that must be a mighty darkness, a mighty darkness indeed! Pray, Lord, is there any other
darkness greater and more fearsome than that?’
‘There is indeed, monk, another darkness, greater and more fearsome. And what is that other
darkness?
Monk, whatsoever recluses or brahamins understand not, as it really is, the meaning of: This is Ill,
this is the arising of Ill, this is the ceasing of Ill, this is the practice that leads to the ceasing of Ill,
such take delight in the activities which conduce to rebirth. Thus taking delight they compose a
compound of activities which conduce to rebirth. Thus composing a compound of activities they fall
down into the darkness of rebirth, into the darkness of old age and death, of sorrow, grief, woe,
lamentation and despair. They are not released from birth and death…and despair. They are not
released from Ill I declare.
But, monk, those recluses or brahmins who do understand, as it really is, the meaning of: This is
Ill…such take not delight in the activities which conduce to rebirth. Thus not taking delight they
compose not a compound of such activities. Thus not compounding…they fall not down into the
darkness of rebirth…old age…sorrow…and despair. They are released therefrom. They are released
from Ill, I declare
Wherefore, monk, an effort must be made to realize:– This is Ill…’

Kindred Sayings, V, Book XII, chapter V, §672

 • 73

Sigålovåda Suttanta: Dígha Nikåya, III, 180

Thus have I heard—The Exalted One was once staying near Råjagaha in the Bamboo Wood at the
Squirrels’ Feeding ground.
Now at this time young Sigåla, a householder’s son, rising betimes, went forth from Råjagaha,
and with wet hair and wet garments and clasped hands uplifted, paid worship to the several
quarters of the earth and sky—to the east, south, west, and north, to the nadir and the zenith.
And the Exalted One, early that morning dressed himself, took bowl and robe and entered
Råjagaha seeking alms. Now he saw young Sigåla worshipping and spoke to him thus—
Why, young householder, do you, rising betimes and leaving Råjagaha, with wet hair and
raiment, worship the several quarters of earth and sky?
Sir, my father, when he was a-dying, said to me: Dear son, you should worship the quarters of
the earth and sky. So I, sir, honouring my father’s word, reverencing, revering, holding it sacred,
rise betimes and, leaving Råjagaha, worship on this wise.
But in the religion of an Ariyan, young householder, the six quarters should not be worshipped
thus.
How then, sir, in the religion of an Ariyan, should the six quarters be worshipped?
It would be an excellent thing, sir, if the Exalted One would so teach me the doctrine according to
which, in the religion of an Ariyan, the six quarters should be worshipped.
Hear then, young householder, give ear to my words and I will speak.
So be it, sir, responded young Sigåla. And the Exalted One said—
Inasmuch, young householder, as the Ariyan disciple has put away the four vices in conduct,
inasmuch as he does no evil actions from the four motives, inasmuch as he does not pursue the six
channels for dissipating wealth, he thus, avoiding these fourteen evil things, is a coverer of the six
quarters; he has practised so as to conquer both worlds; he tastes success both in this world and
the next. At the dissolution of the body, after death he is reborn to a happy destiny heaven. What
are the four vices of conduct that he has put away? The destruction of life, the taking what is not
given, licentiousness, and lying speech. These are the four vices of conduct that he has put away.
Thus spake the Exalted One. And when the blessed One had thus spoken, the master spake again
—

Slaughter of life, theft, lying, adultery—

To these no word of praise the wise award.

By which four motives does he do no evil deed? Evil deeds are done from motives of partiality,
enmity, stupidity and fear. But inasmuch as the Ariyan disciple is not led away by these motives,
he through them does no evil deed.
Thus spake Exalted One. And when the Blessed One had thus spoken, the Master spake yet again
—

Whoso from partiality or hate

Or fear or dulness doth transgress the Norm,
All minished good name and fame become
As in the abbing month the waning moon.
Who ne’er from partiality or hate
Or fear or dulness doth trangress the Norm,
Perfect and full good name and fame become.
As in the brighter half the waxing moon.
And which are the six channels for dissipating wealth? The being addicted to intoxicating liquors,
frequenting the streets at unseemly hours, haunting fairs, the being infatuated by gambling,
associating with evil companions, the habit of idleness.
There are, young householder, these six dangers through being addicted to intoxicating liquors—
actual loss of wealth, increase of quarrels, susceptibility to disease, loss of good character,
indecent exposure, impaired intelligence.
Six, young householder, are the perils from frequenting the streets at unseemly hours—he
74 • The Buddha’s Path

himself is without guard or protection and so also are wife and children; so also is his property; he
moreover becomes suspected [as the doer] of [undiscovered] crimes, and false rumours fix on him,
and many are the troubles he goes out to meet.
Six, young householder, are the perils from haunting fairs—[he is ever thinking] where is there
dancing? where is there singing? where is there music? where is recitation? where are the
cymbals? where the tam-tams?
Six young householder, are the perils for him who is infatuated with gambling: as winner he
begets hatred; when beaten he mourns his lost wealth; his actual substance is wasted; his word
has no weight in a court of law; he is despised by friends and officials; he is not sought after by
those who would give or take in marriage, for they would say that a man who is a gambler cannot
afford to keep a wife.
Six, young householder, are the perils of the habit of idleness—he says, it is too cold, and does no
work. He says, it is too hot and does no work; he says, it is too early…too late, and does no work.
He says, I am too hungry and does no work…too full, and does no work. And while all that he
should do remains undone, new wealth he does not get, and such wealth as he has dwindles away.
Thus spake the Exalted One. And when the Blessed One had thus spoken, the Master spake again
—

Some friends are bottle-comrades; some are they

Who [to your face] dear friend! dear friend! will say.
Who proves a comrade in your hour of need,
Him may ye rightly call a friend indeed.

Sleeping when sun has risen, adultery,

Entanglement in strife, and doing harm,
Friendship with wicked men, hardness of heart
These causes six to ruin bring a man.
Is he of evil men comrade and friend,
Doth he in evil ways order his life,
Both from this world and from the world to come
To woeful ruin such a man doth fall.

Dicing and women, drink, the dance and song,

Sleeping by day, prowling around at night,
Friendship with wicked men, hardness of heart—
These causes six to ruin bring a man.

Playing with dice, drinking strong drink, he goes

To women dear as life to other men,
Following the baser, not th’enlightened minds,
He wanes as in the darker half the moon.

The tippler of strong drink, poor destitute,

Athirst while drinking, haunter of the bar,
As stone in water so he sinks in debt;
Swift will he make his folk without a name.

One who by habit in the day doth sleep,

Who looks upon the night as time to arise,
One who is ever wanton, filled with wine,
He is not fit to lead a household life.

Too cold! too hot! too late! such is the cry.

And so past men who shake off work that waits
The opportunities for good pass by..
 • 75

But he who reckons cold and heat as less

Than straws, doing his duties as a man,
He nowise falls away from happiness.

Four, O young householder, are they who should be reckoned as foes in the likeness of friends; to
wit, a rapacious, person the man of words not deeds, the flatterer, the fellow-waster.
Of these the first is on four grounds to be reckoned as a foe in the likeness of a friend—he is
rapacious; he gives little and asks much; he does his duty out of fear; he pursues his own interests.
On four grounds the man of words, not deeds, is to be reckoned as a foe in the likeness of a
friend—he makes friendly profession in the likeness of a friend—he makes friendly profession as
regards the past; he makes friendly profession as regards the future; he tries to gain your favour by
empty sayings; when the opportunity for service has arisen he avows his disability.
On four grounds the flatterer is to be reckoned as a foe in the likeness of a friend—he both
consents to do wrong, and dissents from doing right; he praises you to your face; he speaks ill of
you to others.
On four grounds the fellow-waster companion is to be reckoned as a foe in the likeness of a friend
—he is your companion when you indulge in strong drink; he is your companion when you frequent
the streets at untimely hours; he is your companion when you haunt shows and fairs; he is your
companion when you are infatuated with gambling.
Thus spake the Exalted One. And when the Blessed One had thus spoken, the Master spake yet
again—

The friend who’s ever seeking what to take,

The friend whose words are other than his deeds,
The friend who flatters, pleasing you withal.
The boon companion down the current ways—
These four are foes. Thus having recognized,
Let the wise man avoid them from afar
As they were path of peril and of dread.

Four, O young householder, are the friends who should be reckoned as sound at heart—the helper;
the friend who is the same in happiness and adversity; the friend of good council; the friend who
sympathizes.
On four grounds the friend who is a helper is to be reckoned as sound at heart—he guards you
when you are off your guard, he guards your property when you are off your guard; he is a refuge
to you when you are afraid; when you have tasks to perform he provides a double supply [of what
you may need].
On four grounds the friend who is the same in happiness and adversity is to be reckoned as
sound of heart—he tells you his secrets; he keeps secret your secrets; in your troubles he does not
forsake you; he lays down even his life for your sake.
On four grounds the friend who declares what you need to do is…sound at heart—he restrains
you from doing wrong; he enjoins you to [do what is] right; he informs you of what you had not
heard before; he reveals to you the way to heaven.
On four grounds the friend who sympathizes is to be reckoned as sound at heart—he does not
rejoice over your misfortunes; he rejoices over your prosperity; he restrains anyone who is
speaking ill of you; he commends anyone who is praising you.
Thus spake the Exalted One. And when the Blessed One had thus spoken, the Master spake yet
again—

The friend who is a helpmate, and the friend

Of bright days and of dark, and he who shows
What’t is you need, and he who throbs for you
With sympathy—these four the wise should know
As friends, and should devote himself to them
As mother to her own, her bosom’s child.
76 • The Buddha’s Path

Whoso is virtuous and intelligent,

Shines like a fire that blazes [on the hill].
To him amassing wealth, like roving bee
Its honey gathering [and hurting naught],
Riches mount up as ant-heap growing high.
When the good layman wealth has so amassed
Able is he to benefit his clan.
In portions four let him divide that wealth.
So binds he to himself life’s friendly things.
One portion let him spend and taste the fruit.
His business to conduct let him take two.
And portion four let him reserve and hoard;
So there’ll be wherewithal in times of need.

And how, O young householder, does the Ariyan disciple protect the six quarters? The following
should be looked upon as the six quarters—parents as the east, teachers as the south, wife and
children as the west, friends and companions as the north, servants and work people as the nadir,
religious teachers and brahmins as the zenith.
In five ways a child should minister to his parents as the eastern quarter—Once supported by
them I will now be their support; I will perform duties incumbent on them; I will keep up the lineage
and tradition of my family; I will make myself worthy of my heritage.
In five ways parents thus ministered to, as the eastern quarter, by their child, show their love for
him—they restrain him from vice, they exhort him to virtue, they train him to a profession, they
contract a suitable marriage for him, and in due time they hand over his inheritance.
Thus is this eastern quarter protected by him and made safe and secure.
In five ways should pupils minister to their teachers as the southern quarter: by rising (from their
seat, in salutation) by waiting upon them, by eagerness to learn, by personal service, and by
attention when receiving their teaching.
And in five ways do teachers, thus ministered to as the southern quarter by their pupils, love
their pupil—they train him in that wherein he has been well trained; they make him hold fast that
which is well held; they thoroughly instruct him in the lore of every art; they speak well of him
among his friends and companions. They provide for his safety in every quarter.
Thus is this quarter protected by him and made safe and secure.
In five ways should a wife as western quarter be ministered to by her husband—by respect, by
courtesy, by faithfulness, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornment.
In these five ways does the wife, ministered to by her husband as the western quarter, love him—
her duties are well performed, by hospitality to the kin of both, by faithfulness, by watching over
the goods he brings, and by skill and industry in discharging all her business.
Thus is this western quarter protected by him and made safe and secure.
In five ways should a clansman minister to his friends and familiars as the northern quarter—by
generosity, courtesy and benevolence, by treating them as he treats himself, and by being as good
as his word.
In these five ways thus ministered to as the northern quarter, his friends and familiars love him—
they protect him when he is off his guard, and on such occasions guard his property; they become
a refuge in danger, they do not forsake him in his troubles, and they show consideration for his
family.
Thus is the northern quarter by him protected and made safe and secure.
In five ways does an Ariyan master minister to his servants and employees as the nadir—by
assigning them work according to their strength; by supplying them with food and wages; by
tending them in sickness; by sharing with them unusual delicacies; by granting leave at times.
In these ways ministered to by their master, servants and employees love their master in five
ways—they rise before him, they lie down to rest after him; they are content with what is given to
them; they do their work well; and they carry about his praise and good fame.
Thus is the nadir by him protected and made safe and secure.
In five ways should the clansman minister to recluses and brahmins as the zenith—by affection in
 • 77

act speech and mind; by keeping open house to them, by supplying their temporal needs.
Thus ministered to as the zenith, recluses and brahmins show their love for the clansman in six
ways—they restrain him from evil, they exhort him to good, they love him with kindly thoughts;
they teach him what he had not heard, they correct and purify what he has heard, they reveal to
him the way to heaven.
Thus by him is the zenith protected and made safe and secure.
Thus spake the Exalted One. And when the Blessed One had so spoken, the Master said yet
further—

Mother and father are the Eastern view,

And teachers are the quarters of the South.
And wife and children are the Western view,
And friends and kin the quarter to the North;
Servants and working folk the nadir are,
And overhead the brahmin and recluse.
These quarters should be worshipped by the man
Who fitly ranks as houseman in his clan

He that is wise, expert in virtue’s ways,

Gentle and in this worship eloquent,
Humble and docile, he may honour win.
Active in rising, foe to laziness,
Unshaken in adversities, his life
Flawless, sagacious, he may honour win.
If he have winning ways, and maketh friends,
Makes welcome with kind words and generous heart,
And can give sage councils and advice,
And guide his fellows, he may honour win.

The giving hand, the kindly speech, the life

Of service, impartiality to one
As to another, as the case demands—
These be the things that make the world go round
As linchpin serves the rolling of the car.
And if these things be not, no mother reaps
The honour and respect her child should pay,
Nor doth the father win them through the child.
And since the wise rightly appraise these things,
They win to eminence and earn men’s praise.

When the Exalted One had thus spoken, Sigåla the young householder said this—Beautiful, lord,
beautiful! As if one should set up again that which had been overthrown, or reveal that which had
been hidden, or should disclose the road to one that was astray, or should carry a lamp into
darkness, saying They that have eyes will see! Even so hath the Truth been manifested by the
Exalted One in many ways. And I, even I, do go to him as my refuge, and to the Truth and to the
Order. May the Exalted One receive me as his lay-disciple, as one has taken his refuge in him from
this day forth as long as life endures.
78 • The Buddha’s Path

Glossary

akusala unwholesome, unskilful

anattå not self
anumodana thanksgiving
arahat noble person who has attained the fourth and last stage of enlightenment
Buddha a person who becomes fully enlightened without the aid of a teacher and is able to teach the
eightfold Path
cetasika mental factor arising with consciousness
citta consciousness, the reality which knows or cognizes an object
dhamma the teachings, the law, reality, truth
dukkha suffering, unsatisfactoriness of conditioned realities
jhåna absorption which can be attained through the development of calm
kamma intention or volition; deed motivated by volition
kasina disk, used as an object for the development of calm
khandha group of existance
kusala wholesome, skilful
lokuttara citta supramundane citta which experiences nibbåna
nåma mental phenomena
nibbåna unconditioned reality, the reality which does not arise and fall away. The destruction of lust, hatred
and delusion. The deathless. The end of suffering.
rúpa physical phenomena
samatha the development of calm
satipaììhåna mindfulness in the development of insight, or the objects of mindfulness
síla morality, virtue
Tathågata “Thus gone”, epithet of the Buddha
Tipiìaka the teachings of the Buddha
vipassanå the development of insight