Physics

Physics Physics

Student Textbook
Student Textbook Student Textbook
Grade 9 Grade 9

Grade 9

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia ISBN 978-99944-2-016-2

FDRE
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Ministry of Education Price: ETB 36.00 MoE Ministry of Education

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 Take Good Care of This Textbook
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 Physics
Student Textbook
Grade 9
Author: Graham Bone

Advisers: Tilahun Tesfaye Deressu (PhD)

Endeshaw Bekele Buli

Evaluators: Yosef Mihiret

Gebremeskel Gebreegziabher
Yusuf Mohamed

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Ministry of Education

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 Contents
Unit 1 Vectors 1
1.1 Representation of vectors 1
1.2 Addition and subtraction of vectors 3
1.3 Some applications of vectors 10

Unit 2 Motion in a straight line 15
2.1 Uniform motion 16
2.2 Uniformly accelerated motion 19
2.3 Graphical description of uniformly accelerated
motion 22
2.4 Equations of uniformly accelerated motion 28
2.5 Relative velocity in one dimension 36

Unit 3 Forces and Newton’s laws of motion 42

3.1 Forces in nature 43
3.2 Newton’s second law 52
3.3 Frictional forces 64
3.4 Newton’s third law 71
3.5 Conservation of linear momentum 74
3.6 Collisions 83
3.7 The first condition of equilibrium 84

Unit 4 Work, energy and power 87
4.1 Mechanical work 88
4.2 Work–energy theorem 96
4.3 Conservation of energy 101
4.4 Mechanical power 110

Unit 5 Simple machines 116
5.1 Purposes of machines 116
5.2 Inclined plane, wedge and screw 124
5.3 Levers 128

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 Unit 6 Fluid statics 140
6.1 Air pressure 141
6.2 Fluid pressure 151

Unit 7 Temperature and heat 171
7.1 Temperature and heat 172
7.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases 179
7.3 Quantity of heat, specific heat capacity
and heat capacity 191
7.4 Changes of state 199

Unit 8 Wave motion and sound 207

8.1 Wave propagation 207
8.2 Mechanical waves 214
8.3 Properties of waves 221
8.4 Sound waves 228

Index 241

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 Vectors Unit 1

Contents
Section Learning competencies
1.1 Representation • Define the term vector.
of vectors • Give some examples of vector quantities.
(page 1) • Represent vectors both analytically and graphically.
1.2 Addition and • Define the term resultant vector.
subtraction of • Add two vectors together (including vectors in the same direction,
vectors opposite directions and at right angles to each other).
(page 3) • Determine the angle of a resultant vector.
• Use Pythagoras’s theorem to determine the size of the resultant vector.
• Resolve a vector into horizontal and vertical components.
• Find the direction and resultant of two or more vectors using the
component method.
1.3 Some • Define the term equilibrium.
applications of • Explain the importance of forming a triangle of three vectors.
vectors • Carry out some experiments to investigate vectors.
(page 10)

Whenever you take a measurement of an object you are recording

a physical property of that object. Further physical properties
can then be calculated using these measurements. All physical
quantities are either scalar or vector quantities. This unit looks at
vectors in detail, including examples of vectors, how to add them
up and why they are used. Vectors are crucial in a wide range of
applications, from landing on the Moon to crossing rivers and to
keeping bridges standing up!

1.1 Representation of vectors

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the term vector.
• Give some examples of vector quantities.
• Represent vectors both analytically and graphically.

What are vectors?

If you were asked for directions to your house, simply saying
‘6 km away’ would not be very helpful. Instead you need to
provide more information. Along with the distance a direction is
also required. Saying ‘6 km due North from here’ provides much

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 Unit 1: Vectors

more information. You have provided a magnitude (6 km) and a

KEY WORDS
direction (North). Quantities that have both a size and a direction
scalar a quantity specified are referred to as vectors.
only by its magnitude
Vectors are incredibly useful tools in both mathematics and physics.
magnitude size
• A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
vector a quantity specified by
its magnitude and direction The alternative, a scalar quantity, just has magnitude (size) and
there is no direction associated with it. For example, it would be
silly to say a chemical energy of 600 J North! Energy is an example
of a scalar quantity.
All vector quantities have a direction associated with them. For
Think about this… example, a force of 6 N to the left, or a displacement of 45 km South.
Magnitude is a scientific Table 1.1 Some examples of vector and scalar quantities
way of describing the size
of a quantity. For example, Vector quantities Scalar quantities
a velocity of 50 m/s North Forces (including weight) Distance
has a magnitude of 50 m/s.
Scalars are quantities that Displacement Speed
have a magnitude only. Velocity Mass
Acceleration Energy
Momentum Temperature
6N

How can we represent vectors?

55o
As all vectors have a direction, we must include one when writing
them down. For example, a displacement of 13 km would not be
Figure 1.1 An arrow representing enough information. We must write 13 km South West.
a force of 6 N at about 55° to the
horizontal. We usually represent vectors using arrows. The length of this
arrow represents the size of the quantity and the way it is pointing
represents its direction.
Notice in Figure 1.2 that the 50 km vector is twice the size of the
25 km vector.
We often represent vector quantities in equations using bold type
or with an arrow above
→
the quantity. For example, to represent force
50 km North 25 km East
we might write F or F. So→ an important equation like F = ma would
→
be written as F = ma or F = ma as both force and acceleration are
Figure 1.2 Two different vector quantities.
displacement vectors, represented
by arrows. Vectors and scalars should not be confused with SI units.
The International System of Units (SI) defines seven basic units of
measurement. These may be seen in Table 1.2 at the top of the next
Did you know?
page and all have very exact definitions. For example, the second
Vectors, as they are is defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
understood today, first corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
appeared in a publication the ground state of the caesium-133 atom!
called Vector Analysis by
the American J. W. Gibbs in All other SI units are derived from combining one or more these
1881. units. For example, the newton is the SI derived unit of force, 1 N is
equivalent to 1 kg m/s2.

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 Unit 1: Vectors

If you have several parallel vectors, the resultant may be found by

Discussion activity
adding all the vectors in the same direction and subtracting those
going in the opposite direction. This can be seen in Figure 1.6c. What is your total
displacement during the
Combining perpendicular vectors school day? You begin the day
by getting out of bed, and end
But what if the vectors to be added are not parallel?
it by returning to bed.
For example, think about a swimmer swimming from one river
bank to another. He swims across the river perpendicular to the
river bank at 2.0 m/s. However, the river is flowing parallel to the
river bank at 1.0 m/s. How can you find his resultant velocity?

One method is referred to as the parallelogram method. This

involves drawing the two vectors with the same starting point.
The two vectors must be drawn to a scale and are made to be the flow of river
sides of the parallelogram. The resultant will be the diagonal of the
parallelogram.
Figure 1.7 Obang going across
Worked example Baro River
1. Choose a scale of 5 cm to represent 1 m/s.
2. Draw the vectors to represent the different velocities of the Activity 1.3: Using the
man starting at the same point. parallelogram method
3. Complete the parallelogram (which in the case of Using the parallelogram
perpendicular vectors is always a rectangle). method, determine the
4. Draw the resultant vector diagonally across the resultant vector in each case:
parallelogram, from A to C (this represents the resultant • 10 km left, 20 km up
velocity of the swimmer).
• 150 km North, 50 km West
5. Measure the length of AC and C B
• 7 km East, 14 km North
convert into m/s. It should
be around 11.25 cm long, and
this is equivalent
to 2.25 m/s (using 1 m/s is 5 2.0 m/s
cm). The angle from the river
bank should be measured as
around 64°. a2 = b2 + c2
a
D A
1.0 m/s b

Figure 1.8 The resultant θ

velocity. c

Figure 1.9 A right-angled triangle

Pythagoras’s theorem
The square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to
Did you know?
the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
Pythagoras (or to give him
his full name, Pythagoras of
Discussion activity
Samos) was born in ancient
What are the advantages of the parallelogram method over using Greece around 570 BC.
mathematics to solve vector problems? That’s over 2500 years ago!

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 Unit 1: Vectors

1.0 m/s
Think about this…
The opposite side is
so called because it is
opposite the angle. 2.0 m/s
resultant

Figure 1.10 The swimmer’s velocity vectors

shown as a right-angled triangle.
sin θ = opposite An alternative to the parallelogram method involves using
hypotenuse Pythagoras’s theorem to determine the size of the resultant vector.
Trigonometry can then be used to find its direction. This gives a
cos θ = adjacent
hypotenuse much more precise answer.
Looking again at the swimmer example, a quick sketch of the
tan θ = opposite
vectors can be seen in Figure 1.10.
adjacent
Because the vectors are perpendicular, they form a right-angled
opposite triangle. The resultant is the hypotenuse, so using Pythagoras’s
theorem we get:
a2 = b2 + c2 State principle or equation to be used (Pythagoras’s theorem)
resultant2 = 1.02 + 2.02 Substitute in known values
adjacent hypotenuse
resultant2 = 5.0 Solve for resultant2
θ resultant = √5.0 Rearrange for resultant (take square root) and solve
resultant = 2.24 m/s (to 3 sig fig) Clearly state the answer with unit 
This method may be used for any two perpendicular vectors.
Figure 1.11 Terms used in However, we are missing the direction – all vectors must include a
trigonometry direction.

Trigonometry
KEY WORDS Looking back at our simple diagram.
1.0 m/s
hypotenuse the side of a
right-angled triangle opposite
the right angle
opposite the side of a right-
angled triangle opposite the 2.0 m/s
resultant
angle being calculated
Pythagoras’s theorem θ
theorem for calculating the
angles and length of the sides river bank
of a right-angled triangle
Figure 1.12 The swimmer’s velocity vectors shown as a right-angled
right angle an angle of 90
triangle including the river bank.
degrees
Using trigonometry, we can determine angle θ. As we have the side
opposite the angle (1.0 m/s) and the side adjacent to the angle
(2.0 m/s) we should use:
opposite
tan θ = State principle or equation to be used (trigonometry)
adjacent

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 Unit 1: Vectors

1.0
tan θ = Substitute in known values
2.0
tan θ = 0.5 Solve for tan θ
θ = tan–1 0.5 Rearrange equation to make θ the subject and solve
θ = 26.6° Clearly state the answer with unit
This means the angle between the resultant velocity and the river
bank is given by 90° – 26.6° = 63.4°.
Both methods give nearly identical answers; the mathematical These four vectors become two
method offers more precise values.
Table 1.3 Comparing mathematical and diagrammatic methods for
finding resultants
Figure 1.13 Combining more
Parallelogram method Mathematical method than two vectors

Size 2.25 m/s 2.24 m/s

Direction 64° 63.4°
If you have more than two perpendicular vectors you add up the 8.0 N 6.0 N
parallel ones first leaving you with two perpendicular vectors from
which you can determine the resultant. 60o

Non-parallel and non-perpendicular vectors Figure 1.14 Non-parallel and

non-perpendicular vectors
So we can now add parallel vectors and perpendicular vectors,
(in this case forces)
but what if the two vectors to be added are not parallel or
perpendicular? An example of two forces can be seen below. Trigonometry
We could use the parallelogram method, as before. This can be hypotenuse × sin θ = opposite
seen below, but notice that as the vectors are not perpendicular the hypotenuse × cos θ = adjacent
parallelogram is not a rectangle.

The size and the angle of the resultant could then be measured
directly. But what if we wanted to find a more precise, mathematical
answer?
Draw the two vectors from the same origin. A diagonal passing
through their origin describes their resultant. Figure 1.15 Parallelogram
method for non-perpendicular
Resolving vectors vectors
In order to solve the problem mathematically we need to resolve
one of the vectors. Resolving means splitting one vector into two KEY WORD
component vectors (usually one horizontal and one vertical). These resolve to split a force or
components have the same effect as the original vector. This process vector into its horizontal and
is almost the reverse of combining two perpendicular vectors. An vertical components
example can be seen on the next page in Figure 1.16; the 8.0 N force
can be resolved into two component vectors that when combined
have the same effect.

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 Unit 1: Vectors

The component vectors form the sides of a right-angled triangle.

They make up the opposite and adjacent sides of the triangle. As we
know the size of the hypotenuse (in this case 8.0 N) and the angle
8.0 N (in this case 60°) we can then use trigonometry to find their sizes.
60o

opposite

adjacent

Figure 1.16 Components shown Figure 1.17 Component vectors as a right-angled triangle
in blue

force

horizontal
component

Figure 1.18 This is an example of where resolving forces may be

useful. Although the rope is at an angle it is only the horizontal
component that causes the box to move.

So working through we get:

• hypotenuse × sin θ = opposite
• 8.0 N × sin 60° = 6.9 N, the vertical component
• hypotenuse × cos θ = adjacent
• 8.0 N × cos 60° = 4.0 N, the horizontal component
How is this useful?
We now have three vectors to add together; instead of the 8 N
6.9 N 4.0 N 6.0 N vector we have two components.

These can then be added to give 10.0 N horizontally and

Figure 1.19 Component vectors 6.9 N vertically. Using Pythagoras and trigonometry, the size
to add and direction of the resultant can be calculated as before.

6.9 N

θ
10.0 N
Figure 1.20 Solution: the resultant is 12.1 N at an angle of 34.6° from
the horizontal. Check it yourself!

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 Unit 1: Vectors

Activity 1.4: Resultant

forces
Mathematically determine
the resultant force if two
forces, A and B, act on an
object. Force A is 85 N and
is at an angle of 20° to the
horizontal. Force B is 125 N
and is at an angle of 60° to
the horizontal.

120 N

30o
Figure 1.21 Vectors are really important to pilots in planning
their route.

This technique works for multiple vectors at different angles. 100 N

For example, adding two velocities (this could be the velocities
of an aircraft, one due to the direction it is moving the other due 80o
to the wind).
Figure 1.22 Two vectors at
Each of these vectors could then be resolved into horizontal and different angles
vertical components. This would give you four vectors to combine.

These could then be added to give two perpendicular vectors.

Notice that the horizontal vectors are in different directions and so
should be subtracted.
Finally you can use Pythagoras and trigonometry to determine the
size and direction of the resultant. Figure 1.23 Four components
from the two vectors in Figure
1.22
Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• The resultant is the sum of two or more vectors.
• When adding vectors their direction is very important.
• The parallelogram method is a quick and easy way to
determine the resultant vector.
• To add perpendicular vectors mathematically you use
Pythagoras’s theorem to find the size of the resultant and
trigonometry to determine its direction.
• Resolving a vector means splitting it into two components.
• Resolving vectors enables you to find the result for vectors
at different angles.

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 Unit 1: Vectors

Review questions
1. Calculate the resultant force in each of the examples below.

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�����
���� ���� �����
�����

����
� � �

Figure 1.24 Examples for Question 1

2. An aircraft is travelling due North with a velocity of
100 m/s. A strong wind blows from the West with a velocity of
25 m/s. Find the resultant velocity, using both the parallelogram
method and the mathematical method.
3. Find the resultant force in Figure 1.22.

1.3 Some applications of vectors

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the term equilibrium.
• Explain the importance of forming a triangle of three
vectors.
• Carry out some experiments to investigate vectors.

What does equilibrium mean?

As well as their importance in navigation (displacement and
velocity vectors), force vectors are incredibly important to all
buildings and structures. Often huge forces are involved but in
the case of a bridge or building there should be no resultant forces
acting. If there was, the bridge would move and perhaps topple over.
KEY WORD When there is no resultant force acting on an object it is said to be
equilibrium a state of in equilibrium.
balance where there are no This is easy to imagine in one dimension.
resulting forces acting on a
body 4N 6N

8N 6N

Figure 1.25 Forces in equilibrium

The sum of the forces to the left is 12 N. The sum of the forces to the
right is 12 N (you could say –12 N). Adding these together gives a

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 Unit 1: Vectors

resultant of 0 N. This object is in equilibrium, there is no resultant

force acting on it.
Did you know?
When in equilibrium, all the
In two dimensions this gets a little more difficult. If the vectors are horizontal forces (those in
just perpendicular you add up the horizontal forces (those in the the x direction) must add
x direction) and these should give a resultant force of zero. You up to equal zero. This can be
would then repeat the process for the vertical forces (those in the written as:
y direction). If all the forces add up to zero then the object is in
ΣFx = 0
equilibrium.
Σ means ‘sum of ’. So this
Scale diagrams literally means that the
sum of all the forces in the
If the forces are not perpendicular then there are two techniques
x direction is zero.
you could use to check if the object is in equilibrium. The first
involves drawing a scale diagram. The same is true for the
vertical forces (those in the
To do this you simply:
y direction). This can be
• select a scale for your forces written as:
• draw them to scale, one after the other (in any order), lining ΣFy = 0
them up head to tail ensuring the directions are correct.

If you end up where you started then all the forces cancel out
and there is no resultant force (Figure 1.26). However, if there is Start/End
a gap then there must be a resultant force and the object is not in
equilibrium (Figure 1.27).

Triangle of vectors
If there are only three forces acting, then the scale diagram will Figure 1.26 Scale diagram
always be a triangle if the object is in equlibrium. showing no resultant force

Start End

Figure 1.28 Triangle of vectors

Figure 1.27 Scale diagram
Proving equilibrium mathematically showing a resultant force (the red
arrow)
If you have several forces you can check they are in equilibrium
mathematically.
Take three forces below.
106 N
(A) (B) (C)

42o 42 N

64o 6o

Figure 1.29 Three forces, A, B

84 N and C at different angles

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 Unit 1: Vectors

Each of these forces could then be resolved into horizontal and

vertical components. This would give six component vectors – three
vertical and three horizontal.

Discussion activity
If you had two forces could you work out the size and direction of
a third force required to keep the object in equilibrium?

(A) (B) (C)

75.5 N
70.9 N
78.8 N 36.8 N 42.0 N 4.6 N

Figure 1.30 Six components from the three forces in Figure 1.29
Adding up the vertical vectors:
70.9 N – 75.5 N + 4.6 N = 0 N
Adding up the horizontal vectors:
78.8 N – 36.8 N – 42.0 N = 0 N
There is no resultant force so the object must be in equilibrium.
Be careful to ensure you add or subtract the vectors depending on
their direction.
You could repeat this technique for any number of forces! If the
components don’t all cancel out then the object will not be in
equilibrium.
Chaltu
The box pulled by Chaltu, Biruk and Abrehet is in
Biruk
equilibrium. This means that:
C
The sum of the forces exerted by Abrehet and Biruk
B
is equal to the force exerted by Chaltu
90º
OR
The sum of the forces exerted by Biruk and Chaltu is
A equal to the force exerted by Abrehet
OR
Abrehet The sum of the forces exerted by Chaltu and Abrehet
is equal to the force exerted by Biruk.

Figure 1.31 Investigating vectors

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 Unit 1: Vectors

Activity 1.5: Experimentally determining equilibrium

There are a number of experiments you could do to investigate
forces in equilibrium. Here is one example.
You are going to pull on a block of wood with two forces. You
will find the resultant of the two forces, and then check your
findings by vector addition.
• Find a suitable block of wood, and three forcemeters
(newtonmeters or spring balances). Place the block on a
sheet of plain paper.
• Attach two of the forcemeters (A and B) to one end of the
block, as shown in Figure 1.31. Attach the third (C) to the
opposite end.
• One person pulls on each forcemeter. A and B should be
at an angle of 90° to each other. C is in the opposite
direction. Pull the forcemeters so that their effects balance.
• On the paper, record the magnitudes and directions of the
three forces.
• Now find the resultant of forces A and B (either by scale
drawing or by calculation).
• Because force C balances forces A and B, it must be equal
and opposite to the resultant of A and B. Did you find this?
• Repeat the experiment with different forces at a different
angle.
You could repeat the experiment without one of the
forcemeters. You could then, either by scale diagram or
mathematically, determine the size and direction of the
unknown force.

Review questions
1. What is meant by the term equilibrium?
2. Give three examples of objects in equilibrium found in the
classroom and draw an approximate scale diagram for the
object.
3. Three forces are acting on an object (Figure 1.32) which is in
equilibrium. Determine force A.
1200 N

51.3o Force A
42.0o

1400 N Figure 1.32 Three forces, acting on a ship.

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 Unit 1: Vectors

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• An object is said to be in equilibrium when there are no
resultant forces acting on it.
• Scale diagrams can be used to determine whether or not an
object is in equilibrium.
• If there are three forces acting on an object in equilibrium
then when drawn they form a triangle.
• Using the component method you can mathematically
determine if an object is in equilibrium.

End of unit questions

1. Distinguish between a vector and a scalar quantity. Give four
examples of each.
2. State which of the following are vectors and which are scalars:
distance, mass, time, weight, volume, density, speed, velocity,
acceleration, force, temperature and energy.
3. A velocity of magnitude 40 m/s is directed at an angle of 40°
East of North. Draw a vector on paper to represent this velocity.
4. A car travels 3 km due North, then 5 km East. Represent
these displacements graphically and determine the resultant
displacement.
5. Two forces, one of 12 N and another of 24 N, act on a body in
such a way that they make an angle of 90° with each other. Find
the resultant of the two forces.
6. Two cars A and B are moving along a straight road in the same
direction with velocities of 25 km/h and 40 km/h, respectively.
Find the velocity of car B relative to car A.
7. Calculate the component of a force of 200 N at a direction of
60° to the force.

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 Motion in a straight line Unit 2

Contents
Section Learning competencies
2.1 Uniform motion • Describe the characteristics of uniform motion.
(page 16) • Define the terms distance, displacement, speed and velocity.
• Explain the difference between distance and displacement.
• Distinguish between average and instantaneous speeds and velocities.
2.2 Uniformly • Define the term acceleration.
accelerated • Describe the meaning of the term uniformly accelerated motion.
motion • Explain the meaning of the unit m/s2.
(page 19) • Use velocity–time graphs to determine the acceleration of an object.
2.3 Graphical • Describe the key features of distance–time and displacement–time
description of graphs.
uniformly • Use displacement–time graphs to determine the velocity of an object.
accelerated • Describe the key features of velocity–time graphs.
motion • Use velocity–time graphs to determine the acceleration of an object and
(page 22) the displacement.
2.4 Equations of • Describe the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
uniformly • Use these equations to solve problems.
accelerated • Explain the importance of using the correct sign convention (+ or –)
motion when dealing with velocities and accelerations.
(page 28) • Define the meaning of the term free fall.
• Apply the equations to solve problems relating to free fall.
2.5 Relative • Explain the meaning of the term reference point (or reference frame).
velocity in one • Describe the relative velocities of objects.
dimension • Calculate the relative velocity of a body with respect to another body
(page 36) when moving in the same or in the opposite direction.

It is almost impossible to imagine yourself living in a world without

motion. Stand still, perfectly still; are you in motion? Yes you are…
the Earth is spinning at over 450 m/s and even more mind boggling,
it is travelling around the Sun with a speed of 30 000 m/s! You are
moving very fast.
Every physicist needs a detailed understanding of motion. From
catching a ball to driving a car, motion affects our daily lives. How
things move is an important aspect of physics.
This unit looks at how things move. You will learn techniques to
correctly describe the motion of objects, how to calculate how
a certain object will move and the fact that all motion is in fact
relative.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

KEY WORDS 2.1 Uniform motion

uniform motion the motion
of an object moving at a By the end of this section you should be able to:
steady speed in a straight line • Describe the characteristics of uniform motion.
displacement distance
• Define the terms distance, displacement, speed and
moved in a particular
velocity.
direction
• Explain the difference between distance and displacement.
Think about this… • Distinguish between average and instantaneous speeds and
velocities.
If an object is travelling in
a circle at a steady speed
why is this not considered
to be uniform motion? What is uniform motion?
In order to understand motion there are several key terms we need
Activity 2.1: Distance to understand. Uniform motion refers to an object moving at a
and displacement for a steady speed in a straight line. If it is speeding up, slowing down or
journey changing its direction then its motion is not uniform.
Using a map, design a An example could be a bus driving at a steady 100 km/h along a
journey from one town straight road. The bus’s motion is said to be uniform.
to another. By carefully
considering the route Distance and displacement
determine the distance and We have used the term displacement in the previous unit.
the displacement for the Displacement is a vector quantity and so it is very different from
journey. distance.
Repeat, but this time make
the journey much larger!
Perhaps starting at Addis A B
North
Ababa and ending up in a
different continent.
Figure 2.1 The difference between distance and displacement for a
Start/Finish
journey

Imagine a person travels from A to B following the black line

(Figure 2.1). They would travel a distance of 32 km. This is how far
they have actually travelled.
However, their displacement (the dotted line) would only be 12 km
Figure 2.2 Displacement when East. This is how far they have travelled in a particular direction (in
travelling in a circle this case East).
A more extreme example could be athletes running around a
Discussion activity circular track. If they complete six laps, with each lap being 1.0 km,
What would the distance and then they would have travelled a distance of 6.0 km. However, as
displacement be after half a they are back where they started, their displacement would be zero!
lap?
Each lap covers a distance of 1.0 km but the displacement after each
What about three and a half lap is zero.
laps?

16 Grade 9

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Speed and velocity

Think about this…
The differences between distance and displacement are even more
If Deratu takes 15 minutes
important when calculating average speed and average velocity.
to complete 12 laps on the
average speed = distance travelled running track at Addis Ababa
time taken Stadium, what is her average
speed if one lap is 450 m
average velocity = displacement
time taken long? What would her average
velocity be?
Speed is a scalar quantity whereas velocity is a vector quantity.
Therefore, velocity must always include a direction.
Using the journey in Figure 2.1 we can calculate the average speed
and the average velocity. Let’s assume it took 6 hours to complete
the journey.
average speed = distance travelled
State principle or equation to be
time taken used (definition of average speed)

average speed = 32 km Substitute in known values and complete

6 h calculation
average speed = 5.3 km/h Clearly state the answer with unit
No direction needs to be given because speed is a scalar quantity Figure 2.3 What speed and
velocity did Deratu achieve?
average velocity = displacement State principle or equation to be
time taken used (definition of average velocity)

average velocity = 12 km, East Substitute in known values and Activity 2.2: Average
6h complete calculation speed and average
velocity
average velocity = 2.0 km/h East Clearly state the answer with unit
In small groups, use a metre
The differences between average speed and average velocity can be stick or travel wheel to
seen clearly in this simple calculation. measure out a short (15 m)
course.
Average speed and velocity Draw a scale diagram of your
It is very important to stress that these are averages. At different course.
times the person could have been travelling faster or slower than Take turns to run, walk,
their average speed. Think about a bus ride from one city to another crawl (whatever you like!)
– the journey may be 200 km long and take four hours. This would through the course making
give an average speed of 50 km/h. sure to time your journey
Looking at the journey in more detail we might find on the main each time.
road that the bus travels at 100 km/h but in the city it may have to Use your measurements
travel much slower, perhaps 30 km/h. Also, being a bus, it has to to determine your average
stop to pick people up! Its speed is then 0 km/h. The bus is very speed and average velocity
rarely travelling at 50 km/h. in each case.
Average speeds and average velocities are useful but they do leave
out a great deal of information about the nature of the journey.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

KEY WORDS Instantaneous speed and velocity

instantaneous speed speed As an alternative, the terms instantaneous speed and
at a given instant in time instantaneous velocity are used. In the case of instantaneous
velocity, this refers to the velocity at any given instant in time (the
instantaneous velocity same is true for speed).
velocity at a given instant in
time Instantaneous velocity is often changing. This might be due to the
object getting faster, getting slower or even changing direction. This
is because velocity is a vector quantity, so if the direction changes so
does the velocity.
An extreme example of this is an object going around a circle at a
steady speed. Here the speed of the object is constant but its velocity
is always changing.
If an object is travelling with uniform motion then the
instantaneous velocity (and speed) remains the same.

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• Uniform motion is when an object travels at constant speed
in a straight line.
• Distance is a scalar quantity, whereas displacement is a
vector quantity.
• Average speed = distance travelled / time taken.
• Average velocity = displacement / time taken.
• Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at any given instant
in time.

Review questions
1. Using examples, explain the difference between distance and
displacement.
2. The Earth is, on average, 150 million km from the Sun.
Calculate its average speed in orbit.
3. A runner jogs 12 km North then turns and runs 16 km East in
three hours.
a) What is his displacement?
b) Calculate his average speed.
c) Calculate his average velocity (including the direction).

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

2.2 Uniformly accelerated motion

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the term acceleration.
• Describe the meaning of the term uniformly accelerated
motion.
• Explain the meaning of the unit m/s2.
• Use velocity–time graphs to determine the acceleration of
an object
KEY WORD
acceleration the rate of
What is acceleration? change of velocity
The term acceleration has a very specific definition.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
This means that whenever an object’s velocity is changing it
is accelerating. The faster the velocity changes, the greater the
acceleration. Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time.
It is important to note that it is a change in velocity not a change in
speed. A change in velocity might be:
• getting faster
• getting slower
• changing direction.
It is possible to travel at a constant speed but with a changing
velocity. For example, any object moving at a steady speed in a circle
must be accelerating even though its speed is not changing. This is
because when an object moves in a circle:
• its direction changes.
• This means its velocity must be changing
• and if its velocity is changing it is accelerating. Did you know?
The famous Ethiopian great
distance runner, Miruts
Yifter, was nicknamed the
“gear changer”. He used to
accelerate at the finishing
lap of 10 000 and 5000 m
races.

Figure 2.4 The Earth follows a near

perfect circular orbit. It travels
at a fairly steady speed of around
30 000 m/s but its velocity is always
changing.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

The acceleration of an object depends on the forces acting on it

(more on this in unit 3).
If these forces don’t change then the acceleration of the object
doesn’t change. Uniform acceleration refers to situations where
the acceleration of an object remains constant. This might be an
acceleration of 0 m/s2, in which case the velocity of the object also
remains constant. Most real world situations involve changing
forces (most notably drag as objects get faster); this means the
acceleration of an object often changes as it gets faster.

What does 8 m/s2 mean?

Acceleration has strange units.
Velocity is usually measured in m/s and as acceleration is the
change in velocity per second, acceleration is measured in m/s/s
or m/s2.
An acceleration of 8 m/s2 means the object will be increasing its
velocity by 8 m/s every single second. So if it started from rest, then
after 1 second it would be travelling at 8 m/s, after 2 seconds at
16 m/s, after 3 second at 24 m/s, etc.
Alternatively, an acceleration of –9 m/s2 means the velocity decreases
by 9 m/s every single second. Imagine an object initially travelling
at 45 m/s. It accelerates at –9 m/s2 (or you could say decelerates at
9 m/s2). After one second it would be travelling at 36 m/s, after two
seconds at 27 m/s, after three seconds at 18 m/s, etc.

Acceleration calculations
To calculate acceleration we use:

average acceleration = change in velocity

time taken
For example, a car going from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 4 seconds:

average acceleration = change in velocity

Figure 2.5 A car increases its State principle or equation
velocity as it accelerates. time taken to be used (definition of
average acceleration)
(30 m/s – 10 m/s)
average acceleration = Substitute in known values
4s

average acceleration = 20 m/s Complete calculation in brackets

4s
average acceleration = 5 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit
It is a positive number as the car’s velocity is increasing from
10 m/s to 30 m/s. Its velocity increases by 5 m/s every second.
What about the same car braking to a stop? If it goes from 30 m/s to
0 m/s (stop) in 10 seconds, what is its acceleration?

average acceleration = change in velocity

State principle or equation
time taken to be used (definition of
average acceleration)

20 Grade 9

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

average acceleration = (0 m/s – 30 m/s) Substitute in known values

10 s

average acceleration = –30 m/s Complete calculation in brackets

10 s
average acceleration = –3 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit
It is a negative number because the car’s velocity is decreasing from
30 m/s to 0 m/s. Its velocity decreases by 3 m/s every second until it
comes to rest.
A more complex problem might involve calculating the original
velocity of an object.
For example, an aircraft accelerates at 10 m/s2 for 15 s. Its final
velocity is 320 m/s. Find its initial velocity before it accelerated.

average acceleration = change in velocity

time taken
This can be rearranged to:
average acceleration × time taken = change in velocity
10 m/s2 × 15 s = change in velocity
150 m/s = change in velocity
The final velocity is 320 m/s and the change in velocity is
150 m/s. To find the initial velocity we use:
initial velocity = final velocity – change in velocity
initial velocity = 320 m/s – 150 m/s
initial velocity = 170 m/s

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
• Acceleration is measure in m/s2.
• When an object is uniformly accelerated, its acceleration
remains constant.

Review questions
1. Define acceleration and state its units.
2. A car accelerates from 10 m/s to 28 m/s in 6 s. Find the average
acceleration.
3. An aircraft decelerates at 0.5 m/s2. After 8 minutes its velocity
has dropped to 160 m/s. Find its initial velocity.

Grade 9 21

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

2.3 Graphical description of uniformly accelerated

motion

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Describe the key features of distance–time and
displacement–time graphs.
• Use displacement–time graphs to determine the velocity
of an object.
• Describe the key features of velocity–time graphs.
• Use velocity–time graphs to determine the acceleration
of an object and the displacement.

Motion graphs
Average velocities can only tell us a certain amount of information.
If we need more detail then motion graphs are used. In order to
determine instantaneous velocities we can plot displacement–time
graphs.
A graph is a useful way of showing how something has moved. To
draw a graph, we need information about an object’s displacement
at different times. Table 2.1 shows the displacement of a cyclist on
the way to school.
Table 2.1 Displacement of a cyclist
Displacement (m) 0 80 160 240 240 280
Time (s) 0 20 40 60 80 100

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���

���

���

�
� �� �� �� �� ���
��������

Figure 2.6 Displacement–time graph for a cyclist

The information in the table has been used to draw the graph
(Figure 2.6). Note the axes of the graph have been carefully labelled
to show the quantity and unit:

22 Grade 9

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

• time in seconds on the x-axis ������������ ����

• displacement in metres on the y-axis.

We can tell quite a lot from this graph.
• At first, the graph is a straight line sloping upwards. The cyclist
went at a steady speed for the first 60 s.
• Then the graph is horizontal. The cyclist stopped for 20 s.
����
• Then the graph slopes upwards again, but less steeply. During the Horizontal line
�
Constant displacement
last 20 s, the cyclist moved more slowly than before. Velocity = 0
Figure 2.7 summarises how to interpret the shape of a
displacement–time graph. You can see that the steeper the gradient
������������ ������������ ����

(slope) of the graph, the greater the velocity of the moving object. A �

curved graph indicates that the object’s velocity is changing.

�
Calculating velocity
From the displacement–time graph, we can work out an object’s
velocity (as explained in the worked example):
���� ����
• Velocity = gradient of displacement–time graph. Straight line, sloping upwards
� �
Constant velocity
A has a greater velocity than B
Worked example
������������ ������������

displacement (m) �
(50,1000)
1000

500

���� ���� ����

(10, 200) Graph curving
� � �
Velocity is changing

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 2.7 Different
time (s) displacement–time graphs

Activity 2.3: Distance–

Figure 2.8 Displacment–time graph of a taxi time graph on way to
Figure 2.8 is a displacement–time graph for a moving taxi. Find school
its velocity. Carefully sketch out a
Choose two points on the graph (they should not be too close distance–time graph for your
together). journey into school. Describe
each section of your graph
Draw horizontal and vertical lines to complete a right-angled
with a partner.
triangle.
Calculate the displacement and time represented by these two
sides of the triangle:
displacement = 1000 m – 200 m = 800 m
time = 50 s – 10 s = 40 s

Grade 9 23

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Calculate velocity in the usual way:

displacement 800 m
velocity = = = 20 m/s
time 40 s
So the taxi is travelling at 20 m/s.

Distance–time and displacement–time graphs

Although the key features are the same, there is one big difference
between distance–time and displacement–time graphs.
As distance is a scalar quantity it only goes up and up. The distance
never goes down.
However, as displacement is a vector quantity it can also go down.
For example, if you walk 10 m away from your friend heading
North and then stop you have travelled a distance of 10 m and your
displacement is 10 m North. However, if you then turn around and
walk 6 m back towards your friend you will have travelled 16 m but
your displacement would then be only 4 m North. This can be seen
in the two examples below.
20

18
16

14
Distance /m

12
10

2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time /s
10

8
Displacement /m

2
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time /s

Figure 2.9 Distance–time and displacement–time graphs for the same

journey.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

You can clearly see the displacement begin to fall as you head back
in the direction you came from. Eventually if you end up back
by your friend your displacement will be 0 m but you will have
travelled a distance of 20 m.

Negative
Gradient
gradients
Distance–time graph Speed No
Displacement–time graph Velocity Yes

Table 2.2 A comparison between distance–time and displacement–

time graphs
This means you can get negative values from the gradient of a
displacement–time graph but not from a distance–time graph. This
makes sense if you think about it. You might get a negative velocity
of –4 m/s but negative speeds do not make any sense.

Velocity–time graphs
Just as a displacement–time graph shows how far an object has moved,
a velocity–time graph shows how its velocity changes as it travels along.
Figure 2.10 shows an example; in this case, the motion of a car at the
start of its journey. We can deduce several points from the graph.

15
Velocity (m/s)

10

0
0 10 20 30
Time (s)

Figure 2.10 A velocity–time graph for a car.

At the start, the car was not moving.
• velocity = 0 when time = 0
The car accelerated at a steady rate during the first 10 s until it
reached a velocity of 15 m/s.
• the graph is a straight line, sloping upwards
The car travelled at 15 m/s for 20 s.
• the graph is horizontal, so acceleration = 0
After 30 s, the car decelerated rapidly to a halt.
• graph slopes steeply down to velocity = 0
You can learn a lot from the shape of a velocity–time graph,
as shown in Figure 2.11. Take care! Do not confuse these with
displacement–time graphs. Always check the labels on the axes
before interpreting a graph.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

If the velocity–time graph is a straight line, the object’s acceleration

A
is constant, and we say that it is moving with uniform acceleration.

Calculating acceleration and displacement

Velocity

Velocity
We can calculateBtwo quantities from a velocity–time graph. The
worked examples show how to do this.
• Acceleration is the gradient of a velocity–time graph.
• Displacement is the area under a velocity–time graph.
Time Time
Horizontal line Straight line, sloping upwards
Constant velocity Workedacceleration
Constant example
Acceleration = 0 A has a greater acceleration than B
Figure 2.12 shows how the velocity of a train changed as it set
A off from a station.
A Calculate its initial acceleration.
30
Velocity

Velocity
Velocity
Velocity

Velocity

B
Velocity (m/s)

B 20

10

e Time
Time Time
Horizontal
Straight line, Time upwards
linesloping Straight
0 Time upwards
line, sloping
0 100 200 300
Constant
Straight velocity
Constantline,
acceleration
sloping downwards Constant
Graph acceleration
curving Time (s)
Acceleration
A has a greater
Decelerating = 0acceleration than B A has a greater acceleration
Acceleration is changing than B
Acceleration is negative
Figure 2.12 Velocity–time graph for a train
A
• Choose two points on the graph. As before, select points
that are far apart.
• Complete a right-angled triangle.
Velocity
Velocity

Velocity
Velocity

B
• Calculate the change in velocity and the time taken:
change in velocity = 25 m/s – 5 m/s = 20 m/s
time taken = 125 s – 25 s = 100 s
ee Time
Time
Time • CalculateTimethe acceleration:
ng downwards Straight
Straight line, sloping upwards
line, sloping downwards
Graph curving Graph curving
Constant
Deceleratingacceleration
Acceleration is changing acceleration
Acceleration = gradient of graph
is changing =
gative A has a greater
Acceleration acceleration than B
is negative
20 m/s = 0.2 m/s2

100 s
Calculate the distance travelled by the train during the first
300 s of its journey.
Velocity

30
Velocity (m/s)

20

10
e Time
ng downwards Graph curving
Acceleration is changing 0
gative 0 100 150 200 300

Figure 2.11 Four velocity–time Time (s)

graphs. Figure 2.13 Finding the displacement of the train from its
velocity–time graph.

26 Grade 9

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Figure 2.13 shows the same graph as Figure 2.12; this time, KEY WORDS
though, we have to calculate displacement, which is equal to uniform acceleration a
the area under the graph. The area is divided into two parts: a constant value of acceleration
triangle and a rectangle. (Area of triangle = ½ × base × height;
area of rectangle = base × height.)
displacement = area of triangle + area of rectangle
Think about this…
= (½ × 30 m/s × 150 s) + (30 m/s × 150 s) It is important to note that
= 2250 m + 4500 m the area under the line
may also be negative; this
= 6750 m
would indicate a negative
displacement. In this case
the line would dip under
Activity 2.4: Graphs that tell stories the x-axis.
A velocity–time graph can tell the story of a journey. Here is
one driver’s description of a recent trip.
‘We crawled along through the city traffic at 6 m/s for
five minutes. Then we left the city, and we gradually
accelerated to 24 m/s in 20 s. We kept going at this speed for
two minutes, but then I noticed an accident on the road ahead
and I braked, so that we came to a halt in 8 s.
1 Draw a graph to represent this journey. (Remember, all the
times must be in seconds.)
2 From your graph, calculate the car’s acceleration and
deceleration.
3 Calculate the total distance travelled by the car. Now, make
up your own story and challenge a partner to draw the
graph and make the calculations.

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• Distance–time, displacement–time and velocity–time graphs
may be used to represent an object’s motion.
• The gradient of a displacement–time graph is equal to the
velocity of the object.
• The gradient of the line of a velocity–time graph is equal to
the acceleration.
• The area under the line of a velocity–time graph is equal to
the displacement.
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
• Acceleration is measured in m/s2.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Review questions
1. Draw a displacement–time graph for the following:
Displacement (m) 0 20 40 40 80 80 60 40 0
Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

a) Explain the different sections of the graph in as much detail

as you can.
b) Use the graph to determine the maximum velocity.
c) Find the average velocity after 45 s.
d) Find the instantaneous velocity at 45 s.
2. The following data were collected during a short race between
two friends.
Velocity (m/s) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2 4 6 2 0
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

a) Describe the different sections of the graph.

b) Determine the acceleration over the first eight seconds.
c) Determine the maximum acceleration.
d) Using the graph calculate the displacement:
i) over the first eight seconds
ii) the total race.
e) Find the maximum velocity reached by the runner.

2.4 Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Describe the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
• Use these equations to solve problems.
• Explain the importance of using the correct sign convention
(+ or –) when dealing with velocities and accelerations.
• Define the meaning of the term free fall.
• Apply the equations to solve problems relating to free fall.

As discussed in Section 2.2, acceleration has a very specific

definition.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
This can be written as:
average acceleration = change in velocity / time taken
If the acceleration is uniform (i.e. does not change) then the average
acceleration is the same as the acceleration during any given time.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

So we could rewrite that equation as:

Did you know?
acceleration = change in velocity / time
The Greek symbol delta Δ
But, only if the acceleration is constant. is often used to represent
To calculate change in velocity we could use the equation below: ‘change in’. So the formula
for acceleration could be
change in velocity = final velocity – initial velocity written as a = Δv / t.
Or in symbols:
change in velocity = v – u
where
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
This means our first equation could be written as:
a = (v – u)/t
where Think about this…
v = final velocity To help confusing v and
u, remember that u comes
u = initial velocity
before v in the alphabet and
a = acceleration so u is the initial velocity, the
t = time velocity before v!
This first equation is usually written as
v = u + at  (1)
For example, if a car is travelling at 8 m/s and accelerates with
uniform acceleration at 2 m/s2 for 6 s its final velocity will be:
v = u + at State principle or equation to be used
v = 8 m/s + (2 m/s2 × 6 s) S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
v = 20 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
This equation is often referred to as the first equation of the
equations of uniformly accelerated motion; there are four more.
Remember, this only applies if the acceleration is constant.
The second equation comes from the definition of velocity:
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement
This can be written as:
average velocity = displacement / time
If the acceleration is uniform then the average velocity can be found
by:
average velocity = (final velocity + initial velocity) / 2
So the equation becomes:
(initial velocity + final velocity) / 2 = displacement / time
Or in symbols
(u + v)/2 = s/t

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

where
s = displacement
v = final velocity
u = initial velocity
t = time
Rather confusingly, s if often used for displacement. Be careful not
to confuse this for speed!
This second equation is usually written as:
s = ½(u + v)t  (2)
Activity 2.5: Deriving
equations This gives us two of the five equations:

Using algebra, derive the v = u + at  (1)

three remaining equations s = ½(u + v)t  (2)
from the two equations
Notice that these equations only use five quantities: s, u, v, a and t.
given opposite.
The first one is missing s, the second one is missing a. The three
remaining equations are each missing one of the remaining
Symbols used in the quantities. They are derived from the two above.
equations
The complete set of equations in their usual form can be seen below:
s = displacement
v = u + at (1) (no s)
v = final velocity
s = ½(u + v)t (2) (no a)
u = initial velocity
s = ut + ½at 2
(3) (no v)
a = acceleration
v2 = u2 + 2as (4) (no t)
t = time
s = vt – ½at2 (5) (no u)
�������� ��������

������������������ �������������� ����������������

Did you know?

These equations are often
referred to as the SUVAT
equations. But don’t forget, ��������������
they only apply if the
acceleration of the object is Figure 2.14 The five quantities that appear in the equations of motion.
uniform (constant).
Using the equations
These equations can be used to solve a range of problems regarding
the motion of accelerating objects. There are lots of terms to use and
so to avoid confusion it is often a good idea to draw a quick table
like the one below:
Table 2.3 A table of motion quantities
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)

30 Grade 9

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

You can then fill in the quantities you know and this will help you
select the correct equation.
For example:
A cheetah accelerates at 3 m/s2 for 5 s. If its final velocity is 24 m/s,
determine its initial velocity.
We can now fill in what we know.
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)
? 24 3 5
Figure 2.15 Cheetahs are the
From the table you can see we don’t have s so we have to use fastest land animals, reaching
equation (1), the only one without s in it. speeds of 120 kph!
v = u + at State principle or equation to be used
Rearranging to give u gives
u = v – at Rearrange equation to make u the subject
u = 24 m/s – (3 m/s2 × 5 s) S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
u = 9 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
Here is another example. A runner in a race decides to accelerate
right up to the moment he crosses the line. He is initially travelling
at 5 m/s and accelerates at 0.4 m/s2 for 5 s. Find:
i) The distance from the line when he decides to accelerate.
ii) His final velocity as he crosses the line. Figure 2.16 How fast does the
runner finish?
Again we can fill in what we know.
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)
? 5 0.4 5
From the table you can see we don’t have v so we have to use
equation (3), the only one without v in it.
s = ut + ½at2 State principle or equation to be used
s = (5 m/s × 5 s) + ½ × 0.4 m/s2 × (5 s)2 S ubstitute in known values
and complete calculation
s = 30 m Clearly state the answer with unit
Adding this to the table we get.
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)
30 5 ? 0.4 5
To find v we can use any equation apart from equation (5). Perhaps
the best one to use is equation (1) as this does not rely on the value
for s. You may have miscalculated this so it’s better to be safe and
use values you are certain of if at all possible.
v = u + at State principle or equation to be used
v = 5 m/s + (0.4 m/s2 × 5 s) S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
v = 7 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Velocity
/m/s v
Velocity–time graphs for s = ut + ½at2
Equation (3) can be derived using ideas covered in section 2.3.
A velocity–time graph for an object with constant acceleration
u might look like the one in Figure 2.17. This might be a marble
rolling down an inclined ramp with the velocity measured at two
points along the ramp.
The gradient of the line is constant because the acceleration of the
object is constant.
Time/s
The total area under the graph represents the displacement of the
Figure 2.17 A typical velocity– object between these two velocities (see Figure 2.18).
time graph
This area has two sections, shown as 1 and 2 in Figure 2.19.
Velocity
/m/s
The area of the first section is simply u × t or ut. This added to the
v

second area will give the displacement.

The area of the triangle (Figure 2.20) is given by:
u
½(v – u) × t
From equation (1), v = u + at, it follows that v – u = at and so the
area can be expressed as:
½at × t or ½at2
Time/s The total area is given by the two areas added together. This gives:
Figure 2.18 The area under the
total area = ut + ½at2
line represents the displacement of
the object. So, the total area is the same as the displacement:
Velocity
/m/s v
s = ut + ½at2
If the acceleration was zero the graph would be a horizontal line;
the area in this case would be just ut. In other words, ½at2 would be
2 0. Equally, if the object started from rest then u would be 0 and the
u
graph would be just a triangle, in which case the area would be just
½at2 as ut would be 0.
1
Positive or negative?
As both velocity and acceleration are vector quantities their
Time/s
directions are very important. If the velocity is in the same direction
Figure 2.19 The area can be split as the acceleration then both could be considered to be positive.
into two sections. However, if they are in opposite directions then one must be
Velocity
negative.
/m/s v

v-u
10 m/s
u
t

Time/s
3 m/s2
Figure 2.20 The area of the
triangle Figure 2.21 A car braking at traffic lights

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

As an example, Figure 2.21 shows a car approaching a set of traffic

lights. If the car has to stop, its velocity is in one direction but the Think about this…
acceleration is in the opposite direction (since it is slowing down). It does not really matter
This would give us a velocity of 10 m/s and an acceleration of –3 m/s2. which one is negative as long
as we think carefully about
Imagine a ball rolling up a very long slope with an initial velocity of
our answers. Using the car
6 m/s. The acceleration acts down the slope and has a value of
example it would be equally
2 m/s2. If we wanted to find the velocity of the ball after two seconds
valid to say the velocity is
we could use one of our equations of constant acceleration.
–10 m/s and the acceleration
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s) is 3 m/s2.
6 ? 2 2
This table is wrong. We have both initial velocity and acceleration as
positive. This is not right as they are in opposite directions.
If we were to use v = u + at using these values we would get a final
velocity of 10 m/s. The ball has got faster as it has travelled up the
slope!
Instead if we decide to say the velocity up the slope is positive we
get
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)
6 ? –2 2
The acceleration is –2 m/s2 as we have decided that the positive Figure 2.22 Ball rolling up a slope
direction is up the slope.
v = u + at State principle or equation to be used
v = 6 m/s + (–2 m/s2 × 2 s) S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
v = 2 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
This makes much more sense! The ball has got slower.
What about if we wanted the velocity after 10 s? Filling in the table
we would get: Think about this…
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s) We would have got the same
answer if we had made the
6 ? –2 10 acceleration positive and
The acceleration is –2 m/s2 as we have decided that the positive the initial velocity in the
direction is up the slope. negative direction. Except
our final answer would be
v = u + at State principle or equation to be used
+14 m/s; indicating it is in
v = 6 m/s + (–2 m/s2 × 10 s) S ubstitute in known values and complete the same direction as the
calculation acceleration.
v = –14 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit Equally, using s = ut + ½at2
we would get a displacement
Our answer is –14 m/s. What does this mean? Because we decided
of –40 m, meaning the ball
to make the direction up the slope positive, –14 m/s must mean
is 40 m lower down the slope
the ball has gradually slowed down, stopped and then rolled back
than when it started.
down. After 10 s it is travelling down the slope at 14 m/s.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Free fall
Free fall is a kind of motion where the acceleration of the object is
just due to the acceleration due to gravity. For this to take place we
must assume that air resistance (drag) is not acting on the object.
For most examples we are going to look at this as a fair assumption.
Air resistance only plays an important role if the object is moving
quite fast or has a very large surface area. However, there are plenty
of cases when we will need to consider air resistance in the future
(for example, a parachutist!).
Around 1590, there was a story about Galileo Galilei (1564–1642),
an Italian scientist. It is said he climbed up the Leaning Tower
of Pisa to test out his theory of free fall. He dropped two cannon
balls, one large one, one small one. Everyone watching thought the
Figure 2.23 Air resistance is very larger one, that is the one with more mass, would hit the ground
important to parachutists! first. Instead they both hit the ground at the same time. Galileo had
realised that all objects dropped on Earth accelerate at the same
rate; it is only air resistance that slows them down.
Did you know? When an object is undergoing free fall it will accelerate at 9.81 m/s2;
Technically, as the this is the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth. It
definition of free fall does is important to note that if we ignore air resistance then all objects,
not include any mention of regardless of their mass, will accelerate at this rate.
velocity (either magnitude This is a little counter-intuitive; our experiences work against us
or direction), it also applies when thinking about free fall. If you imagine a stone and a piece of
to objects initially moving paper being dropped, it is obvious the stone will hit the ground first!
upward. For example, However, this is due to air resistance having a greater effect on the
a small marble thrown piece of paper. Both the stone and paper initially accelerate at the
vertically up into the air is same rate.
undergoing free fall on both
the way up and the way On the Moon there is no atmosphere and so no air resistance. In
down! 1971, American astronaut David Scott simultaneously dropped a
hammer and a feather from the same height to demonstrate free
fall. The hammer and the feather both fell exactly at the same rate
and so hit the ground at the same time!
If we ignore air resistance then the acceleration of all falling objects
can be considered to be uniform. We can then use the equations of
uniform acceleration to determine how long objects take to hit the
ground and what their final velocity is just before impact.
For example, imagine a ball dropped from a height of 4.0 m. How
long would it take to hit the ground?
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s)
4.0 0.0 9.81 ?
(as dropped)
You can see we’ve used the initial velocity as 0 m/s, as the ball is
dropped, and the acceleration as 9.81 m/s2.

Figure 2.24 The Leaning Tower

of Pisa

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

Worked example
We don’t know the final velocity of the ball so we must use
equation (3) (there is no v in this equation).
s = ut + ½at2 State principle or equation to be used
ut = 0, as the ball was dropped, so the equation becomes:
s = ½at2
This can rearranged to t = √2s/a R  earrange equation to make t
the subject
t = √(2 × 4.0 m)/9.81 m/s S ubstitute in known values and
2

complete calculation
t = 0.9 s Clearly state the answer with unit Figure 2.25 Astronaut on the
You can see from this that it does not matter what the mass Moon
of the ball is. Any object dropped from 4 m will hit the ground
after 0.9 s if we ignore air resistance. Activity 2.6: Dropping a
ball
Using our equations of uniform acceleration we can also work out Drop a ball from several
the final vertical velocity. Looking back at the table we now have: different heights and time
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s) how long it takes to hit the
ground. Record your data
4.0 0.0 ? 9.81 0.9 carefully and take repeats
(as dropped) for each height.
Using equation (3), calculate
Worked example the time it actually takes
to hit the ground. Compare
We could use either equation (1), (2), (4) or (5) to determine
the actual times with your
v. However, equation (4) does not rely on your calculation of
readings and comment on
time, so this is preferable.
your findings.
v2 = u2 + 2as State principle or equation to be used
v = √(u2 + 2as) Rearrange equation to make v the subject
v = √(02 + 2 × 9.81 m/s2 × 4.0 m) Substitute in known values Did you know?
and complete calculation
The acceleration due to
v = 8.9 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit gravity varies all over the
globe. At sea level it ranges
The equations can also be used if the ball is thrown vertically between 9.79 m/s2 and 9.83
upwards. In this case it is the same process, but u is not 0 m/s and it m/s2 depending on location.
is very important to remember that u is in one direction and a is in It also changes with altitude
the other. One will have to be negative! (although not by very
much). So we often use a
For example, we can use the equations to work out how long it standard value of exactly
takes a ball thrown vertically with a velocity of 20 m/s to reach its 9.80665 m/s2.
maximum height and how high it reaches.
Looking at the table we have:
KEY WORDS
s (m) u (m/s) v (m/s) a (m/s2) t (s) gravity the force of attraction
20 0 9.81 ? between an object in the
Earth’s gravitational field and
At its maximum height, the velocity of the ball will be 0 m/s. To find
the Earth itself
t we use equation (1).

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

v = u + at State principle or equation to be used

Think about this… t = (v – u)/a Rearrange equation to make t the subject
If you drop an object, the
t = (0 m/s – 20 m/s) / –9.81 m/s2 S ubstitute in known values and
displacement before it hits
complete calculation
the ground is given by
s = ½at2. If you take a as t = 2.0 s Clearly state the answer with unit
10 m/s2 (close enough), this A similar process gives s = 14 m. Try it for yourself!
becomes s = 5t2 If it takes 1 s
An object in free fall produces very distinctive displacement–time
to hit the ground then it must
and velocity–time graphs. The displacement–time and velocity-time
have fallen 5 m, 2 s means
graphs for an object in free fall can be seen in Figure 2.26.
20 m, etc. This is handy to
work out to approximate
height of bridges or depth of
Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
wells. Just make sure nobody • There are five equations that describe uniformly accelerated
is standing underneath! motion; these can be used to solve a range of problems.
• The directions of the velocity and the acceleration of an
��������
object are important when deciding whether they are
positive or negative values.
• When an object accelerates under gravity it is said to be in
free fall.
• The equations of uniform acceleration can be used to solve
problems relating to free fall.

����

Review questions
�
1. What are the five equations that describe uniform accelerated
motion?
������������ 2. A bus accelerates from 10 m/s to 18 m/s over 3 s. Find:
a) The distance the bus covers whilst it is accelerating.
b) The acceleration of the bus.
3. A runner slows down after completing a race. Her deceleration
is 0.25 m/s2. After 5 s she is travelling at 4 m/s, determine her
initial velocity.
���� 4. A stone is dropped off a tall building. It takes 5.3 s to hit the
ground. Determine the height of the building.
� 5. Explain what is meant by free fall.
Figure 2.26 Motion graphs for
objects undergoing free fall 2.5 Relative velocity in one dimension

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of the term reference frame (or
reference point).
• Describe the relative velocities of objects.
• Calculate the relative velocity of a body with respect to
another body when moving in the same or in the opposite
direction.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

It’s all relative! Did you know?

Whenever we take measurements of displacement the answer One of the key ideas in
we give is always relative. One house might be 1.5 km away from Einstein’s theory of special
another or one object might be a certain distance from another. relativity is that the speed of
The term reference frame (sometimes called reference point or light must be constant in all
frame of reference) refers to measurements taken from a certain reference frames. This leads
point of view. Most of the measurements you will take are from to some very strange effects,
your own reference frame. including time slowing
down for objects moving
You might think this only applies to displacements, but it also
very, very fast!
applies to velocities. If you are standing still and a car is approaching
you at 12 m/s you might think it has a velocity of 12 m/s in all
frames of reference, but you would be wrong. Now imagine you are KEY WORDS
in a different frame of reference, moving in the same direction as
the car at 2 m/s. The car would appear to be moving towards you at reference frame a point
10 m/s. No longer 12 m/s! from which measurements are
taken
The most common frame of reference is the Earth. When you stand
still you might think your velocity is zero. This is true in the Earth’s
frame of reference. However, if you could step off the Earth into
space you would see the Earth rotating and moving around the Sun.
So you would definitely be moving!
There are several different frames of reference. However, the laws
of motion governing a moving object (more on these in unit 3) are
only valid if the reference frame is either stationary relative to the
moving object or moving at constant velocity. This is often referred
to as an inertial frame of reference.

Relative velocity
As velocity is always measured from a reference frame this means
velocity is also always relative. Whenever you record the velocity of
an object the value of its velocity is relative to one frame of reference
or another. Velocity is usually measured from the Earth’s frame of
reference; an object is said to have zero velocity if it is not moving
relative to the Earth. Equally 30 m/s usually means 30 m/s relative
to the Earth.
However, we also often measure velocities from the frame of
reference of an observer who is moving at a steady speed.
For example, imagine you are sat on a moving bus and another bus
is overtaking you. From your frame of reference the overtaking bus
will appear to be moving quite slowly past the window. However,
if you were standing on the pavement, the overtaking bus will be
moving much faster relative to you.
The relative velocity between two objects can be thought of the
difference between their velocities (not their speeds, as the direction
is very important).
To calculate the relative velocities between moving objects we can
use the following equation:
vRab = va – vb

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

For example, the relative velocity of two trains on parallel tracks.

KEY WORDS
One train (a) is heading North at 30 m/s the other train (b) is
relative velocity the heading South at 20 m/s. In terms of vectors we could say:
difference between the
va = 30 m/s North and vb = 20 m/s South.
velocities of two moving
objects Train a Train b

va = 30 m/s vb = –20 m/s

Figure 2.27 Two trains heading towards each other
As the trains are heading toward each other the driver of train a
would see train b approaching at 50 m/s.
vRab = va – vb
vRab = 30 m/s – –20 m/s
vRab = 50 m/s
Also, the driver of train b would see train a approaching at 50 m/s!
The relative velocity between the two trains is 50 m/s. So if they
were 100 m apart it would take two seconds for the trains to pass
each other.
We can use the same process to calculate the relative velocity
between two athletes running along a long straight road. But this
time they are both travelling in the same direction.
The leading runner is travelling a 5 m/s but the athlete in second
place is sprinting to catch up. He is travelling at 7 m/s.
Athlete 2 Athlete 1

Figure 2.28 A travelling train

Think about this…

If two trains 18 km apart are
travelling towards each other,
one with a velocity of 35 m/s
and the other moving at
25 m/s, how long would it be
before the trains pass by each v2 = 7 m/s v1 = 5 m/s
other? Figure 2.29 Two athletes at the closing stages of a race

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

vR12 = v1 – v2 S tate principle or equation to be used (relative velocity

between 1 and 2) Think about this…
This equation can be used if
vR12 = 5 m/s – 7 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete
one object is stationary. Here
calculation
the relative velocity is just
vR12 = –2 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit the velocity of the moving
Because we have calculated the velocity of the lead runner relative object! If you are standing
to the second place runner we get –2 m/s. This means the leading on a platform and a train
runner would see the second place runner approaching him at approaches at 6 m/s, its
2 m/s. relative velocity is 6 m/s! But
also the train driver would
If they are 20 m apart it would take the second place runner 10 s to see you approaching at
catch the leader (assuming they stay at the same speed). 6 m/s.
5 km/h 5 km/h 20 km/h

Activity 2.7: People on

the bus
Look at the three people on
the bus in Figure 2.30. What
are the relative velocities
between each of them? What
Figure 2.30 Relative velocities of passengers on a bus about the relative velocity
between the three on the
Review questions bus and a passenger waiting
at the next bus stop?
1. Explain what is meant by the term reference frame.
2. Find the relative velocities of the following:
a) two cars travelling North on the same road, one travelling
at 15 m/s the other travelling at 20 m/s
b) two ships sailing down a river, one heading due East at
4 m/s the other sailing West at 2 m/s.

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• A frame of reference refers to a certain point of view
depending on the position and motion of the observer.
• The laws of motion only apply if the reference frame of the
observer is stationary or moving at a constant velocity.
• The velocity of an object depends on the frame of reference
of the observer.
• The relative velocity between one moving object and another
is given by the difference between their velocities.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

End of unit questions

1. How long will a bus take to travel 150 km at an average speed of
40 km/h?
2. A cheetah can run at 30 m/s, but only for about 12 s. How far
will it run in that time?
3. It takes a cheetah just 3 s to reach its top speed of 30 m/s.
What is its acceleration?
4. Table 2.4 shows how the displacement of a runner changed
during a sprint race. Draw a displacement–time graph to show
this data, and use it to deduce the runner’s speed in the middle
of the race.
Table 2.4 Data for a sprinter during a race

Displacement 0 4 10 20 50 80 105
(m)
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 6 9 12
velocity A 5. Figure 2.31 shows how the velocity of four cars changed as they
travelled along a straight road. Give reasons for your answers to
these questions:
B
(a) Which car was travelling at a steady speed?
C (b) Which car was decelerating?
(c) Which car had the greatest acceleration?
D
6. Table 2.5 shows how the velocity of a car changed during part of
a journey along a main road.
time
(a) Draw a velocity–time graph for the journey.
Figure 2.31 Velocity–time
a
graphs for four cars. (b) Write a brief description of the journey.
(c) Th
 e car’s speed changed during two parts of the journey.
Calculate its acceleration at these times.
Table 2.5 Data for part of a car journey – see Question 6

Velocity 16 20 24 24 24 21 18
(m/s)
Time (s) 0 10 20 40 60 70 80
7. A taxi is travelling at 15 m/s. Its driver accelerates with
acceleration 3 m/s2 for 4 s. What is its new velocity?
8. A car accelerates from 20 m/s to 30 m/s in 10 s.
(a) Calculate the car’s acceleration using v = u + at.
(b) D
 raw a velocity–time graph to show the car’s motion. Find the
distance it travels by calculating the area under the graph.
(c) Check your answer by using the equation s = ut + ½at2.

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 UNIT 2: Motion in a straight line

9.  A truck gradually starts off from rest with a uniform

acceleration of 2 m/s2. It reaches a velocity of 16 m/s. Using the
equation v2 = u2 + 2as, calculate the distance it travels while it is
accelerating.
10. T
 able 2.6 shows values of the displacement and velocity of a
falling object. Copy and complete the table, and use it to draw
displacement–time and velocity–time graphs for the object.
(Take g = 10 m/s2.)
Table 2.6 The motion of a falling object – see Question 10

Time t (s) 0 1 2 3 4
Displacement s (m) 0 5 20
Velocity v (m/s) 0 10 20

11. A
 stone is dropped from the top of a 45 m high building. How
fast will it be moving when it reaches the ground? And what
will its velocity be?
12. Two cars A and B are moving along a straight road in the same
direction with velocities of 25 km/h and 40 km/h, respectively.
Find the velocity of car B relative to car A.
13. An aircraft heads North at 320 km/h relative to the wind. The
wind velocity is 80 km/h from the North. Find the velocity of
the aircraft relative to the ground.
14. Two aircraft P and Q are flying at the same speed, 300 m/s.
The direction along which P is flying is at right angles to the
direction along which Q is flying. Find the magnitude of the
velocity of the aircraft P relative to aircraft Q.
15. A train travelling along a straight track starts from rest at point
A and accelerates uniformly to 20 m s–1 in 20 s. It travels at
this speed for 60 s, then slows down uniformly to rest in 40 s
at point C. It stays at rest at C for 30 s, then reverses direction,
accelerating uniformly to 10 m s–1 in 10 s. It travels at this speed
for 30 s, then slows down uniformly to rest in 10 s when it
reaches point B.
a Plot a graph of the motion of the train.
b Use your graph to calculate:
i the train’s displacement from point A when it reaches
point C
ii the train’s displacement from point A when it reaches
point B
iii the train’s acceleration each time its speed changes.

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 Forces and Newton’s
laws of motion Unit 3
Contents
Section Learning competencies
3.1 Forces in nature • List some of the forces that occur in nature and categorise them
(page 43) as contact or non-contact.
• State Newton’s first law.
• Explain the relationship between mass and inertia.
• State Hooke’s law and distinguish between elastic and inelastic
materials.
• Experimentally determine and describe the force constant of a
spring.
3.2 Newton’s second law • Distinguish between resultant force and equilibrant force.
(page 52) • Describe the effect of a force acting on a body.
• Apply Newton’s second law (as Fnet = ma) to solve problems.
• Resolve forces into rectangular components and compose forces
acting on a body using component methods.
• Describe the terms weight and weightlessness (including
distinguishing between weight and apparent weight).
• Calculate the weight and apparent weight of an object in a range
of situations.
3.3 Frictional forces • Explain the causes of frictional forces.
(page 64) • Describe the differences between limiting friction, static friction
and kinetic friction.
• Draw free body diagrams for objects on inclined planes (to include
frictional forces) and use these diagrams to solve problems.
3.4 Newton’s third law • State Newton’s third law.
(page 71) • Describe experiments to demonstrate it and give examples of
where it is applicable.
3.5 Conservation of • Define linear momentum and state its units.
linear momentum • State the law of conservation of momentum.
(page 74) • Define the term impulse and state its units.
• Solve numerical problems relating to momentum, conservation of
momentum and impulse.
• State Newton’s second law in terms of momentum.
3.6 Collisions (page 83) • Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
3.7 The first condition • State the conditions required for linear equilibrium.
of equilibrium • Decide whether a system is in equilibrium.
(page 84) • Apply the first condition of equilibrium to solve problems.

Forces are all around us. From keeping us standing on the Earth, to
the Earth moving around the Sun. We experience forces every day
of our lives.
This unit looks at different types of forces, how they interact and
what effect they have on motion. This is a large topic encompassing

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

some of the most important work ever carried out by Physicists.

You will look into Newton’s laws, Hooke’s work on springs, and even
learn how to calculate your mass and weight on different planets.

3.1 Forces in nature

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• List some of the forces that occur in nature and categorise
them as contact or non-contact.
• State Newton’s first law.
• Explain the relationship between mass and inertia.
• State Hooke’s law and distinguish between elastic and
inelastic materials.
• Experimentally determine and describe the force constant of
a spring.
Figure 3.1 Weight is a common
force we experience every day.
What are forces?
In simple terms, a force is a push or a pull. You might push a book
across the desk or gravity might pull objects towards the centre of
the Earth.
There are plenty of different examples of forces. However, if you
look deeper, forces fall into just four groups:
• Electromagnetic forces, dealing with charged objects, atomic
interactions and whenever objects come into contact.
• Gravity, which relates to all objects that have mass, from an apple
falling to the ground to the Earth orbiting the Sun.
• Finally, two forces dealing with interactions within the nucleus Figure 3.2 Forces play an
important role in keeping atoms
of atoms. These are called the strong nuclear force and the weak
together.
nuclear force. Although very important we rarely encounter
these forces in our day to day lives. Activity 3.1: Categorising
Below are some examples of common forces. forces
Table 3.1 Some examples of forces Categorise all the forces
listed in Table 3.1 as contact
Friction Drag forces (including air
or non-contact.
resistance and water resistance)
Electrostatic attraction or Thrust
repulsion
Buoyant force (upthrust) Gravitational attraction
Weight Tension
Contact force (reaction) Magnetic attraction or repulsion

All forces are vector quantities. This means they all have both a
magnitude and a direction, and are often represented in diagrams
as arrows. The size of the arrow represents the magnitude of the
force and the way it is pointing shows the direction it is acting. The
SI derived unit of force is the newton (N).
Figure 3.3 Forces pull stars
Figure 3.4 on the next page, is called a free body diagram. These
together to form gigantic galaxies.
kinds of diagrams are really useful when dealing with forces. It

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

is important that you consider all the forces acting and draw the
Did you know? arrows approximately to scale. In this case the weight of the stone is
All forces are measured in greater than the air resistance.
newtons, named after Sir
Isaac Newton (more on him Contact or non-contact
later). He was born in 1642
and in his famous book Forces can be categorised as either contact or non-contact. Some
Principia Mathematica he forces act over a distance and so the objects involved do not need to
made significant advances be touching. Other forces need objects to touch before their effects
in understanding motion. can be noticed.
He also developed key If you push your hands together you can feel a contact force (this is
theories on gravity and really an electrostatic repulsion between the electrons in the atoms
optics, and invented an in your hands). The same is true when you kick a ball.
entire new branch of
mathematics: calculus.

KEY WORDS Air resistance

pull movement towards a

force
push movement away from a
Stone
force
contact forces forces where
objects must touch before the
force has an effect Weight of stone

newton SI unit of force

non-contact forces
forces where objects are not ���������������������

required to touch for the force

to have an effect Figure 3.4 Forces acting on a Figure 3.5 Kicking a ball
stone falling through the air demonstrates a contact force.

Several forces act over a distance, the most obvious being

gravitational attraction. The Earth is kept in orbit around the Sun
even though they are 150 million km apart!
It is not just gravity; magnetic forces can also act over distances, for
example, two magnets attracting each other.

N S N S

Figure 3.7 Magnets can attract or repel each other without being in
contact.

What effect do forces have?

Figure 3.6 Despite being
150 million km away the Sun’s The famous ancient Greek, Aristotle, did a great deal to help
gravity still has a significant develop the idea of science. However, he got forces all wrong! He
influence on the motion of the thought that forces were needed to make objects move, that is, there
Earth. cannot be any movement unless a force is acting.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

This idea makes a lot of sense in our experience. If we push a block

along it will keep on moving, but if we stop pushing the block it will
slow down and stop. The problem is that on Earth whenever objects
are in motion there are other forces acting, namely weight, friction
and/or drag. These forces have an effect on the motion of the object.
It is true that forces and motion are linked but forces do not simply
make objects move.
It was not until the famous English physicist, Sir Isaac Newton,
came along, some 2000 years after Aristotle, that we developed a
more complete understanding of forces. Newton took some of the
ideas developed by Galileo and constructed three laws that describe
how motion and forces are related.
Newton’s first law of motion explains what effect forces have on Figure 3.8 Aristotle developed
objects. It states: some excellent theories but his
ideas about forces were wrong!
• An object will remain at rest or travelling at a constant
velocity unless acted upon by an external force.
This takes a bit of reading but what it means is that forces don’t
make objects move but they do make objects change the way they
are moving.
An object will remain at rest unless a force makes it start to move. It
will then continue to move at the same velocity until another force
slows it down. So using our block example from earlier, when we
stop pushing it the block slows down because friction is acting on it.
If there was no friction it would continue at the same velocity until
another force acted on it.
The use of the term velocity here is also important. It means an
object moving around a curve or in a circle must have a force acting
on it. Whenever an object moves in a circle its velocity is changing
(because velocity is a vector quantity) and so according to Newton’s Figure 3.9 Sir Isaac Newton –
first law there must be a force acting on it. perhaps the greatest physicist of
all time.
Newton’s first law means a force is always required to make an object:
• speed up
• slow down
• or change direction.
If an object is not doing any of these, then we can conclude there are
no overall forces acting on it. This might mean remaining stationary Think about this…
but it also means travelling at a steady speed in a straight line. Newton’s first law means if
you were to throw a tennis
Mass and inertia ball in space, far away from
any stars and planets, it
Newton’s first law means that objects have a tendency to resist any would continue to travel at a
changes to their motion. They will remain stationary or at constant steady speed in a straight line
velocity unless a force acts on them. forever! (Well until it got near
This is referred to as the inertia of an object. It is defined as: another object and then its
• The property of an object to remain at rest or moving at a gravity would start to have an
steady speed in a straight line. effect).

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

You may have experienced this on a bus or train. If you are standing
still and the vehicle moves you tend to fall backwards. This is
because as it moves your feet are pulled along due to friction, but
the rest of your body resists this change in motion; it wants to stay
at rest.
The same is true when the bus/train stops suddenly; you tend to ‘fly
forward’. You’re not really flying forward, you just keep moving at
the same speed as the vehicle slows down.
Figure 3.10 With no friction or The inertia of an object depends on its mass. The greater the mass
air resistance to slow it down, a of the object, the greater its inertia.
ball thrown in space will travel at This is why it is easy to kick a small stone. Because it has a small
a steady speed in a straight line. mass and so a small inertia, only a small force is required to change
the motion of the stone. However, a large boulder has a great deal
more mass. If you kicked a boulder chances are it wouldn’t move
(and you’d have a sore toe!). It has much more mass, so it has a
much greater inertia and a much larger force is required to change
KEY WORDS its motion.
inertia the tendency of an
object to resist changes to its Activity 3.2: Observing inertia
motion Try these simple observations (Figure 3.12).
• Place a book on a cloth on a smooth table. Pull the cloth
quickly. The book remains at rest.
• Place a coin on a small card. Support the card on the edges
of a table so that its sides stick out. Hit the card firmly
with one finger. The coin stays where it is.
• Put some water in a bucket or can. Spin it around quickly,
in a vertical circle. Although the can is upside down at the
top of the circle, no water falls out.

����� ����� �����

���� ���� ����

������� ����������

Figure 3.11 The greater the

mass the greater the inertia. The
large boulder has a much greater ���������������

inertia.

Did you know? Figure 3.12 Demonstrating inertia

Inertia comes from the
Latin word, “iners”, meaning
idle, or lazy. Newton used
Other effects of forces
this word to illustrate that
objects were lazy; they did If more than one force acts on an object it can also change the shape
not want to move unless a of the object. Two parallel equal and opposite forces can either
force was applied to them. stretch or compress an object.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Forces can also twist or bend an object if applied in different

Two forces can compress an object
directions.
Robert Hooke was another physicist working in London around the Two forces can compress an object

same time as Newton. He was investigating methods for making

more precise clocks. He was interested in the effect forces had on
springs.
Two forces can stretch an object
Hooke used springs fixed at one end (this provided an upward
force) and applied a force to the bottom of the spring to stretch it Figure 3.13 Some possible effects
Two forces can stretch an object
(this force is sometimes called the load). of two equal and opposite forces

KEY WORDS
load a force applied to a
spring
extension the increase in
length of a spring

Δx F

Did you know?

Hooke is perhaps best
known for Hooke’s law (also
load called the law of elasticity),
but like Newton he made
Figure 3.14 Robert Hooke was a Figure 3.15 Applying a force to a several other valuable
great scientist and was a rival of spring fixed at one end causes it contributions. He is often
Isaac Newton. to extend. described as the father of
microscopy, making several
Hooke found that the greater the force applied to the spring the important discoveries.
greater the extension. Not only that, he found that the extension Hooke also came up with
of the spring was directly proportional to the force applied. This is the term cell to describe the
often referred to as Hooke’s law. basic unit of life.
This means when he applied twice the force the spring would
extend twice as far. Three times the force, the spring would extend
three times as far.
Hooke’s experiments are easy to repeat in a lab. Figure 3.17 on the
next page, shows a simple experimental arrangement you could use
to test his findings.
Table 3.2 Some results from an experiment on stretching a spring

Force applied (N) Length of spring (cm) Extension (cm)

0 10.0 0.0
1 11.5 1.5
2 13.0 3.0
3 14.5 4.5
4 16.0 6.0
Figure 3.16 Some of Robert
5 18.5 8.5 Hooke’s original drawings of his
6 22.0 12.0 experiment

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

����� Plotting these results on a graph will produce one like that in Figure
3.18. With Hooke’s law experiments it is not uncommon to see it the
other way around, with extension plotted against force applied, so
make sure you look carefully at the axis!
Any relationship that is directly proportional will produce a
������ straight line graph with the line going through the origin. However,
it is worth remembering it does not have to be at 45°. Figure 3.19
shows three directly proportional relationships.
Looking at Figure 3.19, what is different about the springs to
produce different slopes? Some springs are stiffer than others. A
������� stiffer spring will not extend as far when a force is applied to it.
Looking at the graph, which is the stiffest spring?
������� If you answered spring A you’d be correct. Spring C is the least stiff;
it is the easiest to extend. Let’s look at why, but this time just using
two springs instead of three.
Figure 3.20 shows the results collected for two different springs.
Spring A is stiffer than spring B.
Consider the same force applied to each spring – force F. You can
see from the second graph that this force causes spring B to extend
more than spring A. Therefore you can conclude that spring A is
stiffer than spring B.
Figure 3.17 Investigating how Force / N

force affects the extension of a Force / N Spring A

spring Spring B

Think about this… Spring C

Extending twice as far does

not mean the spring is now
double its length. It just
means the extension is twice Extension/m Extension/m
the size. Take a spring 15 mm
long; if 2 N caused a 3 mm Figure 3.18 A graph showing that Figure 3.19 Three directly
extension then 4 N would force is directly proportional to proportional relationships for
cause a 6 mm extension. extension three different springs
With a load of 4 N the spring
would be 21 mm long. Force / N Force / N
Spring A Spring A

Spring B Spring B
KEY WORDS
Hooke’s Law the force
applied to a spring is directly
Force F
proportional to its extension
up to the elastic limit
directly proportional
a relationship where both Extension/m Extension A Extension B Extension/m

variables increase (or

decrease) at the same time Figure 3.20 Results collected for two different springs

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

The spring constant is a measure of the stiffness of a spring. It is

given the symbol k. A stiff spring might have a spring constant of Think about this…
1000 N/m and a less stiff spring might have a spring constant of 15 The spring constant of 15
N/m. N/m means you would need
to apply a force of 15 N to
You can determine the spring constant of any given spring by using
extend the spring by 1 m. 30
the force–extension graph.
N would cause an extension
The gradient of the line is equal to the spring constant. The steeper of 2 m, etc. If k = 1000 N/m,
the line, the higher the gradient, the greater the spring constant and then 1000 N would be needed
the stiffer the spring! to extend the spring by 1 m.
Using the data and graph below we can determine the spring 500 N would cause a 50 cm
constant for the spring. extension, etc.

Table 3.3 Typical force and extension data

Force / N
Force (N) Extension (m)
0 0.00
1 0.05
2 0.10 Gradient = k

3 0.15
4 0.20
5 0.25 Figure 3.23 Force–extension
6 0.30 graph using data from Table 3.3 Extension / m
7
Figure 3.21 Using a force–
6 extension graph to determine the
spring constant
5

4
Force / N rise = 6 N
3

1
step = 0.30
0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Extension / m

The gradient of the line = rise/step State principle or equation to be used

(determine the gradient of the line)
gradient = 6 N / 0.3 m Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
gradient = 20 N/m Clearly state the answer with unit Figure 3.22 The springs used in
car suspension systems need to
Therefore, k = 20 N/m. Make clear the gradient is also equal to k
have a high spring constant.
Spring balances KEY WORDS
The relationship between force and extension is used to great effect origin the point of
in spring balances. These are very simple devices designed to intersection of the axes of a
measure forces. They are often used to determine the weight of an graph
object.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Spring balances work on the principle that the greater the force
applied the greater the extension. This means it is easy to construct
a simple scale and pointer next to the spring. When a force is
applied (e.g. the weight of an object) the spring will extend to a pre-
determined length.
Activity 3.3: Making a spring balance
You can make a spring balance of your own.
• You need a spring, and a container for the objects you are
going to weigh (Figure 3.25).
• You also need a scale, next to the spring. Make a cardboard
pointer, and attach it to the bottom of the spring, so that it
will move past the scale.
• First, you must calibrate the spring balance. Hang some
known loads on the meter. Mark their values on the scale.
Figure 3.24 Two different Mark the scale in equal divisions.
examples of spring balances
• Now use your meter to weigh other objects.

Did you know?

Spring balances are often
called newtonmeters (or
forcemeters). That definitely ������
would not have pleased �����
Hooke! He and Newton
were scientific rivals and did
not get on at all well.
������� �

Think about this…

What would be different
about the spring constant of
a spring in a spring balance
used to weigh heavy objects?
���������
��������
KEY WORDS
gradient the slope of a line
Figure 3.25 Making a spring balance
on a graph
spring balance device used
to measure force via the
extension of a spring The elastic limit
spring constant a measure of
the stiffness of a spring If we keep on applying force will the spring keep extending forever?
Obviously at some point the spring will break, but before it does
stiffness the amount of it behaves slightly differently. It begins to stretch more easily and
force required to stretch or eventually it will stretch so far that it will not return to its original
compress a spring length when the force is removed.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

So far we have been dealing with what is called elastic deformation

of the spring. This happens when the force applied to the spring is
Did you know?
directly proportional to the extension and when you remove the The shorthand way
force the spring returns to its original length. of writing directly
proportional is to use this
A spring will only stretch elastically up to a certain point. This point
symbol: ∝. This means we
is called the elastic limit. After this limit is reached the deformation
could write Hooke’s law as
is said to be plastic.
F ∝ Δx up to the elastic
Plastic deformation means that the force is no longer proportional limit.
to the extension and when you remove the force the spring no
longer returns to its original length; it has been permanently
stretched. KEY WORDS
The graph below shows you how to indentify the two different types calibrate to compare a
of deformation. measuring device with a
known standard
elastic deformation where
Force / N the force applied is directly
proportional to the extension
and where the object will
return to its original length
when the force is removed
elastic limit the point up
Plastic region to which a spring will stretch
E
elastically
plastic deformation where
the force applied is not
Elastic region directly proportional to the
extension and where the
object will not return to its
original length when the force
is removed
Extension / m

Figure 3.26 Elastic and plastic deformation of a spring

E on the graph is the elastic limit. Below the elastic limit the
deformation is elastic. Above the elastic limit plastic deformation
occurs.
Hooke’s findings about springs led to the law of elasticity, which is
more commonly called Hooke’s law. This only applies if the spring is
below its elastic limit and so may be written as:
• The force applied is directly proportional to the extension of a
spring up to the elastic limit.
Different springs have different elastic limits depending on their
shape, thickness, material, etc. All materials have an elastic limit;
think about a wooden or plastic ruler. If you bend it a little bit it will
return to its original length. If you apply too much force it will bend
so far it snaps; you’ve gone beyond the elastic limit for the ruler.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• Forces can either be classed as contact or non-contact.
Examples of forces include friction, drag, weight,
gravitational attraction and contact forces.
• Newton’s first law states: “An object will remain at rest or
travelling at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an
external force”.
• Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes to its
motion. The greater the mass of an object the greater its
inertia.
• Hooke’s law states: “The force applied to a spring is directly
proportional to the extension of the spring up to the elastic
limit”.
• The stiffer the spring the greater the spring constant
(k; measured in N/m).
• Elastic deformation means when forces are removed the
object will return to its original length. Plastic deformation
means when the forces are removed the object does not
return to its original length; it is permanently stretched.

Review questions
1. Give some examples of forces and classify them as contact or
non-contact.
2. State Newton’s first law and explain what it means.
3. Describe Hooke’s law and define the following terms: elastic
deformation, elastic limit and plastic deformation.
4. Sketch two force vs. extension graphs, one for a stiff spring the
other for a much weaker spring.

3.2 Newton’s second law

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Distinguish between resultant force and equilibrant force.
• Describe the effect of a force acting on a body.
• Apply Newton’s second law (as Fnet = ma) to solve problems.
• Resolve forces into rectangular components and compose
forces acting on a body using component methods.
• Describe the terms weight and weightlessness (including
distinguishing between weight and apparent weight).
• Calculate the weight and apparent weight of an object in a
range of situations.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

What if more than one force is acting? KEY WORDS

There are often several forces acting on an object. As all forces are equilibrant force the force
vector quantities we can add them up using the techniques covered required to cancel out the
in Unit 1. resultant force
The overall force acting on any object is referred to as the resultant resultant force the overall
force. This is often called the net force or Fnet. It is defined as: force acting on an object
• The vector produced when two or more forces act upon a
single object.
It is calculated by vector addition of the forces acting upon the
object.
For example, consider two forces A and B acting on an object. They
will produce a resultant force. In the two examples below forces A Did you know?
and B give rise to a resultant, force C.
The equilibrant force for any
system is always equal in
B magnitude to the resultant
A C force but it acts in the
A C
opposite direction. This just
cancels out the effect of the
Object = Object Object = Object
resultant force. This can be
written as: Fnet = – Fequilibrant
B

Figure 3.27 Different resultant forces acting on an object

If the forces are parallel it is easy to determine the resultant vector.
However, if the forces are not parallel (as in Figure 3.28) we then
use scale diagrams, parallelogram rules or the mathematical
techniques covered in Unit 1 to determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.

B
A
45° A
C C

Object = Object = Object

90°
B
Figure 3.29 There are several
forces acting on an aircraft in
Figure 3.28 Non-parallel forces leading to a resultant force flight.
Sometimes it is helpful to know the equilibrant force. This is the
force you need to apply to a system to cancel out the resultant force. Forces A and B

This will result in there being no net force acting on an object.

Resultant force

Figure 3.30 An equilibrant force will cancel

out the resultant force acting on an object. Equilibriant force Resultant force

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Worked example
Two forces are acting on a boat. One force 500 N x cos 50° = 321 N →. Substitute in
of 400 N is due to current in the river, known values and complete calculation, then
acting downstream. The other force due to clearly state the answer with unit
the propeller has a magnitude of 500 N and We can then add the horizontal forces to give
acts at an angle of 50° to the river bank. the resultant horizontal force.
Determine the resultant force acting on the
boat. • Resultant horizontal force:
Fnet horizontal = 321 N → + 400 N → Determine
the net horizontal force (note the directions)
Fnet horizontal = 721 N →. C learly state the
answer with unit
We can then use Pythagoras’s theorem to
determine the magnitude of the resultant
force and trigonometry to determine the
direction.
• Magnitude of resultant force:
Fnet horizontal = 721 N → C learly state known
Figure 3.31 Boat crossing a river values
Fnet vertical = 383 N ↑ Clearly state known values
500 N Fnet = 383 N ↑ + 721 N → Determine the net
force (note the
400 N directions)
Fnet 2 = 3832 + 7212 Apply Pythagoras’s theorem
50° Fnet 2 = 666 530 Solve for Fnet2
Fnet = √666 530 R  earrange for resultant (take
Figure 3.32 Two force vectors acting on the boat square root) and solve
We could determine the resultant force using Fnet = 816 N Clearly state the answer with unit
a scale diagram. However, on this occasion • Direction of resultant force:
we are going to find the resultant force Fnet horizontal = 721 N → C  learly state known
mathematically. values
In order to determine the resultant force we Fnet vertical = 383 N ↑ Clearly state known values
must first resolve the 500 N into horizontal tan θ = opp / adj S tate principle or equation
and vertical components using trigonometry. to be used (trigonometry)
θ = tan-1 (opp / adj) R  earrange equation to
• Vertical component: make θ the subject
sin θ = opp / hyp State principle or equation θ = tan-1 (721 / 383) Substitute in known
to be used (trigonometry) values and complete
hyp x sin θ = opp R  earrange to make the calculation
opp side the subject θ = 62° Clearly state the answer with unit
500 N x sin 50° = 383 N ↑. Substitute in
known values and complete calculation, then This is the angle between the resultant and
clearly state the answer with unit the vertical component. The angle between
the resultant force and the river bank is
• Horizontal component: 90°– 62° = 28°.
cos θ = adj / hyp S tate principle or equation
to be used (trigonometry)
hyp x sin θ = adj R
 earrange to make the adj
side the subject

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

721 N
In this situation the equilibrant force would
be 816 N acting in the opposite direction to
the resultant force.
383 N
Resultant

θ
River bank

Figure 3.33 Determining the resultant force

Forces and acceleration KEY WORDS

In the previous section we said: Newton’s first law means a force is trigonometry a type of
required to make an object: mathematics that deals with
• speed up the relationships between the
sides and angles of triangles
• slow down
accelerating where an object
• change direction. is speeding up, slowing down
If an object does any of these things we can say it is accelerating. or changing direction
In other words, forces cause objects to accelerate, or more precisely balanced forces where the
if there is a resultant force acting on an object, then that object will forces acting on a body cancel
accelerate. The forces are said to unbalanced. each other out and there is no
resultant force
If there are balanced forces acting on an object then there is no
resultant force and so the object will not accelerate. inversely proportional
a relationship where one
variable increases as the other
decreases and vice versa
unbalanced forces where the
forces acting on a body do
not cancel out and there is a
resultant force

Figure 3.34 Any object going

around a bend is accelerating;
the forces are unbalanced and so
there must be a resultant force
acting on it.
Newton’s second law relates to the rate of change of momentum of
an object (more on this later). He realised that whenever a resultant
force acts on an object it will accelerate and this acceleration takes
place in the same direction as the force. If you push an object to the
left it will accelerate towards the left.
Through careful experiment and investigation he also worked out
that if you double the resultant force then the acceleration of the
object will also double. In other words the force applied is directly
proportional to the acceleration (as long as everything else remains
constant).

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

He also determined that the acceleration of the object also depends

on the object’s mass. The greater the mass the greater the inertia,
and so the lower the acceleration. In fact if you double the mass
the acceleration will halve and vice versa. An object with a quarter
of the mass will accelerate at four times the rate if the same force is
a a
applied. This relationship is called inversely proportional. As one
quantity doubles the other halves.
F F
M
a M
a

F F
M M

0.5 a

2a
0.5 a

2F 2M
F
2Ma

2F 2M
F
M
Figure 3.35 The effects of force and mass on acceleration
As long as the
a mass of the object remains constant b then Newton’s
second law can be expressed as:
• The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the
a force acting on the object. b
resultant
and
Figure 3.36 When you apply • This acceleration occurs in the direction of the resultant force.
the brakes on a bike a force is (Remember, this only applies if the mass of the object is constant.)
generated in the opposite direction
to motion. You accelerate in this This gives us:
direction and so slow down. Resultant force = mass of object × acceleration of object
Fnet = ma
We can use this equation to determine the resultant force required
to make a car of mass 1200 kg accelerate at 2 m/s2.
Resultant force = mass of object × acceleration of object State
principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)
Fnet = ma Simplify statement to symbols
Fnet = 1200 kg × 2 m/s2 S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
Fnet = 2400 N Clearly state the answer with unit
We can use the equation to determine the acceleration of a soccer
Figure 3.37 The greater the force ball if we know the applied resultant force. A footballer may strike a
applied to the ball the greater its ball of mass 400 g with a force of 200 N.
acceleration.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)

Did you know?
a = Fnet / m Rearrange equation to make a the subject
Newton’s second law may be
m = 400 g, which is 0.4 kg Ensure all values are in SI units used to define the newton
a = 200 N / 0.4 kg Substitute in known values and complete calculation as the unit of force. Using
a = 500 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit Fnet = ma and making sure
the units are all correct
This acceleration will be in the same direction as the resultant force. (force in N, mass in kg and
Fnet = ma with several forces acceleration in m/s2), we
can say that a force 1 N is
If several forces are acting on an object then in order to determine the force required to give a
its acceleration we must first determine the resultant force. mass of 1 kg an acceleration
To determine the acceleration we would use Fnet = ma. of 1 m/s2. Or 1 N is
equivalent to 1 kg m/s2.
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)
a = Fnet / m Rearrange equation to make a the subject
The resultant force in Figure 3.38 is 30 N → D
 etermine resultant by
20 N
simple calculation of net 4 kg
force 10 N

a = 30 N / 4.0 kg Substitute in known values and complete calculation

Figure 3.38 Two forces acting on
a = 7.5 m/s2 to the right Clearly state the answer with unit
an object
To determine the acceleration we would again use Fnet = ma. Except
in this case we must subtract the forces to determine the resultant
force.
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law) 30 N
2.0 kg 50 N
a = Fnet / m Rearrange equation to make a the subject
The resultant force in Figure 3.39 is 20 N → D etermine resultant by Figure 3.39 Two forces acting on
simple calculation of net an object in different directions
force
• a = 20 N / 2.0 kg Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
2.0 m/s²
• a = 10 m/s2 in the direction of the 50 N force C  learly state the
40 N
answer with unit
60 kg
?N
This process can be repeated for forces at an angle and for problems
involving more than two forces.
If you know the acceleration of the object you can also determine Figure 3.40 Trolley being pushed
the magnitude and direction of the resultant forces. For example, by two people
two people are pushing a 60 kg trolley along. One applies a force of
40 N and the trolley accelerates at 2.0 m/s2. Determine the size of
the force applied by the other person.
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)
Fnet = 60 kg × 2 m/s2 S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
Fnet = 120 N Clearly state the answer with unit
The resultant force is 120 N.
Fnet = F1 + F2 Express net force in terms of F1 and F2

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

120 N = 40 N + F2 Substitute in known values and complete calculation

F2 = 80 N → Clearly state the answer with unit
The same technique may be used to determine the acceleration of
an object with two forces acting on it at right angles. For example:
30 N
First we must determine the resultant force using Pythagoras’s
theorem.
40 N a2 = b2 + c2 State principle or equation to be used (Pythagoras’s theorem)
80 kg
Fnet2 = (40 N)2 + (30 N)2 Substitute in known values
Fnet2 = 2500 Solve for Fnet2 then solve for Fnet by taking square root
Figure 3.41 Two forces acting on Fnet = 50 N Clearly state the answer with unit
an object at right angles
Then using F = ma we get:
a = Fnet / m Rearrange F = ma to make a the subject
a = 50 N / 80 kg Substitute in known values and complete calculation
a = 0.63 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit
KEY WORDS
Trigonometry should then be used to determine the direction of
mass a measure of the this acceleration; this is in the same direction as the result force (37°
quantity of matter to the horizontal – check it for yourself).
weight the force experienced
by an object due to the Mass and weight
gravitational pull of the Earth
Mass and weight are two terms that are frequently confused. We
often say we are going to weigh something and then record its mass
Did you know? in kg!
The kilogram is defined We must make sure we don’t muddle the two; they are very
as the same amount of different.
mass as the international Mass is a scalar quantity and it is a measure of the quantity of
prototype kilogram. This is matter. The more mass the more stuff (the more matter). Remember
a platinum–iridium block the ineria of an object depends on its mass, you can think of mass as
held in Paris, France. a measure of an object’s inertia. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
Weight is a force and so it’s a vector quantity, measured in newtons
(N). It is the force we experience due to the gravitational pull of the
Earth pulling on our mass. Weight is directed towards the centre of
the Earth.
We can calculate the weight of an object using:
• weight = mass × gravitational field strength
• w = mg
On the surface of the Earth the gravitational field strength is around
9.81 N/kg. We will use 10 N/kg in the following examples to make
the mathematics a little easier.
A person with a mass of 70 kg will have a weight of:
w = mg State principle or equation to be used
Figure 3.42 The international
prototype kilogram has a mass of w = 70 kg × 10 N/kg S ubstitute in known values and complete
exactly one kilogram. calculation

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

w = 700 N (actually more like 687 N if we use g = 9.81 N/kg).

Clearly state the answer with unit
If the gravitational field strength changes then the weight of the
object will change but its mass will stay the same. The gravitational
field strength varies a little around the Earth. This is for two reasons.
Firstly the amount of mass between you and the centre of the Earth
changes depending on where you are. If there is a particularly
dense pocket of material underneath you this will increase the
gravitational field strength slightly. The reverse is also true, if there
is large pocket of gas or lower density material underneath you the
gravitational field strength will go down.
The distance from the centre of the Earth also affects g; it gets
smaller the further away from the centre of Earth you get. This
change is quite small, you need to move really far away before is
becomes noticeable. Even at the top of the tallest mountain g is still Figure 3.43 Weight pulls all
around 9.8 N/kg. objects towards the centre of the
Earth.
Remember, only the weight of the object will change; its mass will
stay the same. This is also true if we consider different planets.
Taking our astronaut as an example, if he stands on the Moon
his mass is still 70 kg (there is still the same amount of matter). Mass=70 kg

However, on the Moon the gravitational field strength is much less

than that on Earth. This is because the Moon has much less mass
and so a weaker gravitational field. The value for g on the moon is
just 1.6 N/kg.
His weight on the Moon would be:
Weight=700 N

w = mg State principle or equation to be used

w = 70 kg × 1.6 N/kg S ubstitute in known values and complete Figure 3.44 Weight and mass
calculation
w = 112 N Clearly state the answer with unit
Think about this…
The value for gravitational
Mass=70 kg
field strength is the same
Mass=70 kg value as the acceleration
due to gravity (9.81). This
can shown by considering an
object of mass m dropped
Weight=0 N from a height above the
Weight=112 N
ground. From Newton’s
second law we know the
acceleration will be equal to
Figure 3.45 Astronaut on the Moon and in deep space a = Fnet / m. We also know
In deep space, far away from any planets and stars, the gravitational the force accelerating the
field strength is pretty much zero. In this case his mass would still object is the weight of the
be 70 kg. However, his weight would be 0 N; he is weightless. object so we could write Fnet
= mg. Combining these two
equations gives us: a = mg /
m, the m’s cancel giving
a = g!

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Did you know?

Slight variations in the
gravitational field strength
are used to look for oil and
gas deposits. Because the
oil and gas is less dense
than the surrounding rock
this causes a small dip the
gravitational field strength
above the deposit. This
dip may be detected with
sensitive equipment.

Figure 3.46 Astronauts on the Moon can carry very large packs due
to the Moon’s weak gravity.
Figure 3.47 Astronauts in the
International Space Station are True weightlessness and apparent
not truly weightless. weightlessness
You are only truly weightless if the gravitational field strength
Contact force=700 N is zero. Even astronauts in orbit around the Earth are not truly
weightless. There is still a gravitational pull due to the Earth; they
still have a weight. So why do they float around?
When we are standing on the ground our weight pulls us vertically
downwards towards the centre of the Earth. We push down on the
Earth and the Earth pushes back up with a contact force. These two
Weight=700 N forces cancel out so there is no resultant force (this is why we don’t
accelerate towards the centre of the Earth; if the ground was not
Figure 3.48 Weight and contact there then we would!).
force cancel out It is this contact force we feel. We don’t notice the pull of gravity. If
you take this contact force away by jumping off a tall diving board,
our weight accelerates us downwards but we don’t feel it. It feels like
we are weightless, but we are not!
• Apparent weightlessness is when the only force acting is your
weight.
• Real weightlessness is when your weight is zero.
Weight=700 N
You get a similar feeling when a car goes over a humpback bridge
or when an aircraft climbs or descends. We notice the change in the
Figure 3.49 This diver would
contact force and this makes us feel like our weight has changed.
experience apparent weightlessness
for a brief period of time.
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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Another common example is when you are in a lift. If the lift is not
accelerating the two forces are equal, as shown in Figure 3.51.
If the lift accelerates upwards then there must be a net force acting
on it. A net force also needs to act on you as you are inside the lift!
Imagine the net force acting on you is 200 N (assuming your mass is
70 kg this would give an acceleration of 2.86 m/s2).
The floor would push you up harder; the contact force would have
to increase to 900 N. This provides the extra 200 N. You feel heavier,
even though your weight has not changed. It would feel like your Figure 3.50 The contact force we
weight is 900 N. This is referred to as your apparent weight; your experience changes dramatically
real weight is still 700 N. on an exciting roller coaster ride.
The same is true if the lift were to accelerate downwards. Again
imagine the net force on you is 200 N. In this case the contact force
would drop 200 N to 500 N. You would feel like your weight has
dropped! Your apparent weight would be 500 N. Think about this…
You only notice this effect
You can use Newton’s second law to determine your apparent
when the lift accelerates. When
weight in an accelerating lift. Taking a person of mass 55 kg then
the lift is travelling at a steady
their weight would be:
speed the forces are balanced
w = mg State principle or equation to be used again (from Newton’s first law).
w = 55 kg × 10 N/kg S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
w = 550 N Clearly state the answer with unit
KEY WORDS
If this person is in a lift accelerating vertically upwards at 2 m/s2
then the net force acting on the person would be: apparent weight the
resultant of an object’s real
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law) weight and any contact forces
Fnet = 55 kg × 2 m/s2 S ubstitute in known values and complete acting on the object
calculation real weight the force
Fnet = 110 N Clearly state the answer with unit experienced by an object
solely due to the gravitational
This force would come from an increase in the contact force. The pull of the Earth
contact force would have to go up to 660 N (550 N + 110 N). This
would be your apparent weight.

Contact force=700 N Contact force= 900 N Contact force=500 N

Fnet = 200 N
Fnet=200 N

Weight=700 N Weight=700 N Weight=700 N

Figure 3.51 Contact force and Figure 3.52 Accelerating Figure 3.53 Accelerating downwards
weight in a stationary lift. upwards requires a net requires a net vertical force. This
vertical force. time you would feel like your weight
has dropped.
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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

If the lift was accelerating downwards at 2 m/s2 then your apparent

weight would be 440 N. This would give a net force vertically
downwards equal to 110 N.
Contact force=0 N
If the lift cable were to snap then as the lift accelerates towards
the ground the contact force would fall to zero! The floor would
stop pushing you up. You would feel like you are weightless. Your
Fnet=700 N
apparent weight would be 0 N; you would be apparently weightless.

Weight=700 N

Figure 3.54 If the contact force

is zero you would be apparently
weightless.

Did you know?

As part of astronaut training
trainees take a flight in an
aircraft commonly called
the Vomit Comet! This air-
craft accelerates downwards
at 9.81 m/s2; this means the Figure 3.55 A photo of the infamous ‘Vomit Comet’
contact force inside the air-
craft falls to zero. All the Fnet = ma considering the weight of the object
occupants become
apparently weightless for We must always think carefully when solving Fnet = ma problems.
around 30 s (until the air- Take for example a rocket of mass 15 000 kg. If the engines provide
craft needs to pull up again). a force of 200 000 N what would its acceleration be?
• Fnet = ma
• a = F / m
net
Force from engines
• a = 200 000 N / 15 000 kg
• a = 13.3 m/s2
This is wrong! We’ve not used the resultant force. Remember free
body diagrams really help to identify all the forces acting on an
Fnet
object.
You can see the resultant force is equal to:
Fnet = force from engines – weight of rocket E
 xpress Fnet in terms of all
forces acting
Weight of rocket
Fnet = 200 000 N – (15 000 kg × 10 N/kg) Substitute in known values
Figure 3.56 A free body diagram
FNet = 200 000 N – 150 000 N S olve calculation in brackets then
for the forces acting on a rocket at
complete calculation
take off.
FNet = 5000 N Clearly state the answer with unit
This would give us an acceleration equal to:
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)
a = Fnet / m Rearrange equation to make a the subject

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

a = 5000 N / 15 000 kg S ubstitute in known values and complete

KEY WORDS
calculation
free body diagrams are used
a = 0.3 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit
to gain an understanding of
We must always make sure we consider all the forces involved the forces (or sometimes the
before determining the resultant force acting on an object. fields) acting on an object

Summary
In this section you have learnt that: Did you know?
In this section you have learnt that: When large rockets take off
their acceleration usually
• The overall force acting on an object is called the resultant
increases for the first few
force. The equilibrant force is the force that needs to be
minutes of their flight.
applied to cancel out the resultant force.
The acceleration starts off
• A resultant force will cause an object to accelerate in the quite low then increases
same direction as the resultant force. as the rocket burns fuel.
• Newton’s second law states: “Force is directly proportional to This has a significant effect
acceleration, as long as the mass remains constant, and the on its acceleration for two
acceleration is in the same direction of the force”. This gives reasons. Firstly the weight
us Fnet = ma. drops and so this increases
the resultant force acting
• In order to determine the resultant force, the forces acting and secondly as the object
on the object may need to be resolved then combined has less mass its acceleration
together again. will be greater (remember
• Mass is a measure of the amount of matter measured in kg, acceleration and mass are
whereas weight is a force measured in N caused by gravity inversely proportional).
pulling on an object’s mass.

Review questions
1. Explain what is meant by the terms resultant force and
equilibrant force.
2. Describe Newton’s second law.
3. Copy and complete Table 3.4.
Table 3.4
Force (N) Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s2)
100 40
60 10
1000 25
0.2 10
30 600

4. Figure 3.57 shows the forces acting on three different objects.

For each:
(a) calculate the resultant force acting;
(b) say whether the forces are balanced or unbalanced;
(c) calculate the object’s acceleration.
5. Explain the differences between mass and weight. Figure 3.57 See Question 4

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

3.3 Frictional forces

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Explain the causes of frictional forces.
• Describe the differences between limiting friction, static
friction and kinetic friction.
• Draw free body diagrams for objects on inclined planes (to
include frictional forces) and use these diagrams to solve
problems.

What causes friction?

Friction is a force we experience every single day. Without friction
even the simplest of actions, like walking, would be impossible.
Friction occurs whenever two solids rub against each other. It is
a contact force and it always tends to act in a direction opposing
motion.
It is caused by tiny bumps in the surface of the two objects knocking
and locking together. No surface is perfectly smooth. This is obvious
if you look closely at sandpaper but you need to look really close at
smoother objects like a metal sheet.

Block

Figure 3.58 Even very smooth

surfaces have a rough texture at
Desk
the microscopic level.

KEY WORDS Figure 3.59 The bumps on the surfaces of material knock together
causing friction.
friction the force generated
when solids slide or attempt When magnified, you can see all the small bumps in the surface of a
to slide over each other material. It is these bumps that cause friction.

Different types of friction

There are two different types of friction. It depends on if the objects
in contact are moving or if they are stationary.

Static friction
• This is the frictional force between two objects that are
in contact and trying to move past each other, but not yet
moving.
Imagine gently pushing a heavy book on a desk. At first it does not
Figure 3.60 Sandpaper is very accelerate. This is because the force you are applying is cancelled
rough. Sliding over sandpaper out due to static friction. As you gradually increase the force the
generates a great deal of friction. static friction also increases and the book remains stationary. If

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

you continue to push harder, eventually the book will slide. The
maximum value of the static friction, i.e. the value just before Think about this…
sliding occurs, is called the limiting friction. Friction only happens when
solids rub together. This
Kinetic friction (sometimes called dynamic friction) means that there is no such
• This is the frictional force between two objects sliding over thing as friction with the air
or friction through water;
each other.
both of these examples
It always acts in the opposite direction to motion. are types of drag. This is a
different type of force.
box

force of friction
string

effort

floor

Figure 3.61 Kinetic friction always acts in the opposite direction to

motion. Figure 3.62 The friction between
snow and ski is very small. This
The force of friction usually drops when objects start moving and
allows professional skiers to reach
so it is often the case that kinetic friction is less than the limiting
some very high speeds.
friction of a surface.

Factors affecting the frictional force

KEY WORDS
There are several factors affecting the force of friction between
objects. kinetic friction the frictional
force between two objects
Perhaps the most obvious is the roughness of the surface. The sliding over each other
rougher the surface, the greater the friction. In simple terms the
bumps on the surface are bigger or more frequent. This causes them limiting friction the
to lock together more easily or more often. maximum value of static
friction
You might think the weight of the object affects the friction. A static friction the frictional
heavier object will push down harder on the surface locking the force between two objects
bumps together harder and so increasing the force of friction. that are trying to move
This is generally true but actually it is the contact force that affects against each other but are not
the friction. Think about the lift example covered in the previous yet moving
section. When the lift is accelerating downwards the weight stays
the same but the contact force (and so the frictional force) would roughness a measure of the
drop. This is especially important when considering objects on texture of a surface
slopes (more on this later).

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The friction force between objects can be calculated using the

Did you know? following equation:
Friction is really just • Ff = μN
another example of the
electrostatic force. It is where:
caused by the electrons in Ff is the frictional force.
the atoms in the bumps
repelling each other. μ is a constant called the coefficient of friction, which depends
on the roughness of the two surfaces. A high coefficient of friction
would mean that the surfaces are very rough and so this would
lead to a high frictional force. Materials have a static coefficient of
Think about this… friction and a kinetic coefficient of friction, depending on the type
The surface area of the of friction being calculated.
objects in contact with each
N is the normal contact force acting on the block. Normal in this
other does not affect the
case means at right angles to the surface. If the block is horizontal
frictional force between them.
and there is no vertical acceleration then the normal contact force is
Although there is a greater
equal to the weight.
area in contact, the weight of
the object is more spread out
N
and so there is no change in Moving in this direction
the frictional force.

KEY WORDS
coefficient of friction a Ff
μ
ratio representing the friction
Figure 3.63 Factors affecting friction
between two surfaces
Table 3.5 Examples of the static friction coefficient between materials

Materials rubbing together μstatic

Aluminium Steel 0.61
Concrete Rubber 1.00
Concrete Wood 0.62
Steel Teflon 0.04
Wood Wood 0.45

Worked example
The kinetic coefficient of friction between rubber and asphalt
is 0.8. Calculate the force of friction acting on a rubber block
of mass 2.0 kg as it is pulled along a level road at a steady
speed.
Ff = μkineticN State principle or equation to be used
Ff = 0.8 × N Substitute in known value for μkinetic
As the road is level the normal contact force is equal to the
weight of the rubber block. In this case the weight = 20 N
(2 kg x 10 N/kg)

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Did you know?

Ff = 0.8 × 20 N S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation Teflon has one of the lowest
coefficients of friction
Ff = 16 N Clearly state the answer with unit of any material. It was
A 12 kg block of wood is stationary on a horizontal concrete accidentally invented by
slab. The maximum coefficient of static friction between wood an American named Roy
and concrete is 0.65 (this occurs at the limiting friction). What Plunkett in 1938. The use
force needs to be applied in order to slide the block along. of Teflon was important in
America’s development of
Ff = μstaticN State principle or equation to be used
the atomic bomb. Nowadays
Ff = 0.65 × N Substitute in known constant for μstatic its low friction makes it
As the block is level the normal contact force is equal to the ideal for non-stick frying
weight of the wood. In this case the weight = 120 N pans!

Ff = 0.65 × 120 N S ubstitute in known values and complete

calculation
Ff = 78 N Clearly state the answer with unit

Activity 3.4: Measuring friction

• Tie a block of wood with string to the hook of a spring
balance. Place the block on a table. Pull the balance
gradually parallel to the table. Note its reading when the
block just starts to move.
• Repeat and take the average of the results.
You have measured the maximum force of static friction (the
limiting friction).
• Now pull the balance until the block moves steadily along.
Note the reading.
• Repeat several times and take the average.
You have measured the force of dynamic friction.
Figure 3.64 Non-stick frying
• Which is greater? pans have a very low friction
forcemeter coefficient.
string
block

table

Figure 3.65 Measuring friction using a spring balance

You must ensure you pull the block along at a steady speed.
This tells us the forces are balanced and the reading on the
spring balance is the same as the frictional force.

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

KEY WORDS Friction and inclined planes

inclined plane a sloping If an object is resting on an inclined plane the normal contact force
surface or ramp is reduced (the weight stays the same). This means the frictional
force is also reduced.

N Figure 3.66 A wooden block on a slope

Let’s assume the block is not sliding down the ramp. If we consider
Force due
to static the forces acting on the object we can see that there are three
friction
different forces.
Weight of block
As the object is not accelerating (in this case it is stationary) we can
θ
conclude from Newton’s first law that there is no resultant force
Figure 3.67 Forces acting on a acting.
block on a slope These three forces must form a triangle, as shown in Figure 3.68.
The normal contact force is given by:
• N = w cos θ
θ This is always true regardless of if the object is in equilibrium or
not. As a result, as the angle of the slope increases the normal
Weight of block N contact force falls and so does the force due to friction. If the slope
was vertical then the force due to friction would be 0 N.
In order for the block to remain stationary (i.e. the forces remain
balanced) then the force due to static friction must equal:
Force due to • F = w sin θ
static friction
where w is the weight of the block, F is the force due to static
Figure 3.68 The three forces form
friction and θ is the angle of the slope.
a triangle with no resultant force.
However, the force of friction is also equal to:
• Ff = μstaticN
In this case N = w cos θ, so:
• F = μ w cos θ
f static

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

As the angle of the slope increases, cos θ gets smaller. This means
the frictional force that can be provided also falls (as all the other Think about this…
variables are constant). At the same time the force required to keep Putting the two equations
the object stationary (w sin θ) increases. for the friction force equal to
each other: w sin θ = μstatic w
This means as the slope gets steeper eventually the block will
cos θ. This can be rewritten
accelerate down the slope as the forces can no longer be balanced;
as tan θ = μstatic and so the
the limiting friction has been reached and exceeded.
maximum angle of the slope
If the object is accelerating down the slope then there must be a before the block will slide is
resultant force acting on the object. given by θ = tan-1 μstatic. The
This resultant force is equal to the difference between w sin θ and higher the maximum value
the force due to kinetic friction. for μstatic the steeper the slope
can before the object slides
• Fnet = w sin θ – μkinetic N
down the slope.
Take, for example, a block of wood of mass 30 kg accelerating down
a concrete slope inclined at 45°. We could use the formula above to
calculate the acceleration of the block. The μkinetic between the wood N

and the slope is = 0.45.

Force due to static friction

First we need to find the resultant force: Fnet

• Fnet = w sin θ – μkinetic N Express Fnet in terms of other forces

Weight of block

In this case the weight of the block is 300 N (from w = mg) and the θ

normal contact force is 212 N (from N = w cos θ).

Figure 3.69 The object slides due
Fnet = 300 N × sin 45° – (0.45 × 212 N) S ubstitute in known values and to a resultant force.
complete calculation
Fnet =117 N Clearly state the answer with unit
The acceleration of the block can then be calculated using Newton’s
second law.
Fnet = ma State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s second law)
a = Fnet / m Rearrange equation to make a the subject
a = 117 N / 30 kg Substitute in known values and complete calculation
a = 3.3 m/s2 Clearly state the answer with unit

Reducing friction
In order to reduce the friction between objects there are two
techniques that can be used.

Polishing
Polishing or sanding down an object reduces the size of the bumps
on the surface. This makes it smoother and so the coefficient of
friction drops.

Unpolished surface Unpolished surface Polished surface Polished surface

Figure 3.70 Polishing reduces the roughness of a surface.

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Lubrication
Lubricating between the surfaces rubbing together also reduces
friction. Commonly used lubricants include oil, water and even
graphite.
The lubricant effectively fills the gaps between the materials,
preventing them from bumping into each other and so allowing
them to slide over each other easily.

Surfaces without lubrication Surfaces with lubrication between them

Figure 3.71 Lubrication keeps the surfaces apart.

Figure 3.72 Without oil vehicle
engines would heat up too much
and possibly seize up entirely.
The effects of friction
Friction causes a heating effect. When you rub your hands together
friction between them causes them to warm up. This has many
applications but also causes several problems.

Advantages of friction
Is friction always a problem? No. We could not walk if there was no
friction. Our feet would slip, just as they do on ice, banana skin or
very smooth surfaces. Rubber-soled shoes and car tyres have ‘tread’
on them to increase friction. Smooth tyres tend to skid, especially
on wet, greasy or icy roads.
The brakes on a bicycle, car or other vehicle make use of friction.
The brake pads press on the wheels, slowing them down.
Figure 3.73 shows one situation where friction is useful. Without
friction, the teacher’s chalk would not mark the board.

Disadvantages of friction
Figure 3.73 Friction between
board and chalk causes the chalk When two parts of any machine rub against each other, the friction
to gradually wear away between them causes heat, noise and wear. The heat produced in
fast-moving machines may be so great that the parts become red-
hot.
Friction is reduced by lubrication with grease, oil or graphite.
Bicycles and sewing machines need oil regularly. The engine of a
motor car has a case at the bottom, called a sump, which is full of
oil. This covers all the moving parts in the engine. If the engine has
too little oil, the pistons and cylinders become so hot that they join
together.
A bicycle wheel must turn freely. If there is friction between the
wheel and its axle, the bicycle will be harder to ride. Ball bearings
Figure 3.74 Ball bearings ensure between the wheel and axle allow the wheel to turn freely – see
that a wheel turns smoothly on its Figure 3.74.
axle.

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Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• Friction is a force generated when solids either attempt to
slide or slide over each other.
• Friction is caused by bumps in the surface of the materials.
• Static friction occurs when objects try to move past each
other. Kinetic friction occurs when objects slide over each
other; it acts in the opposite direction to motion.
• Frictional forces can be calculated using F = μN (where N is
the normal contact force – this reduces if the object is on an
inclined plane).

Review questions
1. Describe the causes of friction and the factors that affect it.
2. Explain the difference between static friction and kinetic
friction.
3. If the static friction between wood and concrete is 0.62,
determine the force required to make a wooden block of mass
2 kg start to slide.
4. Give two examples in which friction is useful and two where it
is a disadvantage.

3.4 Newton’s third law

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• State Newton’s third law.
• Describe experiments to demonstrate it and give examples
of where it is applicable.

The third law of motion

Newton’s third law deals with what happens when you apply a force.
It is perhaps the most counter-intuitive of Newton’s three laws.
It states:
• If body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert an
equal and opposite force on body A.
In simple terms this means whenever you push an object it pushes
back with an equal and opposite force; essentially forces come
in pairs. You can’t apply a force to an object without that object
applying the same force back onto you.

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push of chair
on boy

push of push of
wall on girl girl on wall

pull of gravity
on child

pull of child
on Earth
push of boy
on chair

Figure 3.75 Examples of Newton’s third law in action.

The pairs of forces are often called a Newton’s pair or an action
and reaction pair. It is important to notice that they are equal and
opposite.
• Equal: same magnitude
• Opposite: opposite direction
If you push down on the desk with a force of 10 N the desk pushes
back up with a force of 10 N. This applies to all forces!
Figure 3.76 An example of It may seem strange but the gravitational attraction of the Earth
Newton’s pairs on a satellite is exactly the same size as the pull on the Earth from
the satellite. The same is true at ground level. If you hold a stone
above the Earth then it pulls the Earth up with the same force that
the Earth pulls to stone down. When you drop it the stone appears
KEY WORDS
to fall but both the stone and the Earth experience the same force.
Newton’s pair a pair of equal However, the stone’s acceleration is much, much greater as it has
and opposite forces acting much less mass.
between two objects
To correctly identify Newton’s pairs it is worth remembering that
the pairs of forces must fit the following four criteria:
• equal in magnitude
• opposite direction
• act on different bodies
• same type of force
So, for example, consider a book on a desk.

Book

Desk

Figure 3.77 Two forces acting on

a book, but they are not a Newton Weight of book
pair. (gravitational attraction to Earth)

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Figure 3.77 shows two forces acting on the book, but they are not an
action–reaction pair. They are equal and opposite but they do not
act on different bodies and they are not the same type of force.
So, where are the Newton’s pairs in this example?
Table 3.6 Newton’s pairs for a book on a desk
Force Newton’s pair
Contact force on book from desk Contact force on desk from
book
Weight of book (gravitational Gravitational attraction of the
attraction of the Earth pulling book pulling on the Earth
on the book)

The book pushes down on the desk and pulls the Earth upward due
to gravitational attraction. These are the pairs to the two forces in
Figure 3.77. If we draw three free body diagrams (Figure 3.78) we
can more easily see the pairs of forces.

Figure 3.78 The two pairs of forces

There are two more pairs of forces not included in Figure 3.78. Can
you work out what they are? (Hint: they do not involve the book).

Applications of the third law

Newton’s third law is incredibly important to motion. Applications Tyre
such as rockets, jet engines, cars and even just walking around rely
on this law.
When you walk you push backwards on the ground; at the same
time the ground pushes forward on you and so you accelerate Tyre pushes Road pushes tyre
forwards! The same is true with car tyres. back on road forward with an
equal but opposite
With a rocket or jet engine hot gases are blasted out of the back; force
they are in essence pushed out. This results in an equal and opposite Figure 3.79 Newton’s third law in
force on the engine pushing it forward. action

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Activity 3.5: Discovering equal and opposite forces

With a partner get a rope and two skateboards. Both stand on
a board some distance apart and hold a rope between you. If
one of you holds the rope and the other one pulls it towards
them, who moves?
You both will! An equal and opposite force is exerted on the
puller. If he pulls with twice as much force he will experience
twice as much force pulling him forwards.

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
Figure 3.80 Without Newton’s • Newton’s third law states: “If body A exerts a force on body
third law space rockets would not B then body B will exert an equal and opposite force on
be able to move! body A”.
• Newton’s third law means forces always come in pairs.

Review questions
1. State Newton’s third law.
2. Describe the characteristics of Newton’s pairs of forces and give
three different examples.

Did you know?

As well as linear
3.5 Conservation of linear momentum
momentum there is another
physical property called By the end of this section you should be able to:
angular momentum. This • Define linear momentum and state its units.
is all to do with the rotation
• State the law of conservation of momentum.
of a spinning object. For the
purpose of the following • Define the term impulse and state its units.
sections any reference to • Solve numerical problems relating to momentum,
momentum refers to linear conservation of momentum and impulse.
momentum.
• State Newton’s second law in terms of momentum.

What is linear momentum?

Linear momentum is another important idea in physics. It can
be thought of as a measure of how hard it is to stop a moving
object; the ‘unstopability’ of the object. Objects with a larger linear
momentum are harder to stop!
There are two factors that make an object hard to stop, its mass and
Figure 3.81 A charging rhino has its velocity. The greater the mass the harder it is to stop, the faster
a large momentum! an object is moving the harder it is to stop. Linear momentum is

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defined as the product of an object’s mass and velocity. This leads to

KEY WORDS
the equation for linear momentum:
• linear momentum = mass × velocity angular momentum the
momentum of an object
Or in symbols: moving in a circle
• p = mv linear momentum a measure
of how hard it is to stop a
p is the symbol for linear momentum and as the units of mass are moving object
kg and the units of velocity are m/s it follows the units of linear
momentum are kg m/s. law of conservation of
linear momentum law
For example, a rhino running at top speed has quite a large stating that in a closed
momentum; it’s very hard to stop! An adult black rhino may have system, the total linear
a mass of 1000 kg and for short periods of time can reach 15 m/s momentum will remain
when sprinting. To find its momentum we would use the equation: constant
momentum = mass × velocity S tate principle or equation to be used
(definition of momentum)
p = 1000 kg × 15 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
p = 15 000 kg m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
A sprinting human may have a momentum of around 640 kg m/s
(assuming a velocity of 8 m/s and a mass of 80 kg).
Momentum is a vector quantity. This means the direction of motion
of the object is really important. For example, take a situation where
two identical cars are heading towards each other. Figure 3.82 Due to its large
mass a moving train has a large
10 m/s 10 m/s momentum.

Think about this…

The equation for momentum
shows that both the mass
Car A Car B
and velocity of an object
Figure 3.83 Two head-on cars are directly proportional to
The momentum of car A is: its momentum. This means
momentumA = massA × velocityA State principle or equation to be an object with twice the
used (definition of momentum applied to car A)
mass travelling at the same
speed will have double the
pA = 1200 kg × 10 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete momentum. Alternatively, an
calculation object going twice as fast will
pA = 12 000 kg m/s to the right Clearly state the answer with unit have double the momentum.
The momentum of car B is:
momentumB = massB × velocityB State principle or equation to be used
(definition of momentum applied to car B)
pB = 1200 kg × 10 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
pB = 12 000 kg m/s to the left Clearly state the answer with unit

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? m/s
Think about this…
If the mass of the system
remains constant we can
1.0 kg 2.0 kg rewrite the equation as Fnet
= mΔv / Δt. Only velocity
Ball A Ball B is changing as the mass is
constant. From Unit 2 we
Figure 3.85 Ball B moves away from ball A know that Δv / Δt is the
We can work out the velocity of ball B. As the total momentum of acceleration of the object. As
the system must equal 5 kg m/s then the momentum of ball B must a result we get Fnet = ma but
be 5 kg m/s. only if the mass is constant!
momentumB = massB × velocityB S tate principle or equation to be used
(definition of momentum)
velocityB = momentumB / massB R
 earrange equation to make velocityB Think about this…
the subject If the object changes
vB = 5 kg m/s / 2.0 kg S ubstitute in known values and complete direction then you mustn’t
calculation forget momentum is a vector
quantity. A ball going from
vB = 2.5 m/s to the right Clearly state the answer with unit a momentum of 10 kg m/s
Thinking about this answer it makes sense. Ball B has twice the to the left to 5 kg m/s to
mass of ball A and so the velocity will need to be half of that of ball the right has experienced a
A before they collided. change of momentum of
Outcome 2: The balls stick together (imagine there are magnets 15 kg m/s to the right.
inside them) and they move away together with a certain velocity.

? m/s

1.0 kg 2.0 kg

Ball A Ball B

Figure 3.86 The balls stick together

We can work out the velocity of the balls when they stick together.
Just like the previous example the total momentum of the system
must equal 5 kg m/s then the momentum of the balls must be 5 kg
m/s.
momentum = mass × velocity S tate principle or equation to be used
(definition of momentum)
velocity = momentum / mass R
 earrange equation to make velocity the
subject
v = 5 kg m/s / 3.0 kg S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
Notice we had to use a mass of 3.0 kg as this is the total mass of the
two balls.
• v = 1.7 m/s to the right Clearly state the answer with unit

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Outcome 3: Ball A bounces back off ball B. Ball B moves to the

right with a velocity of 3 m/s and ball A moves back in opposite
direction.
? m/s 3 m/s

1.0 kg 2.0 kg

Ball A Ball B

Figure 3.87 Ball A bounces off ball B and both balls move
Again, just like the previous example the total momentum of the
system must equal 5 kg m/s. However, this time both the balls have
a momentum. The momentum of ball B is given by:
momentumB = massB × velocityB S tate principle or equation to be used
(definition of momentum)
pB = 2.0 kg × 3 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
pB = 6 kg m/s to the right Clearly state the answer with unit
In order for momentum to be conserved ball A must have a
momentum of –1 kg m/s or a momentum of 1 kg m/s to the left.
This will give us a total momentum of 5 kg m/s to the right.
The velocity of ball A can then be calculated.
momentumA = massA × velocityA S tate principle or equation to be
used (definition of momentum)
velocityA = momentumA / massA R
 earrange equation to make
velocityA the subject
vA = –1 kg m/s / 1.0 kg S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
vA = –1 m/s or 1 m/s to the left Clearly state the answer with unit
There are several other possible outcomes depending on the
masses of the objects and the materials they are made out of. In
every possible case the linear momentum of the system must be
conserved!

Explosions
When a gun is fired, an explosion occurs inside the gun and the
bullet flies off at high speed. The person firing the gun has to be
ready for the recoil – the gun pushes back against their shoulder,
in the opposite direction to the direction of the bullet. Figure 3.88
shows why this is.
• The bullet has a small mass and a high velocity, towards the right.
• The gun has a larger mass and a smaller velocity, towards the left.

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–1 –1
0.5 m s 500 m s

5 kg 5g

Figure 3.88 The momentum of the bullet is equal and opposite to the
momentum of the gun
Before the explosion, neither the gun nor the bullet had any
momentum. In the explosion, the bullet is given momentum to
the right, while the gun is given an equal amount of momentum
to the left. Recall that momentum is a vector quantity; equal and
opposite amounts of momentum cancel out, so the total amount of
momentum after the explosion is zero. Hence there is just as much Figure 3.89 An explosive
momentum after the explosion as there was before it, so we can situation
again see that momentum has been conserved.
Activity 3.6: The human
Back to Newton’s second law explosion
Earlier we discussed Newton’s second law as: • Find two students with
• The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the the same mass. Make
resultant force acting on the object. them stand on platforms
and with wheels, facing each
other (Figure 3.89).
• This acceleration occurs in the direction of the resultant force.
• One student pushes
However, this only applies if the mass of the system remains the other gently, in an
constant. Newton’s original concept for the second law involved attempt to make him or
forces changing the linear momentum of objects. her move away. (This is
He said: a simple way of making
an ‘explosion’ in the lab.)
• The resultant force acting on an object must be directly
What happens?
proportional to the rate of change of linear momentum of the
object. • Does it make any
difference which student
and does the pushing, or if
• The change in linear momentum occurs in the same direction both push?
as the resultant force. • Try again with students
Using symbols this becomes: having different masses.
• F = Δmv / Δt
net

(Remember the Δ means ‘change in’.)

To recap, the law of conservation of linear momentum states that
the momentum must remain constant unless an external force
acts. What Newton’s second law tells us is that the momentum of
a system can change if a force acts on it. The two compliment each
other!

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KEY WORDS Worked example

impulse the magnitude of a
A car of mass 1400 kg accelerates from 10 m/s to 15 m/s over
force multiplied by the time
3.5 s. Find the average resultant force acting.
for which it acts
Fnet = Δmv / Δt S tate principle or equation to be used (Newton’s
second law in terms of momentum)
The change in momentum is equal to the final momentum
minus the initial momentum.
Δmv = mv – mu Express simple statement of change in momentum
Δmv = (1400 kg × 15 m/s) – (1400 kg × 10 m/s) Substitute in
known values and complete calculation
Δmv = 7000 kg m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
Fnet = Δmv / Δt State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s
second law in terms of momentum)
Fnet = 7000 kg m/s / 3.5 s Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
Fnet = 2000 N, in the direction of its acceleration Clearly state
the answer with unit
(As the mass of this system can be assumed to be constant we
could have used Fnet = ma).

Worked example
Imagine gently hitting a tennis ball of mass 100 g with a force
of 50 N. The tennis racket and ball are in contact for just 0.02
s. We can calculate the change in momentum.
Fnet = Δmv / Δt State principle or equation to be used (Newton’s
second law in terms of momentum)
Δmv = Fnet × Δt Rearrange equation to make Δmv the subject
Δmv = 50 N × 0.02 s Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
Δmv = 1.0 kg m/s in the direction of the 50 N force Clearly
state the answer with unit

Acting on impulse
The impulse of a force is the magnitude of the force multiplied by
the time which it acts.
• Impulse = FΔt
The units of impulse are usually expressed as N s.
An impulse of 10 N s could be caused by a 10 N force acting
for 1 s or a 1 N force acting for 10 s (and thousands of other
combinations!).

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From Newton’s second law we get:

• F = Δmv / Δt
Think about this…
net
In most sports participants
This can be written as: are encouraged to follow
• F Δt = Δmv = impulse through when kicking or
net
hitting a ball. This increases
• The impulse of a force is also equal to the change in
the time the force is acting
momentum of the object. and so gives rise to a greater
So, the longer the force acts on an object the greater the impulse impulse and so a greater
and so the greater the change in momentum. change in momentum.

Worked example
A footballer kicks a stationary ball of mass 1 kg with a force
of 90 N. The first time his foot is in contact with the ball for
just 0.01 s. The second time he follows through and his foot
is in contact with the ball for 0.1 s. Find the impulse, change
in momentum and the velocity of the ball after impact in each
case.
Table 3.7 Calculating the velocity of footballs
Δt = 0.01 s Δt = 0.1 s
Impulse = FΔt Impulse = FΔt
Impulse = 90 N × 0.01 s Impulse = 90 N × 0.1 s
Impulse = 0.9 N s Impulse = 9 N s
Change in momentum = Change in momentum =
impulse impulse
Change in momentum = 0.9 Change in momentum = 9 kg
kg m/s m/s
As the initial momentum As the initial momentum
was 0 kg m/s the change in was 0 kg m/s the change in
momentum must equal the momentum must equal the
final momentum of the ball. final momentum of the ball.
Final momentum = 0.9 kg Final momentum = 9 kg m/s
m/s
p = mv so v = p / m p = mv so v = p / m
v = 0.9 kg m/s / 1 kg v = 9 kg m/s / 1 kg
v = 0.9 m/s v = 9 m/s

Newton’s laws and conservation of linear momentum

Using Newton’s laws we can prove the law of conservation of linear
momentum. Imagine two railway carriages. If one crashes into
the other, they will exert equal and opposite forces on each other
(Newton’s third law). This force will be acting for the same time on

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

each carriage; therefore the impulse on each carriage will be the

same (FΔt).
Both carriages will experience the same force but in opposite
directions. They will therefore have the same change in momentum,
but in opposite directions (Newton’s second law).

m1 m2

m1 m2

Figure 3.90 Two railway carriages colliding

The change in momentum of each carriage is given by FΔt = Δmv.
The first carriage will experience a change in momentum equal and
opposite to the second carriage. Therefore:
• m1Δ v1Δ = –m2 Δv2
Or
• 0 = m Δ v – m Δ v
1 1 1 1

The total change of momentum of the system is 0 kg m/s; therefore

the momentum has not changed and momentum has to be
conserved!

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• Linear momentum is defined as the product of an object’s
mass and velocity (as given by p = mv). It is a vector
quantity measured in kg m/s.
• The law of conservation of momentum states: “In a closed
system the total linear momentum remains constant.” This
means if there are no external forces acting then the total
momentum before a collision/explosion must be the same as
the total momentum after the collision/explosion.
• The impulse of a force is defined as the force multiplied by
the time the force is acting. It has units of N s. Impulse is
equal to the change in momentum of an object.

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• In terms of momentum, Newton’s second law can be written KEY WORDS

as: “The resultant force acting on an object must be directly
proportional to the rate of change of linear momentum of elastic collision collision
the object and the change in linear momentum occurs in the between two objects where
same direction as the resultant force.” Using symbols this the total kinetic energy is
becomes: Fnet = Δmv / Δt conserved
inelastic collision collision
between two objects where
Review questions the total kinetic energy is less
after the collision
1. Define linear momentum and state its units.
kinetic energy the energy
2. Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 1200 kg travelling
possessed by an object as a
with a velocity of 30 m/s.
result of its motion
3. A car of mass 500 kg is moving at 24 m/s. A lion of mass 100 kg
drops on to the roof of the car from an overhanging branch. Show
that the car will slow down to 20 m/s.
4. A car of mass 600 kg is moving at a speed of 20 m/s. It collides
with a stationary car of mass 900 kg. If the first car bounces
back at 4 m/s, at what speed does the second car move after the
collision?
5. A ball of mass 4 kg falls to the floor; it lands with a speed
of 6 m/s. It bounces off with the same speed. Show that its
momentum has changed by 48 kg m/s.

3.6 Collisions

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.

Elastic and inelastic collisions will be covered in more detail in

Unit 4. This short section serves as a brief introduction.
Whenever objects collide the linear momentum of the system
must be conserved as long as there are no external forces acting.
However, other quantities, such as kinetic energy, may change.
In a perfectly elastic collision the kinetic energy of the system before
the collision must equal the kinetic energy of the system after the
collision.
• In an elastic collision the kinetic energy must be conserved.
Perfectly elastic collisions are very rare. Snooker balls come pretty
close but there is always a small drop in kinetic energy (most of
this energy is transformed into heat and sound as the balls knock Figure 3.91 Snooker balls
together). produce near-perfect elastic
A collision where the kinetic energy of the system drops after the collisions.
collision is referred to as inelastic. Think of a tennis ball dropped
on to the desk. It will bounce but it does not return to its original
height as some of the kinetic energy has been lost.
Most collisions are inelastic but some are much more inelastic than
others.
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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• Collisions can be classed as elastic or inelastic.
• In an elastic collision the kinetic of energy of the system
does not change.

Review questions
1. Explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions.

3.7 The first condition of equilibrium

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• State the conditions required for linear equilibrium.
• Decide whether a system is in equilibrium.
• Apply the first condition of equilibrium to solve problems.

What is linear equilibrium?

Equilibrium was discussed briefly in Unit 1. In terms of forces,
the first condition of linear equilibrium is when a body at rest or
moving with uniform velocity has zero acceleration.
From Newton’s first law, for this condition to be satisfied then the
sum of all forces acting on it must be zero. In other words, there is
no resultant force acting on the object.
Using the mathematical symbol ∑F for the sum of all forces we can
Start/End
write:
• For linear equilibrium ∑F = 0
You must be careful when considering equilibrium. Free body
diagrams often help here. Ensure that you have included all the
forces acting on the object; don’t forget weight and the contact
Figure 3.92 Scale diagram forces acting on it.
showing no resultant force If you draw a free body diagram and you end up back at the start
then you can conclude there is no resultant force and the system is
in equilibrium (remember if there are just three forces acting then
they must form a triangle).

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

Worked example Lift=?

Three forces are acting on a hovering helicopter. Its weight

acts vertically downward and there is a strong horizontal wind.
Strong wind=3000 N
In order to hover, the force from the rotors must be directed
slightly forward. Determine the magnitude of this force and its
angle to the horizontal.
Weight=15 000 N
The helicopter is in equilibrium, therefore there is no net force
acting on it. The three forces form a triangle, as shown in
Figure 3.94.
Figure 3.93 Three forces acting on
To calculate the magnitude of the force we use Pythagoras’s a helicopter.
theorem:
a2 = b2 + c2 State principle or equation to be used (Pythagoras’s
theorem)
a2 = (15 000 N)2 + (3000 N)2 Substitute in known values and Lift=?
15 000 N
complete calculation
a = 15 300 N Clearly state the answer with unit θ

To determine angle θ we use trigonometry 3000 N

tan θ = opp / adj State principle or equation to be used
(trigonometry) Figure 3.94 The forces on the
tan θ = 15 000 / 3000 Substitute in known values and complete helicopter form a triangle.
calculation
tan θ = 5 Solve for tan θ
θ = tan–1 5 Rearrange equation to make θ the subject and solve
θ = 79o Clearly state the answer with unit

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
50 N Vertical
• A system/object is in linear equilibrium if there is no
resultant force acting on it.

Review questions 10 N Horizontal

1. Explain what is meant by the term linear equilibrium and

describe the conditions required.
Force X
2. Three forces are acting on an object in equilibrium, as shown
in Figure 3.95. Either using a scale diagram or mathematically
determine the magnitude and direction of force X. Figure 3.95 Can you find force X?

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 UNIT 3: Forces and Newton’s laws of motion

End of unit questions

1. State Newton’s three laws of motion.
2. Explain what is meant by the term inertia and describe how it is
related to mass.
3. A force of 10 N causes a spring to extend by 20 mm. Find:
a) the spring constant of the spring in N/m
b) the extension of the spring when 25 N is applied
c) the force applied that causes an extension of 5 mm.
4. Calculate the weight of the following objects on Earth (assume
g = 10 N/kg).
a) 12 kg
b) 500 g
c) 20 g
6000 N North d) What is the mass and weight of each of the objects if they
were placed on Mars? (gMars = 3.8 N/kg)
5. A runner of mass 60 kg accelerates at 2.0 m/s2 at the start of a
race. Calculate the force provided from her legs.
2000 N 6. Two forces are acting on an aircraft of mass 2000 kg, as shown
East in Figure 3.96.
Determine the acceleration of the aircraft.
7. A concrete slab of mass 400 kg accelerates down a concrete
Figure 3.96 Forces acting on an
slope inclined at 35°. The μkinetic between the slab and slope is
aircraft
0.60. Determine the acceleration of the block.
8. State the law of conservation of linear momentum and describe
its consequences.
9. A bullet of mass 0.01 kg is fired into a sandbag of mass 0.49 kg
hanging from a tree. The sandbag, with the bullet embedded
into it, swings away at 10 m/s. Find:
a) the momentum after the collision
b) the momentum before the collision
c) the velocity of the bullet.
10. A child of mass 40 kg jumps off a wall and hits the ground at
4 m/s. He bends his knees and stops in 1 s. Calculate the force
required to slow him down. How would this force be different if
he didn’t bend his knees and stopped in 0.1 s?

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 Work, energy and power Unit 4

Contents
Section Learning competencies
4.1 Mechanical work • Describe the necessary conditions for work to be done by a force
(page 88) (including work done by a force F acting on a body at an angle of θ).
• Use W = F s cos θ to solve problems.
• Calculate the work done against gravity, the work done by a
frictional force and the work done by a variable force.
• Distinguish between negative and positive work.
4.2 Work–energy • Explain the relationship between work and energy.
theorem • Derive the relationship between work and kinetic energy and use
(page 96) this to solve problems.
• Show the relationship between work and potential energy as
W = –ΔU and use this to solve problems.
• Describe gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy.
• Explain mechanical energy as the sum of kinetic and potential
energy.
4.3 Conservation of • State the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
energy • Revise the term collision and distinguish between elastic and
(page 101) inelastic collisions.
• Solve problems involving inelastic collisions in one dimension
using the laws of conservation of mechanical energy and
momentum.
• Explain the energy changes that take place in an oscillating
pendulum and an oscillating spring–mass system.
• Describe the use of energy resources, including wind energy, solar
energy and geothermal energy.
• Explain the meaning of the term renewable energy.
4.4 Mechanical power • Solve problems relating to the definition of power.
(page 110) • Show that the kWh is also a unit of work.
• Express the formula of mechanical power in terms of average
velocity.

Bouncing a ball involves some complex energy changes and

transfers. No matter what surface you drop the ball on to, it will
never return to its original height. Why is this? In simple terms,
some of the ball’s energy has been transferred into the air and
ground. After the bounce it has less energy than it did before, and
so it can’t return to its original height.
This unit looks at work and energy, how it comes in different forms,
and how you can transform it and transfer it. However, no matter
how hard we try, we can’t make any more energy then there is to
start with, nor can we destroy any.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

With dwindling global energy resources and continuously

increasing demand, energy issues will play a very significant role in
the next 20 years.

4.1 Mechanical work

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Describe the necessary conditions for work to be done by a
force (including work done by a force F acting on a body at
an angle of θ).
• Use W = F s cos θ to solve problems.
• Calculate the work done against gravity, the work done by a
frictional force and the work done by a variable force.
• Distinguish between negative and positive work.
Figure 4.1 These fishermen are
working hard, but what does the
term working hard mean? What is work?
The term work is used all the time in everyday language. You
might go to work, a device may stop working, you might complete
Did you know? schoolwork, or work hard to solve a problem. However, in physics,
The term work was first work means something very specific.
used in the 1830s by the You might describe someone performing a physically demanding
French mathematician task as working hard. This is closer to the truth than it first appears.
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. In physics the term work (or often work done) is another way of
He is more famous for saying energy is being transferred from one object to another or
giving his name to the transformed from one type to another.
Coriolis effect. This explains
the rotation of large weather • Work done = energy transferred
systems like hurricanes and This means, like energy, work done is measured in joules. (The
cyclones. joule is the SI derived unit of energy). The more energy transferred
the more work has been done. Work is a scalar quantity, just like
energy.

Calculating work done

Look back at the fishermen in Figure 4.1. As they pull the rope
along they are transferring energy to their catch at the end of the
rope. The harder they pull or the greater distance they travel, the
more energy they transfer, the more work they do.
Mechanical work is defined as the amount of energy transferred by
a force acting through a distance. We can calculate work done using
the following equation:
• W = F s
W = work done in J.
Figure 4.2 The forklift is
transferring energy to the box as F = average force applied (it is assumed to be constant) in N.
it lifts it up. It is doing work. s = the distance moved in the direction of the force in m.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Notice we usually use s instead of d or x. This is because the

direction of the distance moved is really important. The distance
Did you know?
travelled has to be in the direction of the force. Either in the same One joule is defined as the
direction or in the opposite direction (this is often referred to as the work done when a force of 1
distance against the force). If you are not pulling or pushing against N moves through a distance
a force then you are not doing any work. We use s because the of 1 m. So 1 J = 1 N × 1 m.
distance has a specific direction; therefore it can be considered to be
a displacement.
• Mechanical work may be defined as the product of
displacement and the force in the direction of the 3m
displacement.
Book
In both examples in Figure 4.3 work is being done, energy is being Trolley

transferred or transformed. The first example involves pulling a

trolley along the ground against a frictional force of 2 N. The second 2N

involves lifting a 2 N book. In both cases the distance moved against 2N

the force is 3 m and so 6 J of work has been done.

3m
• W = F s 3m

• W = 2 N × 3 m Trolley
Book

• W = 6 J
2N
Looking at the second example the direction of the force is 2N
vertically downwards (it is the weight of the book). Therefore it is Figure 4.3 Two examples of doing
only the vertical distance moved that is important. work, for example lifting a book
Look at Figure 4.4. Assuming the book weighs 2 N and there are no to place it on a shelf or pushing a
other forces acting, how much work is done in each case? shopping trolley through a store.

Did you know?

3m 3m As well as mechanical work
5m
you can do electrical work
on an object. The equation
4m
for electrical work done
is W = VIt, where V is the
A B C
potential difference in volts,
I is current in amperes and t
Figure 4.4 The distance moved must be in the opposite direction to
is time in seconds.
the force.

In example A the work done is simple to calculate: W = F s, W = 6 J.

Example B is more complex and serves to illustrate the importance KEY WORDS
of working against the force. The book has been moved 5 m.
However, it has only been moved 3 m vertically. It is this distance, energy the stored ability to
the distance against the force, which we use in our calculation. do work
joule the SI unit of work and
W = F s S tate principle or equation to be used (definition of mechanical
energy
work)
work / work done the
W = 2 N × 3 m Substitute in known values and complete calculation amount of energy transferred
W = 6 J Clearly state the answer with unit when an object is moved
through a distance by a force
So in both A and B the work done is 6 J. The energy transferred to
the book is 6 J in each case.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

In example C in Figure 4.4 the book moves 4 m. However, it

does not move any distance against the force (it does not move
vertically). Therefore
s = 0 m.
5m
• W = F s
θ
• W = 2 N × 0 m
• W = 0 J
So in example C no work has been done. No energy has been
Figure 4.5 θ is the angle between transferred to the book.
the direction of movement and A more complex version of the work equation can be seen below.
the direction of the force. • W = F s cos θ
s is the distance travelled.
θ is the angle between the force and the direction of movement.
If you think about this equation, s cos θ is really the distance moved
20 m in the direction of the force.
60° For example, Figure 4.6 shows a 100 N box lifted 20 m at an angle of
60° to the vertical.
The work done would be:
100 N
W = F s cos θ S tate principle or equation to be used (definition of
Figure 4.6 A box lifted up at an mechanical work)
angle
W = 100 N × 20 m × cos 60° S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
W = 1000 J Clearly state the answer with unit
Think about this…
If the angle between the
Doing work against gravity, friction, and gravity
force and distance moved and friction!
is 0° (i.e. they are parallel)
then cos θ = cos 0° = 1. Gravity
The equation W = F s cos θ Work is often done against gravity. Whenever you lift up an object
becomes W = F s, as used in you are doing work against the force of gravity. In this case the force
the earlier examples. you are working against is the weight of the object. We can adapt
our work done equation for working against gravity:
• W = F s
• Work done against gravity = weight × vertical distance moved
(or Wgravity = w × h)
The work done in lifting a 60 kg mass vertically 3 m can be found
using the work done equation:
Wgravity = w × h State principle or equation to be used
w = mg, w = 60 kg × 10 N/kg = 600 N C  alculate weight from known
values
Wgravity = 600 N × 3 m Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
Wgravity = 1800 J Clearly state the answer with unit
Remember, it must be the vertical distance moved and weight acts
vertically.
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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Friction
Whenever you push an object along the ground you are working
against a force of kinetic friction. CAR

Kinetic friction always acts in the opposite direction to motion. In

Unit 3 we learnt that: Distance moved
Friction
• F = μkineticN
friction Figure 4.7 Working against
This is the force you are working against. We can adapt our work friction
done equation for working against frictional forces:
• W = F s
• Work done against friction = force due to kinetic friction × KEY WORDS
distance moved
heat energy energy that
• Wfriction = μkineticN × s is transferred between two
For example, we can determine the work done in pushing a 100 kg objects as a result of their
wooden block 30 m across a horizontal concrete floor with μkinetic = difference in temperature
0.48
• Wfriction = μkineticN × s
In this case the normal contact force is equal to the weight (as the
floor is horizontal) and so
N = w = mg Express N in terms of weight
N = 100 kg × 10 N/kg S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
N = 1000 N Clearly state the answer with unit
Wfriction = μkineticN × s E
 xpress Wfriction in terms of frictional force and
distance moved
Wfriction = 0.48 × 1000 N × 30 m S ubstitute in known values and
complete calculation
Wfriction = 14 400 J or 14.4 kJ Clearly state the answer with unit
This energy has been transformed into heat energy where the block
and surface rub together.

Gravity and friction

If you were to push or pull on object up a ramp then you end up
doing work against both friction and gravity!
Friction
In this case the total work done could be found using the following Weight of block
equation: θ

• Total work done = work done against gravity + Total work Figure 4.8 Working against
done = work done against friction friction and gravity
Work done against gravity = weight × vertical distance moved.
• W =w×h
gravity

Work done against friction = force due to kinetic friction × distance

moved up ramp.
• Wfriction = μkineticN × s

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

So:
Think about this… • W = (w × h) + (μkineticN × s)
Using the equations in Unit total

3 and trigonometry can you We have to be very careful in considering the distances we use in
show how we might expand this equation; h has to be the vertical distance, as this is the distance
the final equation to: moved against gravity, whereas s must be the distance moved up the
Wtotal = (w × s sin θ) + slope as friction acts down the slope.
(μkinetic × w cos θ × s) Worked example
Using the wooden block earlier we can determine the work
KEY WORDS done if the block was pulled 20 m up a ramp at an angle of
graph a drawing showing how 30°.
two or more sets of numbers • Total work done = work done against gravity + work done
are related to each other against friction.
area under the line the area Work done against gravity:
between the line on a graph
and the axes Wgravity = w × h Express WGravity in terms of force (weight) and
distance moved (height lifted)
calculus a type of
mathematics that deals with In this case w = mg = 100 kg × 10 N/kg = 1000 N. h = vertical
rates of change distance moved, which, using trigonometry, = s sin θ = 20 m ×
sin 30° = 10 m.
Wgravity = 1000 N × 10 m Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
Wgravity = 10 000 J Clearly state the answer with unit
Work done against friction:
Wfriction = μkineticN × s Express Wfriction in terms of frictional force and
distance moved
In this case μkinetic = 0.48, s = 20 m and N = w cos θ (see Unit
3) = 1000 N x cos 30° = 866 N
Wfriction = 0.48 × 866 N × 20 m Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
Figure 4.9 Pulling an object up a
Wfriction = 8313.6 N or 8300 N Clearly state the answer with unit
ramp
Total work done:
Wtotal = Wgravity + Wfriction Simple expression of total work done
Wtotal = 10 000 J + 8300 J Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
Wtotal = 18 300 J Clearly state the answer with unit

What if the force varies?

If the force applied varies we can’t use the W = F s cos θ equation to
find the work done. We need a different technique to calculate the
work done.
We can plot a graph of the force applied against the distance
travelled against the force.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Force /N Force /N
Did you know?
You could use some
F powerful mathematics
called calculus to determine
Area under = Fs
the area under the line.
Area under = work done
Newton invented this kind
s
of mathematics to help him
Distance moved against force /m Distance moved against force /m solve complex problems
relating to the motion of
Figure 4.10 A graph showing Figure 4.11 The area under a objects.
a constant force acting over a force vs. distance moved graph is
distance equal to the work done.
Force /N Force /N
Think about this…
F
Hooke’s law produces a graph
very similar to Figure 4.12.
Area under the line = F s
In fact the area under the
line in this case represents
Work done the work done on the spring.
That is, the energy stored by
the spring. You can work out
Distance moved against force /m the energy stored using the
s
Distance moved against force /m
equation W = ½FΔx.
Figure 4.12 A graph showing a Figure 4.13 The area under
force that increases as the distance the line still represents the
Force /N
moved increases work done.

The area under the line is equal to F s; it is equal to the work done.
Increasing the distance moved or increasing the force both increases
the area under the line and so more work has been done.

What if the force was not constant but gradually increasing? You
might get a graph that looks like Figure 4.12.
Distance moved against force /m
In this case the area under the line is a triangle. This area is still
equal to the work done. Figure 4.14 A graph showing a
force that changes in a complex
What if the force varied in a more complex way? Take, for example, way as distance increases
Figure 4.14. This might be a varying force of friction as a box is
dragged over different surfaces. Force /N

Remember the area under the line is still equal to the work done.
But how do we calculate it?

In order to determine the area under the line we need to count the
squares under the line and then use this to calculate the work done.

Take a small square under the line and calculate the area of this
square. For example, if the square is 20 N high and 0.1 m across the Distance moved against force /m

area is equal to: Figure 4.15 No matter how

• area of one square = 20 N × 0.1 m complex the force vs. distance
moved graph, the area under the
• area of one square = 2 J.
line is still equal to the work done.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

0.1 m

This small square represents 2 J of work done. We need to count up

20 N 2J all the squares and then multiply this by 2 J to determine the total
work done. For example, if there are 100 squares the total work
done would be:
Figure 4.16 The area of one • total work done = number of squares × work done for each
square represents a small amount square
of the total work done. • total work done = 100 × 2 J = 200 J.
If there were 500 squares the total work done would be 1000 J, etc.
You must be careful when counting the squares. You need to make a
few estimations near the line. For example:
0.5 m
10 N Each square = 10 N x 0.5 m = 5 J

Force /N

2 squares
1.5 squares

8 squares

78 squares

Distance moved against force /m

Figure 4.17 Counting the squares often involves some estimation close
to the line.
In Figure 4.17 there are a total of 90.5 squares. We have had to
estimate some of those near the line. The three small red areas
add up to one complete square, the four green areas add up to two
squares, etc.
In this case the total work done is equal to:
• total work done = number of squares × work done for each
square
• total work done = 90.5 × 5 J
• total work done = 452.5 J (approximately 450 J).
Although this is only an approximate value if you are careful
counting the squares you will get very close to the true value of the
work done.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

+W or –W? Box Box

Work may be expressed as a positive or negative value. Remember,

work is a scalar quantity and the opposite sign does not mean the
opposite direction. 10 m
50 N
Instead, whether the work is positive or negative depends on
whether or not the object gains or loses energy.
In both cases in Figure 4.18 the work done is 500 J. In the first case Box Box
we can say work is done on the box. It gains 500 J of energy.

In the second case the box loses 500 J of energy. We can express this
as –500 J or we could say the work done by the box is 500 J. 50 N

Summary
In this section you have learnt that: Box Box

In this section you have learnt that:

• Work done is another way of saying energy transferred.
10 m 10 m
50 N
• Mechanical work is done whenever you move a force through
a distance.
• The work done may be found using the equation:
Box Box
W = F s cos θ
• Work done may be positive or negative depending on
whether the object in question gains or loses
50 N
energy. Figure 4.18 Work being done on
or by a moving box

Review questions KEY WORDS

1. Explain the meaning of the term work done and give an negative less than zero
example of where work is done. positive greater than zero
2. Calculate the total work done in the following examples:
a) A 20 kg log lifted 2 m into the air
b) Thirty 6 kg boxes lifted onto a shelf 1.5 m high
c) A car of mass 1400 kg pushed 50 m along a road
(μkinetic = 0.3)
d) A concrete slab of mass 200 kg pulled 10 m up a slope at an
angle of 30° to the horizontal (μkinetic = 0.6).
3. Describe in detail how you would determine the work done by
a varying force.
4. Explain the difference between positive and negative work
done.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

4.2 Work–energy theorem

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Explain the relationship between work and energy.
• Derive the relationship between work and kinetic energy
and use this to solve problems.
• Show the relationship between work and potential energy
as W = –ΔU and use this to solve problems.
• Describe gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy.
• Explain mechanical energy as the sum of kinetic and
potential energy.

Figure 4.19 It takes energy to

Energy vs. work?
play football. Energy and work are really just different ways of looking at the same
thing. The energy of an object is a mathematical representation of
the amount of work an object can do. Whereas work is any energy
transferred to or from the object, energy refers to the total amount
of work the object could theoretically do. In algebraic terms:
• ΔE = W
Did you know?
Both energy and work are scalar quantities measured in joules.
A common definition for
energy is capacity to do
work. The more energy an Forms of energy
object has the more work There are several different forms of energy. These include:
it can do! The term energy
comes from the Greek word Table 4.1 Different types of energy
‘energeia’ meaning activity Kinetic energy Gravitational potential energy
or operation.
Heat energy Elastic potential energy
(strain)
Sound energy Chemical energy
Activity 4.1: Energy
Electromagnetic energy (light) Nuclear energy
examples
Electrical energy
Can you give examples
of where you might come The forms of energy on the left hand side of Table 4.1 are all
across each of the forms of energies associated with a kind of movement, whereas the forms
energy listed in Table 4.1? of energy on the right are all to do with storing energy due to the
particular arrangement of objects. Remember, all forms of energy
are scalar quantities measured in joules.

KEY WORDS Kinetic energy

forms types Any object in motion has a kinetic energy (Ek). The amount of
motion the act of moving or energy depends on the mass of the moving object and how fast it is
the way an object moves travelling. Kinetic energy is calculated using the equation below:
• kinetic energy = ½mv2

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

For example, a car of mass 1000 kg travelling at 12 m/s will have a

Activity 4.2: Kinetic
kinetic energy of:
energy of a car
Ek = ½mv2 State principle or equation to be used
Determine the kinetic energy
Ek = ½ × 1000 kg × (12 m/s)2 S ubstitute in known values and complete of the car used in the
calculation worked example if it were
Ek = 72 000 J or 72 kJ Clearly state the answer with unit travelling firstly at 16 m/s
and then at 24 m/s.
An object with double the mass travelling at the same speed will
have twice the kinetic energy. Mass and kinetic energy are directly
proportional. However, if you double the velocity of an object its
kinetic energy will increase by a factor of four (22). This relationship
is not directly proportional; instead Ek is directly proportional to v2.
If the velocity increases by a factor of five the Ek will increase by a
factor of 25 (52).
v=10 m/s v=10 m/s v=20 m/s
Ek=60 000 J Ek=120 000 J Ek=240 000 J

Figure 4.20 The effect of mass

Car: Mass 1200 kg Car: Mass 2400 kg Car: Mass 1200 kg
and velocity on the kinetic
energy of an object

Why does Ek = ½mv2?

This equation comes from combining Newton’s first and second
laws of motion and one of the equations for constant acceleration.
Part of the work–energy theorem states:
• If an external force acts upon an object it will cause its kinetic
energy to change from Ek1 to Ek2. The net work done on a body
equals its change in kinetic energy. Figure 4.21 All moving objects
This statement should make sense. Work done is energy transferred. have kinetic energy. In this picture
If a resultant force is applied to an object it will accelerate (Newton’s the aircraft has the most Ek.
first law). As a result it will change its kinetic energy and this change
will be equal to the energy transferred (or work done).
In terms of equations we have: Think about this…
• Work done = change in kinetic energy Because Ek ∝ v2 the velocity
• W = ∆Ek = Ek2 – Ek1 of a moving car has a
significant impact on its
• W = ½mv22 – ½mv12
stopping distance. Travelling
• W = ½m(v22 – v12) at 50 km/h it may take 25 m
This does not show where Ek = ½mv2 comes from; however, we can to stop (depending on road
derive this equation another way to show that it is valid. conditions, etc). Double that,
V1 V2
travelling at 100 km/h and it
takes a massive 75 m to stop,
much more than double the
F F distance. This is because the
m m
brakes have to do more than
double the work (as there is
more than double the Ek and
S so the force has to act over a
much greater distance).
Figure 4.22 Deriving Ek = ½mv2

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Starting from Newton’s second law:

Worked example
• Fnet = m a
A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 12 m/s. The car
Our defining equation for work done:
accelerates over a distance of 240 m. The net force
causing this acceleration is 200 N. Determine the • W = F s
work done on the car and its final velocity. So we could substitute in for F and we get:
W = F s State principle or equation to be used • W = m a s
(definition of mechanical work)
From the equations of constant
W = 200 N x 240 m Substitute in known values and acceleration we have:
complete calculation
• v2 = u2 + 2as
W = 48 000 J Clearly state the answer with unit
This can be written as:
You can calculate the final velocity in a number of
different ways (including use one of the equations • as = (v2 – u2) / 2
of constant acceleration). In this case we will use: Combining this with our previous equation
W = ½m(v – u )2 2 we get:
2 W / m = v2 – u2 Rearrange equation to give v2 – u2 on • W = m (v2 – u2) / 2
right hand side Or
v2 = (2 W / m) + u2 Rearrange equation to make v2 the • W = ½m(v2 – u2).
subject
v2 = (2 x 48 000 J / 800 kg) + (12 m/s)2 Substitute in
known values and complete calculation for v2
v2 = 264 Solve for v2 then take the square root to
complete
v = 16 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit

Activity 4.3: Final Potential energies

velocity As previously mentioned the second column in our table of
Check the final velocity in energies contains some different kinds of potential energy. They
the worked example using are effectively stored energies. They are all due the particular
one of the equations of organisation or position of parts of the object/system of objects. The
constant acceleration. potential energy of an object is usually given the symbol U.
• Potential energy = U
If an object has a potential energy it can be thought of as storing
some energy. This energy has the potential to do some work, i.e. the
KEY WORDS potential energy might be transformed into another form of energy
and so work would be done (remember work done is just another
potential energy way of saying energy has been transferred).
the ability of an object to do
work as a result of its relative Imagine an object has a potential energy of 1000 J. If this object did
position 300 J of work then the potential energy remaining after the work
stored energy the potential has been done will be 700 J. In other words:
ability of an object to do • Work done by object = drop in potential energy of object
work as a result of its relative Or in symbols:
position or shape change
• W = –∆U

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Equally, if work is done on the object then its potential energy m

might increase (it is also fair to say its kinetic energy may also
increase). This is really just another way of saying work done is
equal to the energy transferred; we just need to think carefully h g
about where that energy has come from.

Gravitational potential energy

Perhaps the most common potential energy is gravitational Earth

potential energy (GPE). Any object with mass in a gravitational

Figure 4.23 Factors affecting the
field has a GPE. How much GPE depends on three factors, its mass,
GPE of an object
the gravitational field strength (g) and its position in the field.
We usually deal with GPE with reference to the surface of the Earth.
Therefore, on the ground an object has 0 J of GPE. Activity 4.4: Calculating
• Gravitational potential energy = mgh GPE
m = mass in kg. How high above the ground
g = gravitational field strength (on Earth this is 10 N/kg or more would a 10 kg object need
precisely 9.81 N/kg). to be to have the same GPE
as the 30 kg object in the
h = height above the ground. example?
For example, an object of mass 30 kg at a height of 12 m has a GPE
equal to:
GPE = mgh State principle or equation to be used Think about this…
GPE = 30 kg × 10 N/kg × 12 m S ubstitute in known values and If an object has 0 J when on
complete calculation the ground how much GPE
will an object have at the
GPE = 3600 J Clearly state the answer with unit
bottom of a well? It takes
An object with double the mass at the same height above the energy to lift the object out
ground will have twice the GPE. Equally, an object twice as high of the well. Work is done on
above the ground will have double the GPE. Mass and height above the object and it gains energy
the ground are both directly proportional to the GPE of the object. to end up with 0 J. This must
mean the GPE at the bottom
of the well is less than 0 J. It
must be a negative number!
This is often referred to as a
potential well.
h=10 m

h=5 m h=5 m

KEY WORDS
Book Mass 2 kg Book Mass 2 kg Book Mass 4 kg
gravitational field the space
around an object in which the
Gain in GPE = 200 J Gain in GPE = 100 J Gain in GPE = 200 J
object’s gravitational effect
Figure 4.24 The effect of mass and height above the ground on the can be felt
GPE of an object gravitational potential
energy the energy an object
If you think about when you do work by lifting up an object, you are
has due to its relative position
transferring GPE to the object you are lifting. Looking back at the
above the ground
equations we can see they are both saying the same thing.

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• Wgravity = w × h
• GPE = mgh
The energy gained by the mass (or the work done on the mass)
is equal to weight multiplied by the vertical distance moved (the
height above the ground).

Elastic potential energy

Another common potential energy is elastic potential energy
(EPE), sometimes called strain energy. This is the energy associated
with any object that has been stretched or compressed. Think
about compressing a spring in a toy; it will store energy, which it
Figure 4.25 A child’s spring toy
converts into kinetic energy as it bounces.
stores EPE.
The amount of EPE stored in the spring depends on the force
applied and the distance moved (i.e. the extension of the spring).
Think back to the Hooke’s law force vs. extension graphs studied
in Unit 3. The area under the line is equal to the work done on the
spring. This gives us the equation for EPE:
• Elastic potential energy = ½ F Δx
F = force in N.
Δx = extension of spring in m.
Δx
For example, if a force of 100 N causes a spring to extend by 40 cm
F the energy stored in the spring will be equal to:
EPE = ½ F Δx State principle or equation to be used
Figure 4.26 Factors affecting the
EPE of an object EPE = ½ × 100 N × 0.4 m S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
EPE = 20 J Clearly state the answer with unit
Activity 4.5: Energy There is an alternative equation for EPE that includes the spring
stored in a spring constant of the spring rather than the force applied. From Hooke’s
Determine the energy stored law
in a spring that has a spring • F = k Δx
contact of 15 N/m and is
extended by 20 cm. We can combine this with our equation for EPE and we get:
• Elastic potential energy = ½ k Δx Δx
• Elastic potential energy = ½ k Δx2

Total energies and energy changes

The total mechanical energy of a system is the sum of all the
possible kinetic and potential energies.
• Total mechanical energy = Σkinetic energy + Σpotential
energy
• Total mechanical energy = ΣE + ΣU
k

Figure 4.27 An aircraft flying An aircraft cruising at 10 000 m will have a both a kinetic energy (as
through the air has both kinetic it is moving) and a potential energy (in this case GPE as it is above
and potential energy. the ground). Its total mechanical energy will be its Ek + GPE.

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Summary
In this section you have learnt that: Think about this…
In this section you have learn that: Heat is another form of
energy. The aircraft will also
• When an object does work, the work done is equal to the contain a certain amount of
change in energy of the object. W = ΔE. Or W = –ΔU if there heat energy. However, this
is change in potential energy. does not count towards its
• Any moving object has a kinetic energy given by mechanical energy. More on
Ek = ½mv2. heat in Unit 7.
• Potential energies are ‘stored energies’. For example, GPE and
EPE. KEY WORDS
• GPE = mgh and EPE = ½FΔx (or ½kΔx ). 2
compressed pressed or
• The total mechanical energy of an object is given by the sum squeezed into a smaller space
of its kinetic and potential energies. elastic potential energy the
energy stored in a spring as a
result of it being stretched or
compressed
Review questions
stretched made longer or
1. Use the work–energy theorem (W = ΔE) to show how wider by the application of
W = ½m(v22 – v12). force
2. Calculate the kinetic energy of the following objects:
a) a 75 kg human running at 8 m/s
b) a 3 g bullet travelling at 400 m/s
c) a car of mass 1200 kg that travels 60 m in 3 s.
3. Explain what is meant by the term potential energy and give
four different examples of potential energies.
4. Calculate:
a) the GPE of a 15 kg wooden block 6 m above the ground
b) the height of the wooden block if it were to have a GPE of
300 J.
5. Calculate the energy stored in a spring when it is compressed
5 mm by a 60 N force.
6. Determine the mechanical energy of a bird of mass 200 g flying
at 12 m/s at a height of 50 m above the ground.

4.3 Conservation of energy

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• State the law of conservation of mechanical energy.
• Revise the term collision and distinguish between elastic
and inelastic collisions.

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• Solve problems involving inelastic collisions in one

dimension using the laws of conservation of mechanical
energy and momentum.
• Explain the energy changes that take place in an oscillating
pendulum and an oscillating spring–mass system.
• Describe the use of energy resources including, wind
energy, solar energy and geothermal energy.
• Explain the meaning of the term renewable energy.

Figure 4.28 A burning candle

transforms chemical energy into The law of conservation of energy
heat and light energy.
Perhaps the most important idea in all of physics, the law of
conservation of energy, states:
• The total energy of a closed system must remain constant.
In essence this means energy cannot be created or destroyed only
transferred from one place to another or transformed from one type
to another. The energy has been conserved; it has not changed in
value.
For example, when a candle burns we might say it ‘gives out’ heat
and light. What we really mean to say is that the chemical energy
in the candle is transformed into heat and light. The energy has not
been created just transformed. Importantly, the amount of each type
of energy must balance. If 200 J of chemical energy was converted
into heat and light then there must be 200 J of heat and light energy,
Figure 4.29 Filament bulbs not 198 J or 202 J, exactly 200 J! Energy cannot be created or
‘waste’ quite a lot of energy as destroyed.
heat.
We often use terms like ‘wasted energy’ or ‘lost energy’ and
we might say ‘it’s run out of energy’. In these cases we mean
Did you know? transformed into a form we don’t need or can’t use. Most energy is
The term closed system eventually transformed into heat. This is often wasted as it is not
refers to a situation where used by the device but transferred to the surroundings; the energy
objects are isolated from has not been destroyed.
their wider surroundings. It Let’s think about what happens to the potential energy of a 5.0 kg
is an idealised enironment mass when it is dropped from a height of 10 m. The total energy
as the only totally closed of a system must stay the same, but as the mass falls it ‘loses’ GPE.
system in the universe This GPE is converted into other forms. If we assume that the air
itself! resistance is negligible then the GPE will be converted into kinetic
energy. The further it falls the faster is goes and the higher its
kinetic energy.
Think about this… Throughout the drop the total mechanical energy will be
In reality the block will hit 500 J. When the mass hits the floor the kinetic energy will then be
the ground with just less than converted into 500 J of heat and sound energy.
500 J of kinetic energy. What
would have happened to the
rest of the energy?

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Kinetic energy and momentum 5.0 kg

GPE = 500 J
Ek= 0 J
Kinetic energy and linear momentum are two quantities that are
very closely related. They both relate to moving objects with mass
and both increase if the mass and/or the velocity of the objects
increase, but not by the same proportion.
There are a few other important differences. Table 4.2 summarises 5.0 kg
GPE = 250 J
Ek= 250 J
10 m
some of the key points about kinetic energy and linear momentum.
Table 4.2 Comparing linear momentum and kinetic energy
Momentum Kinetic energy
GPE = 0 J
Unit kg m/s J 5.0 kg Ek= 500 J

Type of quantity Vector Scalar

Figure 4.30 As an object falls
Equation p = mv Ek = ½mv2 GPE is transformed into Ek.
Effect if mass doubles Doubles Doubles
Effect if velocity doubles Doubles Quadruples Activity 4.6: Energy
changes
(22 = 4)
Describe all the energy
Conserved in collisions Yes, always Possibly, but not changes when a football is
as long as no external always dropped onto the ground.
force acts Why does the ball not return
to its original height?

v=10 m/s v=10 m/s v=20 m/s

Activity 4.7: Kinetic
Car: Mass 1200kg Car: Mass 2400kg Car: Mass 1200kg
energy and momentum
Calculate the kinetic energy
and momentum of a mass
Ek=60 000J Ek=120 000J Ek=240 000J
of 10 kg travelling first at 6
P=12 000 kgm/s P=24 000 kgm/s P=24 000 kgm/s
m/s then at 12 m/s. Repeat
Figure 4.31 The effect of changing mass and velocity on momentum for a mass of 20 kg.
and kinetic energy
Look carefully at Figure 4.31. You can see that both momentum and
kinetic energy are directly proportional to the mass of the moving
object. Double the mass and both the momentum and the kinetic KEY WORDS
energy double. However, if the velocity doubles, the momentum
doubles, but the kinetic energy goes up by four. conserved neither increased
nor destroyed
Elastic and inelastic collisions closed system a situation
where objects are isolated
Energy and momentum are two factors that are always conserved from their environment
in collisions between objects. However, the energy may be
law of conservation of
transformed (for example, into heat and sound) and as a result the
energy law stating that
kinetic energy may not always be conserved.
energy cannot be created or
We briefly looked at elastic and inelastic collisions in Unit 3. In destroyed but is converted
an elastic collision the kinetic energy is conserved. In an inelastic from one type to another
collision the kinetic energy is not conserved.

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Before collision
For example, Figure 4.32 shows a perfectly elastic collision. Both
5 m/s 0 m/s
kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.
2.0 kg 2.0 kg
Momentum before = mAvA + mBvB = (2.0 kg × 5 m/s) + (2.0 kg
Ball A Ball B × 0 m/s) = 10 kg m/s → Calculate momentum before as sum of
After collision 0 m/s 5 m/s
momentum of A and momentum of B

2.0 kg 2.0 kg
2.0 kg
Momentum after = mAvA + mBvB = (2.0 kg × 0 m/s) + (2.0 kg × 5
m/s) = 10 kg m/s → Calculate momentum after as sum of momentum
Ball A Ball B
of A and momentum of B
Figure 4.32 A perfectly elastic • Momentum before = momentum after; momentum has been
collision
conserved.
Kinetic energy before = ½mAvA2 + ½mBvB2 = (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (5 m/s)2)
+ (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (0 m/s)2) = 25 J Calculate kinetic energy before as
Activity 4.8: Collisions sum of KE of A and KE of B
Show that both kinetic Kinetic energy after = ½mAvA2 + ½mBvB2 = (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (0 m/s)2)
energy and momentum are + (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (5 m/s)2) = 25 J Calculate kinetic energy after as sum
conserved in the collision of KE of A and KE of B
shown in Figure 4.33.
• Kinetic energy before = kinetic energy after; kinetic energy has
(Remember, momentum is
a vector quantity, whereas been conserved and therefore it is a perfectly elastic collision.
kinetic energy is a scalar.). Momentum is always conserved but kinetic energy is not. Figure
Before collision 4.34 shows an example of an inelastic collision.
9 m/s 9 m/s

4.0 kg 2.0 kg
Momentum before = mAvA + mBvB = (4.0 kg × 5 m/s) + (2.0 kg
× 0 m/s) = 20 kg m/s → Calculate momentum before as sum of
Ball A Ball B
momentum of A and momentum of B
After collision
3 m/s 15 m/s
Momentum after = mAvA + mBvB = (4.0 kg × 2 m/s) + (2.0 kg × 6
4.0 kg 2.0 kg
m/s) = 20 kg m/s → Calculate momentum after as sum of momentum
Ball A Ball B
of A and momentum of B
Figure 4.33 Is this an elastic • Momentum before = momentum after; momentum has been
collision? conserved.
Kinetic energy before = ½mAvA2 + ½mBvB2 = (0.5 × 4.0 kg × (5 m/s)2)
+ (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (0 m/s)2) = 50 J Calculate kinetic energy before as
sum of KE of A and KE of B
Kinetic energy after = ½mAvA2 + ½mBvB2 = (0.5 × 4.0 kg × (2 m/s)2)
Before collision
0 m/s
+ (0.5 × 2.0 kg × (6 m/s)2) = 44 J Calculate kinetic energy after as sum
5 m/s
of KE of A and KE of B
4.0 kg 2.0 kg
• Kinetic energy before > kinetic energy after; kinetic energy
Ball A Ball B has been lost and therefore it is not a perfectly elastic collision.
After collision 2 m/s 6 m/s In this example 6 J has been converted into heat and sound and so
4.0 kg 2.0 kg
kinetic energy is not conserved and the collision is not perfectly
elastic.
Ball A Ball B

Figure 4.34 An inelastic collision Energy in oscillating systems

We have seen that when an object falls its GPE is converted into
kinetic energy. The same is true if you throw an object into the air.
Here the kinetic energy is transformed into GPE as it rises.

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In oscillating systems kinetic energy is continuously being

transformed into potential energy and vice versa. If there are no
energy losses (e.g. no losses as heat) then the total mechanical
energy will stay the same and this process will go on forever!
Take, for example, a pendulum as it swings.
As it is lifted to A the pendulum gains GPE. It is then released and
the gain in GPE is converted into Ek. At B it is travelling fastest, it A C
has the most Ek but also the lowest GPE. It then rises to C, losing Ek
and gaining GPE as it does so. Figure 4.36 shows how the potential
energy and kinetic change over time. B

From the graph you can see that the total mechanical energy stays Figure 4.35 A simple pendulum
the same. As the potential energy falls the kinetic energy increases transforms GPE into Ek and then
and vice versa. back again.
• The total mechanical energy = kinetic energy + potential
energy Energy /J
Total Energy

Another example of an oscillating system is a mass–spring system.

In simple terms this is just a mass on the end of a spring. However,
Kinetic
the suspension in a car is a more complex example of a mass–spring Energy
system.
Potential
In this case the potential energy may not be GPE, instead it may be Energy
EPE.

Time /s

Figure 4.36 Graph showing how

the potential energy and kinetic
energy of oscillating systems are
related
Figure 4.37 An example of a mass–spring system
As the spring is compressed the EPE increases and the mass slows
down (its Ek decreases). Eventually the mass will stop; at this
point the EPE is at its maximum and the Ek is zero. The mass then
accelerates as EPE is converted into Ek. This process continues.
A more complex example might be a mass–spring system oscillating
vertically like the one shown in Figure 4.38.
In this case the kinetic energy is changed into GPE and EPE. In any
case the total mechanical energy of the system remains then same.

Energy resources
Figure 4.38 A vertically
Every country demands a huge amount of energy, from fuel to
oscillating mass–spring system
run cars and other vehicles, to gas for cooking and heating and, of
course, electrical energy. A source of energy that may be used by a
country or individuals within that country is commonly referred KEY WORDS
to as an energy resource. Energy resources are very precious
commodities, perhaps the most obvious being oil. energy resource a source of
energy that can be used by a
Selecting which energy resources to use is often a very difficult country or its population
decision. There are lots of factors to consider, chief among them

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being the availability of the resource, the economics involved and

the subsequent environmental impact (more on this later).
Energy resources are often used to generate electricity. Electricity is
exceptionally useful as it is quite simple to transfer a vast amount of
energy from one place to another (all you need is a suitable wire!)
and it can be easily transformed into most other forms of energy.
Most methods of electricity generation involve a rotating turbine.
This turbine turns a generator (a magnet or series of magnets inside
coils of wire). This generator converts kinetic energy into electrical
energy.
Globally the most common method for generating electricity
Figure 4.39 A simple generator involves the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas.
The chemical energy contained within these fuels is released as heat
(through burning), this heat is used to turn water into steam, this
Think about this… steam then turns a turbine to generate electricity. Large fossil fuel
Remember energy cannot be power stations can generate up to 4 billion joules per second!
created or destroyed, so when However, such a global reliance on fossil fuels is problematic for two
we talk about generating main reasons.
energy we really mean
• Fossil fuels are a finite energy resource. Eventually we will run
converting it from one form
into electrical energy. out of coal, oil and natural gas.
• Burning fossil fuels produces several atmospheric pollutants,
including sulphur dioxide and perhaps more worryingly, carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a powerful greenhouse gas. It is
thought the increase in CO2 output is a significant factor in man-
made global warming, heating up the entire planet and leading
to dramatic changes to weather and climate.
Ethiopia has few proven fossil fuel resources. However, some people
estimate that there is considerable potential for oil and natural gas
exploration in the future.
In a nuclear power station uranium is used as a fuel. Inside the
reactor there is a complex nuclear reaction (fission – splitting the
atom). This process generates heat, which is used to turn water
to steam, etc. The only real difference between a nuclear power
station and a coal-fired one is the method for generating the heat.
Figure 4.40 An example of a
In a nuclear reactor a great deal of heat can be produced per kg
coal-fired power station
of uranium, and so nuclear plants can generate vast amounts of
electricity. As no fuel is ‘burnt’ there are no greenhouse gases
KEY WORDS produced; however, this process produces radioactive waste. This
waste will remain dangerous for millions of years.
fossil fuels fuels that are
produced by the action of Renewable energy resources
high temperature and pressure
on organic materials over Resources that do not involve a fuel that will eventually run out are
millions of years referred to as renewable. Table 4.3 includes a selection of some of
the forms of renewable energy resources. This is not a definitive
renewable resource an
list; other forms include tidal (energy from tidal movements), wave
energy resource that does not
(energy from water waves) and biomass (burning organic matter
involve a fuel that will run out
specifically grown for the task).

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Table 4.3 Comparison of some renewable energy resources

Type Description Positives Negatives
Wind The Sun heats the Relatively inexpensive – Not a consistent supply.
Earth’s surface. This just running costs. When there is no wind
heating is uneven and Does not produce any there is no electricity
so creates convection greenhouse gases. generated.
currents. This leads A large number of
to areas of higher and turbines are needed to
lower pressure and generate a significant
wind moves between amount of power.
them. The wind turns
large turbines and this
generates electricity.
Geothermal Heat from processes Only small amount of Only certain locations
inside the Earth is greenhouse gases are are suitable for
used to turn water released (due to gases geothermal power plants
into steam. Water is trapped inside the Earth (see next section).
pumped down into being released in the Initial construction can
‘hotspots’ in the process). be expensive.
Earth’s crust. It is Can generate a
turned to steam and significant amount of
this steam is used power.
to turn turbines to
generate electricity.
Hydroelectric Falling water turns Only a small amount of Construction of large
turbines to generate greenhouse house gases dams can damage the
electricity. In order are produced. local environment. This
to provide a sufficient Very large amounts of may affect a significant
drop in height large energy can be generated number of the local
dams are often with relatively small inhabitants (animal and
constructed. The water running costs. human).
builds up behind Initial construction can
the dam and is then Hydroelectric plants
tend to have longer be very expensive and is
released through
turbines. lives than thermal power limited to only certain
stations. sites.
Generation may be
affected by extended
droughts.
Solar (photovoltaic) The first type of No greenhouse gases. Construction often
solar power converts Very low running costs. involves the use of a
the energy in large quantity of toxic
sunlight directly into materials.
electrical energy (via Photovoltaic cells remain
photovoltaic cells). very expensive.
Only a relatively small
amount of energy is
generated per km2.

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Type Description Positives Negatives

Solar (concentrating The second type of Generates more Mirrors need to be very
solar power) solar power involves energy per km2 than carefully aligned.
using carefully aligned photovoltaics. Sophisticated technology
mirrors to focus the No greenhouse gases are is needed to ensure they
sunlight onto a boiler. produced. track the Sun as it moves
The heat turns water across the sky.
to steam and this
turns a turbine.

Activity 4.9: Energy Energy in Ethiopia

resources In 2008 as a country we generated just over 1 × 1016 J (10 000 000
Discuss with a partner 000 000 000 J!!) of electrical energy. At the time of writing around
where the energy utilised by nearly all of our electricity generation comes from hydroelectric
different energy resources power.
ultimately came from. (Hint: Electricity generation by fuel
Ethiopia
you may need to go back 3500
several billion years for most
3000
of them!)
2500

2000
GWh
R
Hydro-electric power plant
1500
E H In operation
D
SUDAN S H Under construction
E
A potential future construction
1000
H
Asmara
ERIT
REA

H
H Makele 500
E N
YEM
F OF
H
H
GUL 0
H
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
H
H H
H H
H
ADDIS Coal/peat Oil Gas Nuclear Hydro Comb, renew, & waste Geothermal/solar/wind
ABABA
Harer
Nazret

Figure 4.41 This graph shows the amount of electricity generated per
H H
H
H H H
H

Jimma
HH
ETHIOPIA
resource.
H H
H
H H
SUDAN

SOMALIA
As part of the country’s general development plan, with the aim of
expanding the Electric Power generation capacity, the Tekeze, Gilgel
UGANDA

KENYA
Mogadishu
Gibe II and Tana Beles power plants with respective generating
capacities of 300MW, 184MW and 460MW became operational in
INDIAN
OCEAN

2009 and 2010.

Figure 4.42 The location of Reliance on hydroelectric power has advantages and disadvantages,
hydroelectric power plants as listed in Table 4.3. Ethiopia can diversify its electricity
sources by exploiting its geothermal (> 5000 MW) and wind
(>10 000MW ) electricity generating Potential. Figure 4.42
shows the location of several hydroelectric power plants. Ethiopia
is among only a few African countries with the potential for
significant energy generation to come from geothermal wind power.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Summary
In this section you have learnt that: Did you know?
The enormous Three Gorges
In this section you have learnt that:
Dam in China can generate
• The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot 22.5 GW of power. That’s
be created or destroyed, just converted from one type to 22.5 billion joules per
another. second! If running at full
• In elastic collisions both kinetic energy and linear output this colossal project
momentum are conserved. In an inelastic collision only could generate the entire
momentum is conserved. yearly output from Ethiopia
in just over 5 days!
• In oscillating systems (such as simple pendulum or mass–
spring systems) potential energy is continuously transformed
into kinetic energy and back again.
• A renewable energy resource is one that does not involve a
fuel that will eventually run out.
• Wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric energy resources
all offer significant benefits; however, they each have their
drawbacks.

Review questions
1. State the law of conservation of energy and explain why it is not
correct to describe energy as being lost.
2. Use the principle of conservation of momentum to determine
if the collision in Figure 4.44 is elastic or inelastic. If inelastic,
calculate the amount of energy converted into heat and sound. Figure 4.43 The rift valley offers
3. Describe the energy changes as a pendulum swings. If the significant geothermal potential.
pendulum has a mass of 50 g and is lifted so that it has a GPE of
0.1 J calculate:
Before collision
a) its increase in height 6 m/s 0 m/s

b) the velocity of the bob as it passes through the bottom of 3.0 kg 2.0 kg
the swing (assume no energy losses).
Ball A Ball B
4. Explain what is meant by the term renewable energy resource
After collision
and give three examples. 2 m/s ? m/s

5. Describe how hydroelectric power may be used to generate 3.0 kg 2.0 kg

electricity. Include the advantages and disadvantages of using Ball A Ball B

this resource. Figure 4.44 What type of
collision?

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

KEY WORDS 4.4 Mechanical power

per second a measurement of
rate By the end of this section you should be able to:
power the rate of doing work • Solve problems relating to the definition of power.
watt the unit of power • Show that the kWh is also a unit of work.
kilowatt-hour a unit of
• Express the formula of mechanical power in terms of
energy
average velocity.

What is power?
Power, like work, is another term that is frequently used in
everyday language. It’s a term that is often misused when maybe
energy or velocity would be more appropriate.
In physics power has a very specific definition.
• Power is the rate of doing work.
As discussed in Unit 2, rate means per second. In other words,
power is the work done per second. A greater power means more
work is done per second or more energy is transferred per second.
Imagine two cars racing up a hill. If the cars have exactly the same
mass, when they reach the top of the hill they would both have done
the same amount of work. However, the more powerful car will be
the winner (the one that can do the most work per second) as it will
Think about this… get to the top of the hill first!
Technically the equation is
An equation for average power is:
for average power. However,
if the rate of doing work is • Power = work done / time taken
constant (for example, if the • P = W/t
force you are working against
and the speed of movement P = average power in W.
both remain constant) then W = work done in J.
the average power is the same
t = time in s.
as the actual power.
Power is measured in watts (or kilowatts, etc). As energy is in joules
and time in seconds, 1 watt is equal to 1 joule per second. A 4.0 kW
motor can do 4000 J of work per second. The watt is the SI derived
Did you know? unit of power.

The watt is named after For example, a kettle uses 168 000 J of electrical energy in two
the Scotsman James Watt. minutes. Its average power can be found using the equation:
He was instrumental in P = W/t State principle or equation to be used (definition of power)
the engineering of the late
In this case the time taken is two minutes, which is 120 s.
18th century. In particular
his developments on steam P = 168 000 J / 120 s S ubstitute in known values and complete
engines are widely credited calculation
to have brought about the P = 1400 W or 1.4 kW Clearly state the answer with unit
industrial revolution.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

If the same kettle were to run for five minutes how much work
would the kettle do?
• P = W/t State principle or equation to be used (definition of power)
• W = P × t Rearrange equation to make W the subject
In this case the time taken is five minutes, which is 300 s and
P = 1400 W
• W = 1400 W × 300 s Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
• W = 420 000 J or 420 kJ Clearly state the answer with unit
This work would be transferred to the water and surroundings as Figure 4.45 One ‘horsepower’ is
heat energy. around 750 W.

Activity 4.10: The power of a student

You do work when you run up stairs, because you have to move
your weight upwards. The faster you run, the greater your
power.
• Weigh a volunteer student.
• Use a stopwatch to measure the time the student takes to
run up a flight of stairs.
• Count the number of stairs. Measure the vertical height of
one stair, and calculate the total height of the stairs. Figure 4.46 Lifting an apple
around 1 m into the air transfers
• Calculate the work done (= weight × height). about 1 J of GPE to the apple.
work done
• Calculate the student’s power (= )
time taken
Activity 4.11: Power
calculation
Use the equation for power
The joule, the watt and other units to show that 1 kWh is equal
We have already mentioned the Joule as the standard unit of energy to 3.6 million J.
and the watt as the unit of power.
However, a joule is quite a small unit. Lifting an apple around 1 m
in the air and you would do 1 J of work. It’s not much. When we Did you know?
deal with large-scale energy usage, in particular electricity demands The joule was named
and generation, an alternative unit is used. after the English physicist
The kilowatt-hour is an alternative unit of energy. It is the energy James Prescott Joule. He
transformed by a 1 kW device in 1 hour. This means 1 kWh is was born on Christmas
equivalent to 3.6 million J. Eve in 1818 and he has
been described by some
We can still use our equation for power but we must consider the as the quintessential
units carefully. physicist. He conducted a
series of incredibly precise
experiments that led to the
theory of conservation of
energy.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Table 4.4 Comparing the joule and the kilowatt-hour

Joule Kilowatt-hour
•  Work done = power × time •  Work done = power × time
•  [J] = [W] x [s] •  [kWh] = [kW] x [h]
Work done in J Work done in kWh
Power in W Power in kW
Time in s Time in h

For example, how much work is done by a 500 W motor running

for 30 minutes?
In joules:
W = P × t State principle or equation to be used (definition of power in
terms of W)
In this case the time taken is 30 minutes, which is 1800 s, and P =
500 W.
W = 500 W × 1800 s S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
W = 900 000 J or 900 kJ Clearly state the answer with unit
In kilowatt-hours:
W = P × t S tate principle or equation to be used (definition of power in
terms of W)
In this case the time taken is 30 minutes, which is 0.5 hours, and P
= 500 W, which is 0.5 kW.
W = 0.5 kW × 0.5 h S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
W = 0.25 kWh Clearly state the answer with unit
As well as the joule and kilowatt-hour, Table 4.5 lists some other
commonly used units of energy.
Table 4.5 Different energy units

Unit Application Equivalent value (J)

Electronvolt (eV) Sub-atomic particles and particle accelerators 1.6 × 10–19

Erg (erg) Using cm, grams and seconds instead of m, kg and s 1.0 × 10–7
Kilocalorie (kcal) Energy contained within foods 4.2 × 103

Kilowatt-hour Unit of energy used by electricity suppliers or when 3.6 × 106

(kWh) comparing large-scale energy demands (GWh is also
used).
Tonne of oil Another large-scale unit. It is the value of the 4.2 × 1010
equivalent (toe) chemical energy contained within one tonne of crude
oil.
Megaton (MT) Nuclear weaponry; 1 MT is the energy released by 1 4.2 × 1015
million tonnes of TNT exploding (the largest recorded
detonation was around 50 MT).

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Power and velocity

Imagine a car travelling along at a steady speed. Its engine is still
running and it is still using fuel but the kinetic energy of the car
is not changing. Where is the chemical energy going? It can’t be
destroyed.
For objects to move at steady speed through the air a force needs to
be applied. Remember, forces don’t make things move they make
them change the way they are moving. In the case of an object
moving through the air at a steady speed there must be no net
force acting on in it. The force from the engine must cancel out the
resistive forces of kinetic friction and air resistance (drag).

Force from engine Resistive forces {drag + kinetic friction}

Car

Figure 4.47 For a car to move at a steady speed there must be a force
from the engine.
A force is being moved through a distance so work must be being
done, but this energy is not transferred into the kinetic energy of
the car as this is constant.
Instead the energy is transferred into two places:
• Heat energy (road – due to friction)
• Kinetic energy (including sound) of the air. A very turbulent
wake is created behind the car.
If the engine is doing 4000 J of work per second then 4000 J of
energy is transferred to the road and the air every second.
We can look at this process more mathematically by combining the
equations for mechanical work and power and we get:
• Power = work done / time
• Power = force × distance moved against force /time
• Average velocity = distance moved against force /time
So
• Power = force × velocity
• P = F v
Think about this…
So, for a car to travel at 15 m/s against a force of 6000 N the power
In reality the amount of
from its engine needs to be:
chemical energy from the fuel
• P = 6000 N × 15 m/s will be more than 90 000 J as
• P = 90 000 W the engine will not be 100%
efficient.
This means the engine is converting 90 000 J of energy per second.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

Looking at it another way, in order for a train to travel at 20 m/s its

engine may have a power output of 800 000 W. This can be used to
determine the force from the engine and so the magnitude of the
resistive forces acting on the train.
P = F v State principle or equation to be used
F = P / v Rearrange equation to make F the subject
F = 800 000 W / 20 m/s S ubstitute in known values and complete
calculation
F = 40 000 N Clearly state the answer with unit
Summary

In this section you have learnt that:

• Power is defined as the rate of doing work (power = work
done / time taken).
• Power is measured in watts (or kW) and 1 W is 1 joule per
second.
• The scientific unit of work/energy is the joule. However, other
units are commonly used, including the kilowatt-hour (kWh).
• For a moving object, P = Fv.

Review questions
1. What is the definition of power, state its units and give two
different equations for calculating the power of an object.
2. Calculate the power of the following:
a) a motor that does 24 000 J of work in two minutes
b) a crane that lifts a 60 kg mass 100 m in 60 seconds.
3. Calculate the work done in J by the following:
Figure 4.48 A train travelling at a) a 10 kW heater running for 15 minutes
high speed does a great deal of
work against air resistance and b) two 100 W light bulbs on for 24 hours.
kinetic friction. 4. Recalculate the values in question 2, but this time express the
work done in kWh.
5. Derive P = Fv.
6. Determine the power output from an aircraft travelling at
200 m/s working against resistive forces of 1000 N.

End of unit questions

1. State the law of conservation of energy and describe a situation
where W = –ΔU could be used to illustrate this law.
2. Determine the work done when a forklift truck lifts a box of
mass 350 kg a height of 2 m.
3. Calculate the work done if a boulder of mass 100 kg is rolled
40 m up a slope at an angle of 20°. Assume the force of friction
is negligible.

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 UNIT 4: Work, energy and power

4. As a block falls through the air by 40 m it does work equal to

–1800 J. Determine the mass of the block.
5. Calculate the kinetic energy of a ball of mass 50 g travelling at
30 m/s. How much work will need to be done to stop the ball?
6. A mass of 2.0 kg is hung off a spring, which extends 2 cm.
Determine the energy stored in the spring.
7. A spring is used to launch a ball vertically into the air. The spring
has a spring constant of 200 N/m and is compressed by
5 cm. A ball of mass 10 g is placed just above the spring. Calculate:
a) the energy stored in the spring
b) assuming the spring transfers all of its energy to the ball, the
velocity of the ball just as it launches
c) the height reached by the ball assuming all the Ek is converted
into GPE.
8. Describe the energy changes in a mass–spring system that is
oscillating horizontally. Explain how this changes if the system is
vibrating vertically.
9. An 8.0 kg ball travelling at 4 m/s collides head on with a 3 kg ball
travelling at 14 m/s. The balls bounce off each other and travel
back the way they came. The 8.0 kg ball travels away at
2 m/s. Calculate:
a) the velocity of the 3 kg ball after the collision
b) the kinetic energy before and after the collision.
c) State whether or not the collision is elastic and explain your
answer.
10. Summarise the advantages and disadvantages of using the
following energy resources to generate electricity:
a) coal
b) geothermal
c) wind
11. A man raises 100 kg from the floor to a height of 2 m in 2.5 s.
What is the work done and the power developed?
12. A petrol engine raises 200 kg of water in a well from a depth of
7 m in 6 s. Show that the engine is developing about
2.33 kW of power.
13. It is proposed to use a small waterfall to turn an electricity
generator. 10 m3 of water fall 50 m per minute. Only one-fifth
of its energy can be obtained usefully. Show that the water can
develop 16.7 kW.
14. 300 kg of water are lifted 10 m vertically in 5 s. Show that the work
done is 30 kJ and that the power is 6 kW.
15. Calculate the resistive forces acting on a sports car if it is travelling
at a steady speed of 25 m/s when the engine is providing 200 kW.

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 Simple machines Unit 5

Contents
Section Learning competencies
5.1 Purposes of • Explain the purposes of a machine.
machines • List the types of simple machines.
(page 116) • Determine whether the machines are force multipliers, speed
multipliers or direction changers.
• Define the terms load, effort, work output, work input, mechanical
advantage (MA), velocity ratio (VR) and efficiency.
• Derive the expression of η = MA/VR from its definition.
5.2 Inclined plane, • Derive an expression for MA of an inclined plane with or without
wedge and screw friction.
(page 124) • Calculate MA, VR and efficiency of an inclined plane.
• Calculate MA, VR and efficiency of a wedge.
5.3 Levers • Determine the MA, VR and efficiency of a lever.
(page 128) • Identify the orders of a lever and give examples.
• Describe the use of a wheel and axle and determine MA, VR and
efficiency of a wheel and axle.
• Describe the use of gears.
• Describe different pulley systems and calculate MA, VR and
efficiency of a pulley system.
• Describe the use of a jackscrew.

Machines have made it possible for mankind to accomplish some

truly amazing things, from building the ancient pyramids of Egypt
to landing on the Moon. But it is not just these awe-inspiring
achievements. Simpler machines are used in everything from
cutting food and wood, to hanging a picture on the wall. Without
machines there is no way our relatively weak bodies could lift blocks
weighing thousands of newtons or even travel much faster than 5
m/s for long periods of time.
In this unit you will learn about what a machine is and why they
enable us to lift heavy loads or move large distances. We will
investigate the six classes of simple machines and learn about how
to determine their efficiency and what mechanical advantage they
offer us.

5.1 Purposes of machines

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Explain the purposes of a machine.
• List the types of simple machines.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

• Determine whether the machines are force multipliers,

speed multipliers or direction changers.
• Define the terms load, effort, work output, work input,
mechanical advantage (MA), velocity ratio (VR) and
efficiency.
• Derive the expression of η = MA/VR from its definition.

What are simple machines?

You could probably list hundreds of different machines. These
might range from the vastly complex space shuttle, down to a
simple pair of scissors.
A machine is a device that is specially designed or engineered to
help make it easier to do mechanical work. Remember, from Unit 4
mechanical work is given by:
• W = F s
W = work done in J.
F = force applied.
s = distance moved in the direction of the force.
A machine makes it easier to do work by performing one (or more)
of the following:
• increasing the magnitude of the applied force
Figure 5.1 Two very different
• changing the direction of the applied force or transferring an
machines!
applied force from one place to another
• increasing the distance moved against the applied force (or the KEY WORDS
speed the force moves).
effort the force applied to a
No machine can create extra energy (that would break the law of machine
conservation of energy). In other words, the work you put in cannot machines devices designed
be greater than the work you get out. However, as you can see from to make it easier to do
the list above it is possible to get more force out than you put in. We mechanical work
need to think about this carefully.
mechanical work the amount
When you apply a force to a machine this is referred to as the of energy transferred when
effort. In order to do mechanical work you need to move this effort an object is moved through a
through a distance. Looking back at our equation for work we could distance by a force
rewrite this as:
• W = F s
• Work input = effort × distance moved by effort. Work input

The machine then provides a work output; this may be used to Machine
move a force (referred to as a load) through a distance). In equation Effort

terms:
Distance moved by effort

W=Fs Figure 5.2 Work input to a

• Work output = load × distance moved by load. machine

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Work input Work output

Machine
Effort Load

Figure 5.3 A schematic of a Distance moved by effort Distance moved by load

machine
If there were no energy losses inside our machine then:
• Work input = work output
• Effort × distance moved by effort = load × distance moved by
load
So, if the machine has been designed so the distance moved by the
load is less than distance moved by the effort then the load can be
greater than the effort. This means a small effort can be used to
move a large load.
For example, imagine a machine that when an effort of 100 N is
moved through 2 m it moves a load through a distance of 0.5 m. We
can determine the maximum value of the load.
• Effort × distance moved by effort = load × distance moved by
load
Think about this… • 100 N × 2 m = load × 0.5 m
There are energy losses in
• 200 J / 0.5 m = load
every machine. This is usually
due to friction between the • load = 400 N
moving parts of the machine. The same logic could be used to show it is possible to move a
This transforms some of the smaller load a bigger distance than the distance moved by the effort.
work input into heat energy.
As a result, the work input is The term, simple machine, refers to a machine that is, well, simple!
always greater than the work This has lots of interpretations including:
output (more on this later). • a device that only requires a single force to work
• a device for doing work that has only one part
KEY WORDS • a device that uses a single effort to do work against a single
load force.
simple machine a device
which requires a single effort Simple machines are often described as the elementary building
to do work against a single blocks from which all other machines are made.
force
Different types of simple machine
There are six different types of simple machine; we will look at each
of them in turn later.
• Inclined plane • Lever
• Wedge • Wheel and axle
• Screw • Pulley

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Pulley
Lever Inclined plane

Wheel

Axle
Screw Wedge

Figure 5.4 The six different types of simple machines

Simple machines can be split into two groups. Wedges and screws
can be thought of as special kinds of inclined planes. Pulleys and
wheels and axles can be considered to be special kinds of levers. We
will look at each group in turn in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
No matter which type of simple machine we deal with they will fit
into one or more of the following categories. Did you know?
The famous ancient Greek
Force multipliers philosopher Archimedes
These are machines designed so that the load is greater than the first came up with the
effort. This is only possible if the load moves through a smaller idea of a simple machine
distance than the effort. around 250 BC. He listed
three types of simple
Work input Work output machine: lever, pulley and
screw. It was not until the
Renaissance when Galileo
Machine completed the list of all
Effort Load
six. He was also the first to
realise that simple machines
Distance moved by effort Distance moved by effort do not create energy.

Figure 5.5 A schematic of a force multiplier. Notice the load is greater

than the effort but the distance moved is smaller.

Speed multipliers
These are machines designed so that the distance moved by the load
is greater than the distance moved by the effort in the same time. This
is only possible if the load is a smaller force than the effort.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Work input

Machine
Effort
Work input Work output

Distance moved by effort

Machine
Effort Load Distance moved by load

Load

Distance moved by effort Distance moved by load Work output

Figure 5.6 A schematic of a speed multiplier. Notice Figure 5.7 A schematic of a direction
the load is smaller than the effort but the distance changer. Notice the load is moved in a
moved is greater. different direction to the effort.

KEY WORDS Direction changers

direction changers machines These are machines designed so that the load is moved in a different
that move the load in a direction to the effort.
different direction to the Depending on how they are designed some machines can act as
effort both force or speed multipliers and direction changers. However, a
mechanical advantage the machine cannot multiply both the force and the speed at the same
ratio between the load and time; this would mean the work output would be greater than the
the effort work input.
ratio the size of quantities
relative to each other Mechanical advantage (MA) and velocity ratio (VR)
velocity ratio the ratio Some machines are more effective than others. One type of force
between the distance moved multiplier might be able to move a 100 N load when 20 N of effort
by the effort and the distance is applied. Another might be able to move a 500 N with the same
moved by the load effort.
It is not just a simple case of the greater the load that can be
moved the better the machine, there are a number of other factors.
However, there are two terms that are often used to compare
different machines. These are mechanical advantage (MA) and
velocity ratio (VR).

Mechanical advantage (AMA and IMA)

The term mechanical advantage refers to the ratio between the load
and the effort. For example, if a machine moves a 400 N load when
an effort of 100 N is applied the mechanical advantage is four. In
other words you get 4× the force out of the machine. Mechanical
advantage can be calculated using the following equation:
• Mechanical advantage = load / effort
• MA = load / effort
MA has no units since it is a ratio. If the MA is 1 this means that the
effort equals the load. If the MA is two the load is twice the effort
and if the MA is 0.5 the load is half the size of the effort.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Mechanical advantage is most frequently used to compare force

Activity 5.1: Mechanical
multipliers. If the MA is greater than one the machine can be
advantage
considered a force multiplier (as the load is greater than the effort).
Complete the following
There are actually two kinds of mechanical advantage; we have
table:
really been talking about actual mechanical advantage (AMA).
This compares the force you get out (load) compared with what you Effort MA Load
put in (effort). (N) (N)
All machines also have an ideal mechanical advantage (IMA). This 500 2
is the mechanical advantage if there were no other energy losses
30 120
(e.g. no losses through friction, etc.). For most of our calculations
and examples we will assume that there are no energy losses. In this 360 0.5
case IMA = AMA and so there is no need to distinguish between 0.2 1000
the two. However, in the real world IMA is always greater than
AMA.
KEY WORDS
Velocity ratio (VR)
actual mechanical
The term velocity ratio refers to the ratio between the distance advantage the ratio between
moved by the effort and the distance moved by the load. For the load and the effort taking
example, if an effort has to move 30 m in order to move a load 3 m into account energy losses due
then the velocity ratio is 3. to friction etc
• Velocity ratio = distance moved by effort / distance moved by ideal mechanical advantage
load. the ratio between the load
• VR = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load. and the effort, assuming no
other energy losses
Just like MA, VR has no units since it is a ratio. If the VR is 1 this
means that the effort and the load both move the same distance. If
the VR is 2 then the effort has to move twice as far as the load and if
the VR is 0.5 then the load ends up moving twice as far as the effort.

Activity 5.2: Velocity ratios

Complete the following table:
Distance moved by effort VR Distance moved by
(m) load (m)
0.16 4 Think about this…
0.5 1.5 You will need to think
carefully about what the VR
2 0.5
number represents. You might
0.1 1 think a VR of 3 means the
load moves 3x further than
the effort. This is not true! In
If the VR is less than 1 the machine can be considered a speed
fact the load will move a third
multiplier (as the distance moved by the load is greater than the
of the distance (i.e. 1/3).
distance moved by the effort).

Efficiency of machines
As discussed earlier, no machine can increase both the magnitude
and the distance of a force at the same time. This would break
the law of conservation of energy. When a machine provides an

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Worked example Think about this…

A simple machine provides Why can’t the efficiency be greater than 1? What would this
a work output of 120 J for mean?
every 480 J of work input.
Its efficiency would be given increase in force there must always be a decrease in the distance
by: the force is moved. The reverse is also true; if a machine provides
an increase in the distance the force moves then there will be
η = work output / work input
a decrease in force (another way to think about this is that no
State principle or equation
machine can produce more work than the amount of work that is
to be used (definition of
efficiency)
put into the machine).
η = 120 J / 480 J Substitute The term efficiency (given the symbol η) is the ratio between the
in known values and work output and the work input. It is often then multiplied by 100
complete calculation to give a percentage. The equation is as follows:
• η = 0.25 (or 25%) Clearly • Efficiency = work output / work input
state the answer (either as a • η = work output / work input
decimal or as a percentage) Just like MA and VR, efficiency has no units since it is a ratio.
To find the work output if
2800 J of work goes into If the efficiency of a machine is 0.8 (or 80 %) this means that you
the machine we need to would get 80 J of work out for every 100 J you put in. If you put in
rearrange the equation: 500 J you would get 400 J of work out.
η = work output / work input We can also express efficiency in terms of MA and VR by expanding
State principle or equation our equations for work output and work input:
to be used (definition of • Efficiency = work output / work input
efficiency)
• Efficiency = (load × distance moved by load) / (effort ×
work output = η × work input
distance moved by effort)
Rearrange equation to make
work output the subject • load / effort = AMA
work output = 0.25 × 2800 J • distance moved by load / distance moved by effort = 1 / VR
Substitute in known values So
and complete calculation
• efficiency = AMA / VR
work output = 700 J Clearly
state the answer with unit • η = AMA/VR
We could then use our So a machine with an MA of 6 and a VR of 8 has an efficiency of:
equations for work input η = AMA/VR = 6 / 8 Substitute in known values and complete
and output to determine calculation
the effort and/or load if the
other variables are known. η = 0.75 (or 75%) Clearly state the answer (either as a decimal or as a
percentage)
If the efficiency is one then
this means the machine is If AMA = VR then the machine would be 100 % efficient.
100% efficient; there are
efficiency
no energy losses and so (%)
the work output equals to
the work input. Remember, 100
no machine is ever 100%
efficient.
50

Figure 5.8 The efficiency of a

machine increases as the load
increases.
0
load (N)

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

If the machine was 100% efficient then:

Worked example
• η = AMA/VR = 1
• AMA = VR The following information
was collected from a simple
In this case as there are no energy losses then the AMA would be machine.
equal to the IMA and so to calculate IMA we could use: Effort = 300 N, load = 1200
• AMA = IMA = VR N, distance moved by effort
• IMA = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load = 15 cm, distance moved by
load = 3 cm.
The VR is also equal to the maximum theoretical MA (IMA). η = AMA/VR State principle
or equation to be used
Summary
In this section you have learnt that: (definition of efficiency in
terms of AMA and VR)
In this section you have learnt that:
AMA = load / effort = 1200 N
• A machine is a device that makes it easier to do mechanical / 300 N = 4 Substitute in
work. known values and complete
• There are six different types of simple machine: inclined calculation
plane, wedge, screw, lever, wheel and axle, and pulley. AMA = 4 Clearly state the
answer
• Machines can be classed as force multipliers/speed
multipliers and/or direction changers. VR = distance moved by
effort / distance moved
• The force put into a machine is called the effort; this may be by load = 0.15 m /
used to move a load. 0.03 m = 5 Substitute in
• The work output from a machine is equal to the load × the known values and complete
distance moved by the load. calculation
• The work input to a machine is equal to effort × distance VR = 5 Clearly state the
moved by the effort. answer
η = AMA/VR State principle
• AMA = load /effort.
or equation to be used
• VR = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load. (definition of efficiency in
• η = MA/VR can be derived from efficiency = work output / terms of AMA and VR)
work input and the equations for MA and VR above. η = 4 /5 Substitute in known
values and complete
• If the machine is 100% efficient then VR = AMA = IMA.
calculation
η = 0.8 (or 80%) Clearly
state the answer (either as a
Review questions decimal or as a percentage)
1. List the six kinds of simple machine. The efficiency of a particular
machine depends on a
2. Define the terms: effort, load, work input, work output, AMA, number of different factors.
VR, efficiency and IMA. However, it is always true
3. A simple machine is able to move a 400 N load a distance of that as the load increases
20 cm when a force of 20 N is moved through a distance of the efficiency of the machine
5.0 m. Calculate: will also increase.
a) the work input
b) the work output KEY WORDS
c) the actual mechanical advantage efficiency the ratio between the
work output and the work input

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

d) the velocity ratio

e) the efficiency of the machine
f) the ideal mechanical advantage.
4. A simple machine has an efficiency of 0.75 and a VR of 12.
Determine the MA and the load that can be moved if an effort
of 100 N is applied.

5.2 Inclined plane, wedge and screw

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Derive an expression for MA of an inclined plane with or
without friction.
• Calculate MA, VR and efficiency of an inclined plane.
• Calculate MA, VR and efficiency of a wedge.

Length of slope (l)

The inclined plane
Height of slope (h) An inclined plane is just another name for a ramp. The object is
lifted to a height (h) by sliding it up the length of the slope (l).

Figure 5.9 A simple inclined You probably know from experience that it is easier push a heavy
plane object up a ramp than it is to lift it to the same height. This is
because inclined planes reduce the force necessary to move a load.
In other words, the effort required is less. However, the amount of
work done must stay the same so the distance involved increases.

The actual mechanical advantage can be found using the standard

equation:
• AMA = load / effort
F= mg sin θ
In the case of the inclined plane the load would be the weight of the
object and the effort would be to force required to push it up the
θ slope.
Assuming there is no friction the force required to push the object
F= mg

up the ramp is equal to mgsin θ. As the angle of the slope increases

sin θ gets bigger; at 90° it equals one and so then the force required
equals mg. In other words, the shallower the slope the lower the
force required; however, you would have to push the object a much
F= mg greater distance to raise it to the same height.

We can derive an expression for mechanical advantage using the

dimensions of the inclined plane:
Figure 5.10 Force required to
move an object up a ramp vs. • Work output = F s = load × h
lifting it vertically • Work input = F s = effort × l
If there are no energy losses (i.e. there is no friction), then work
output = work input, so:

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

• load × h = effort × l
• load / effort = l / h
• load /effort = MA
• MA = l / h
This is really the IMA as we have had to assume that there are no
energy losses due to friction. Remember, the IMA is also equal to
the VR so the VR for an inclined plane:
• VR = IMA = l / h
The gentler the slope, the greater the ratio of the length of its slope
to its height. Therefore, the greater the IMA.
The inclined plane can be thought of as a force multiplier and
direction changer.
Figure 5.11 The ancient
Activity 5.3: Inclined planes Egyptians used inclines to help
in the construction of the great
Calculate the VR (and so the IMA) for the following:
pyramids.
1. A slope of length 20 m that rises to a height of
5 m.
Think about this…
2. A slope of length 100 m that rises to the same height. mgh is the useful work
3. A slope that is at an angle of 30° to the horizontal and output, whereas (mgsin θ
rises to a height of 50 m. + frictional force)l is the
work input. Think about this
as work done in lifting the
In reality, when you push an object up a slope you need to apply an
object + work done against
effort greater than mgsin θ as you also need to overcome the force
friction.
due to friction. The force required would equal mgsin θ + force due
to friction. Therefore the actual mechanical advantage may be found
using the following equation: Activity 5.4: Including
• AMA = load / effort friction
• effort = mgsin θ + frictional force A slope of length 50 m rises
• load = mg to a height of 10 m above
the ground. An effort of
• AMA = mg / (mgsin θ + frictional force) 100 N is needed to push a
The efficiency of an inclined plane can be determined using the 250 N object up the ramp.
standard efficiency equation just applied to inclined planes: Calculate:
• η = work output / work input = load × h / effort × l 1. AMA
Or, in terms of AMA and VR: 2. VR
• η = AMA/VR 3. efficiency
• AMA = mg / (mgsin θ + frictional force) and VR = l / h
• η = mgh / (mgsin θ + frictional force)l
KEY WORDS
The wedge wedge a piece of material,
A wedge is our second type of simple machine. Wedges are used such as metal or wood, thick
to separate two objects or split objects apart. Examples of wedges at one edge and tapered to a
include knives, forks, nails, spears, axes and arrows heads. thin edge at the other

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A wedge can either be composed of one or two inclined planes.

effort
A double wedge can be thought of as two inclined planes joined
together with their sloping surfaces outward.

There are two major differences between inclined planes and

wedges. Firstly, when in use an inclined plane remains stationary,
whereas the wedge moves. Secondly, the effort is applied parallel
to the slope of an inclined plane. When using a wedge the effort is
applied to the top of the wedge.
load
The actual mechanical advantage can be found using the standard
equation:
• AMA = load / effort
Figure 5.12 A simple wedge
In this case the load would be the force exerted on the object being
split and the effort would be the force applied to the top of the
wedge.
Just like we did with inclined planes we can derive an expression for
Penetration length (L)
Wedge mechanical advantage using the dimensions of the wedge:
thickness (t)

• Work output = F s = load × t

• Work input = F s = effort × L
If there are no energy losses (i.e. there is no friction), then work
Figure 5.13 Characteristics output = work input, so:
of a wedge
• load × t = effort × L
• load / effort = L /t
• load /effort = MA
Single Wedge
• MA = L / t
Single Wedge This is really the IMA as we have had to assume that there are no
energy losses due to friction. Remember, the IMA is also equal to
the VR so the VR for a wedge = L / t.
• VR = IMA = L / t
The more narrow the wedge, the greater the ratio of the length of its
Double Wedge
slope to its width. Therefore, the greater the IMA.
Figure 5.14 A single or double Like inclined planes, wedges can be thought of as force multipliers
Double Wedge
wedge and direction changers.

Did you know?

Effort

The origin of the wedge is

unknown, probably because
it has been in use for over
Inclined plane

9000 years. In ancient

Egyptian quarries, bronze
Effort

wedges were used to break

away blocks of stone used in
Wedge

construction. Figure 5.15 Differences between Figure 5.16 Three different wedges:
a wedge and an inclined plane which offers the greatest IMA?

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

The efficiency of a wedge can be determined using the standard bolt screw
efficiency equation just applied to wedges:
• η = work output / work input = load × t / effort × L
thread thread

The screw
The term screw really refers to any cylinder with a helical thread nut
around it. This means it includes nuts and bolts as well as more
traditional screws. The screw is a very useful machine; it can be
used to hold objects together, to dig into the ground and to bore (a) (b)

through rocks.
You can think of a screw as like an inclined plane wrapped around effort
a cylinder. In one turn of the screw it digs in and moves into the socket
under
car
material a distance equal to the separation between the threads. length
load
This is referred to as the pitch (P) of the screw and it is analogous to
the height of an inclined plane. If you could unravel a screw thread
for each rotation you could see it moves up a distance equal to P. pitch

The length of the slope would be the same as the circumference of

the screw shaft.
The movement of the screw tip into the material provides the load,
whereas the force used to turn the screw is the effort. Figure 5.17 Examples of screws
The maximum theoretical mechanical advantage (IMA) for a screw
can be calculated using the following equation:
d
• IMA = πd / P
d = the mean diameter of the screw shaft in m (πd is the
P
circumference of the screw shaft).
P = the pitch of the screw in m.
There is always a great deal of friction when using screws and
the actual mechanical advantage is much less than the value
calculated using the equation above. However, it is also worth
noting mechanical advantage of a screw system is increased as the Figure 5.18 Screw characteristics
screwdriver (or other method for turning the screw) produces its
own mechanical advantage.
Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• For an inclined plane the AMA = load /effort, where the load
= the weight of the object and the effort = the force required
to push the object up the slope (mgsin θ + frictional forces).
Figure 5.19 Screw threads
• If we assume there is no friction on an inclined plane then
VR = IMA = length of the slope (l) / height of the slope (h).
• For a wedge the AMA = load /effort, where the load = the
force applied to the object being split apart and the effort =
the force applied to top surface of the wedge. KEY WORDS
• If we assume there is no friction on the wedge then VR = screw a cylinder of material
IMA = penetration length (L) / wedge thickness (t). with a helical thread around it

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Review questions
Think about this…
The equation for the screw 1. For an inclined plane derive η = l / h.
shows how similar a screw 2. A block of weight 5000 N is pushed up a slope by a force of
and an inclined plane are. 250 N. Assume there is no friction. Calculate:
πd is equivalent to l and P is a) the actual mechanical advantage
equivalent to h. MA for the
inclined plane = l / h and for b) the velocity ratio
the screw = πd / P. c) the length of the slope if the height of the slope is 10 m.
3. An inclined plane is 100 m long and at an angle of 20° to the
horizontal. The AMA of the slope is two. Calculate:
Did you know?
a) the effort required to push a 7200 N block up the slope
Some say there are only five
different types of simple b) the ideal mechanical advantage
machine. They argue that c) the efficiency of the slope.
the wedge is a just a moving
inclined plane. Others 4. Describe the differences between a wedge and an inclined
say that the screw is just a plane.
helical inclined plane; this
reduces the list to four!
5.3 Levers

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Determine the MA, VR and efficiency of a lever.
• Identify the orders of a lever and give examples.
• Describe the use of a wheel and axle and determine MA, VR
and efficiency of a wheel and axle.
• Describe the use of gears.
• Describe different pulley systems and calculate MA, VR and
efficiency of a pulley system.
• Describe the use of a jackscrew.

Using levers
A simple lever is just a bar that is free to turn around a fixed point.
This fixed point is called the fulcrum (sometimes the pivot).
KEY WORDS
fulcrum the pivot of a lever fulcrum (or pivot)
lever a bar which is free to load
turn around a fixed point effort

Figure 5.20 Key features of a simple lever

Unlike our earlier simple machines levers involve twisting and
turning forces.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

effort
fulcrum (or pivot)

load load
effort

fulcrum (or pivot)

Figure 5.21 Two different ways to use a lever to lift a load

Did you know?
The term lever originates in
MA, VR and efficiency of levers France; ‘levier’ means to “to
raise”.
When dealing with levers the forces are twisting rather than moving
in a straight line. As a result we need to think carefully about MA
and VR. Let’s take a simple example of a balanced see-saw.
KEY WORDS
In order to balance the turning forces (moments) from both the
objects must be equal. The forces might be different but their product the result of
turning effects must be the same (more on this in Grade 10). In multiplying two values
order for an object to balance:
• anticlockwise turning force = clockwise turning force
So in the example below:
• F1 × d1 = F2 × d2

fulcrum

F1 F2

d1 d2

Figure 5.22 A simple balanced lever

If F1 is twice as large as F2 then F2 will need to be twice as far away
from the fulcrum in order for the see-saw to balance. The product
of the force and distance for both the left hand side and the right
hand side must be equal.
For example, you can balance a 10 N rock with a 0.01 N feather. The
feather would need to be 1000 times further from the fulcrum than
the rock.
This principle can be applied in terms of load and effort. Imagine
the feather was the effort and the rock was the load. The lever has
acted like a force multiplier with a 0.01 N input force and 10 N
output force. Remember, in order for this to be true the effort needs
to be applied 1000 times further away from the fulcrum than the
load. This leads to the following equation:
• load × dL = effort × dE

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

fulcrum (or pivot)

load

effort

dL dE

Figure 5.23 The key factors affecting the MA and VR of a lever

Think about this… It is important to notice that the distances used are always
perpendicular to the forces. The greater the ratio of dE to dL the
The distances to the fulcrum
greater the mechanical advantage (the greater the load you can
must always be perpendicular
lift for the same effort). Longer levers make it much easier to lift
to the forces.
heavier loads. If you had a really long lever you could lift almost
anything (see Did you know?).
fulcrum (or pivot)

load

Did you know? effort

Archimedes did not invent

the lever; instead he wrote
the first known explanation dL dE
of the principles involved.
According to Pappus of
Alexandria and referring to Figure 5.24 Distances perpendicular to forces
the MA offered by levers,
Archimedes once said: The actual mechanical advantage of the lever is given by the
“Give me a place to stand standard equation for MA:
on, and I will move the • AMA = load / effort
Earth.”
However, the equation for VR for levers is a little different. As
the system is rotating we do not use the distance moved by the
force. Instead we use the distances from the fulcrum. The VR can
be found as the ratio between the distance from the effort to the
fulcrum and the distance from the load from the fulcrum.
• VR = distance from the effort to the fulcrum / distance from the
load from the fulcrum.
• VR = dE / dL
If there are no energy losses then IMA = VR and so:
• IMA = d / d
E L

The efficiency of a given lever maybe found via:

• efficiency = η = load × d / effort × d
L E

(In terms of MA and VR, η = AMA/VR).

Depending on the relative distances levers can be force multipliers/
speed multipliers and/or direction changers.

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Different classes of lever

There are three different classes of levers depending on the relative
positions of the load, fulcrum and effort.
Table 5.1 Different classes of levers
Class Diagram Description Examples
1 st
load
load
Fulcrum is between •  See-saw
fulcrum
fulcrum the load and effort •  Crowbar
effort
effort
•  Pliers (double lever)
•  Scissors (double lever)

2nd The load is between •  Wheelbarrow

effort load
effort load fulcrum the effort and the •  A rowing oar
fulcrum
fulcrum
•  Nutcracker (double lever)
hammer removes nail
crowb
3rd The effort is between •  Catapult
load
load effort
effort fulcrum
the load and fulcrum •  Hoe or spade
fulcrum
•  Tongs (double lever)

lever balance opening a tin

hammer removes
hammer nail nail
removes pincerspincers
crowbar
crowbar

lever balance
lever balance opening a tin a tin
opening scissors
scissors

Figure 5.25 First-class levers have their fulcrum between load and effort. Pincers and scissors are double levers.

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������ ������

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����
����
������������
���������
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Figure 5.26 Second-class levers: load between effort and fulcrum

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

ice tongs tweezers charcoal tongs

fishing rod

spade

Figure 5.27 Third-class levers: Levers in the body

effort between load and fulcrum
Examples of the three classes of lever occur in the body:

Activity 5.5: Table 5.2 Levers in the body

Demonstrating levers Fulcrum Load Muscle providing effort
• Use a metre rule, a known Head Joint between Head Muscle at back of neck
weight as the load, head and
and a spring balance as backbone
the effort in order to Foot Toes Body Calf muscle (back of leg)
demonstrate the three Arm Elbow Arm Biceps muscle (upper arm)
classes of lever.
• Use cardboard to make The wheel and axle
a simple label for the
fulcrum. The wheel and axle is another type of simple machine; it is
comprised of a large wheel secured to a smaller wheel, which is
• Make arrows to label the called an axle. Wheels and axles do not just include the obvious;
load and effort. they also include gears, door-knobs, steering wheels and even
screwdrivers!
There are two main ways to use a wheel and axle. The first way can
be seen in Figure 5.28. You can wrap a rope around a supported
wheel
wheel and apply an effort to the end of the rope. This causes the
axle wheel and attached axle to rotate. If a load is attached to the axle
as it turns it lifts the load. The effort has to move a long way to
complete one single revolution (as the diameter of the wheel is
large). The load moves a much smaller distance as the axle has a
much smaller diameter. This means the load can be much greater
than the effort and so there is a mechanical advantage.
The second way to use a wheel and axle is to have two wheels at
the end of an axle. The wheel and axle then behaves like a type of
rotating lever. In this case the fulcrum would be the centre point
of the axle. As the wheels turn they can then be used to provide
movement.
load effort
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle may be calculated
Figure 5.28 A wheel and axle using the standard equation for AMA:
• AMA = load /effort
The VR of the wheel and axle is the ratio of the radius of the wheel
to the radius of the axle. This is because as the wheel turns once it

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

covers a distance equal to 2πR; in the same time the axle travels 2πr.
So the VR is given by:
• VR = distance moved by effort / distance moved by load
• VR = 2πR / 2πr
• VR = R / r
If the machine was 100% efficient then VR = MA = IMA so:
• IMA = VR
• IMA = R / r
If the radius of the wheel is ten times greater than the radius of
the axle, every time you turn the wheel once, the force will be
multiplied by ten but it will also travel ten times the distance. Figure 5.29 An example of a
Depending on the relative radii wheels and axles can be thought of wheel and axle
as force multipliers/speed multipliers and/or direction changers.
Did you know?
The effect of gears
It is probably fair to say
Gears are often used in conjunction with a wheel and axle. They can that the wheel is the most
be configured to offer an increase in mechanical advantage or an important invention of all
increase in the distance travelled, depending on the requirements of time. The oldest wheel was
the system. found in Mesopotamia
As one gear turns its teeth lock into another gear and force it (modern Iraq/Syria). It is
to rotate. The gear made to turn is called the driving gear or believed to be over 5000
occasionally the pinion (the one where the effort is applied). As the years old.
driving gear then rotates it turns the driven gear.
The VR of a pair of gears is given by the ratio of the number of their
teeth. R
• VR = number of teeth on driven wheel / number of teeth on
driving wheel
r
• VR = Ndriven / Ndriving
This is also called the gear ratio. If the gear ratio was 0.5 then the
driven gear would rotate once for every two rotations of the driving
gear.
Figure 5.30 The radii of the wheel
Looking at Figure 5.31, if the left hand wheel was the driving wheel and axle are the two factors that
then there would be a VR of less than one. In other words the determine the VR.
distance would increase but the effort would have to be greater than
the load.
If the driving wheel was the one on the right then the opposite
would be true. The load would be greater than the effort but it
would not travel as far.
If the machine was 100% efficient then VR = MA = IMA so:
• IMA = VR
• IMA = Ndriven / Ndriving
Two or more gears together are called a transmission. Depending Figure 5.31 A simple example of a
on the gear ratio, transmissions can produce a change the speed, pair of gear wheels
magnitude and direction of a force.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Did you know?

The most common application of gears involves one gear
causing another to rotate. However, in a rack and pinion a gear
causes a linear toothed track (called a rack) to move. This leads
to a movement in a straight line rather than a rotation.

Pulley systems
There are several different kinds of pulley. The most simple
comprises a fixed axle with a rope looped over the top (called a class
1 or fixed pulley). Even if there was no friction, a fixed pulley will
Figure 5.32 A rack and pinion not provide more than a mechanical advantage of 1. This means
there is no multiplication of force; instead the pulley just changes
the direction of the force.
The second type of pulley is often called a movable pulley. Here the
axle is free to move up and down.

If one end of the rope is fixed then applying an effort to the other
end of the rope (after it has been looped around the pulley) will
tension
effectively provide about two times the force. However, it is worth
noting that you have to provide additional effort to lift the movable
pulley as well as the load.
load
A movable pulley has a VR of 2 as you would have to pull 2 m
of rope through the pulley in order for it to lift the load 1 m. If
effort there are no energy losses in the pulley then the VR = MA = IMA.
Therefore the IMA for a movable pulley is also 2.
For both a fixed and a movable pulley there will be energy losses
due to friction. As a result the MA will always be less than the VR.
A compound pulley is a combination of a fixed and a movable
pulley. This is sometimes called a block and tackle. The movable
pulley provides the MA whereas the fixed pulley changes the
Figure 5.33 Using a pulley to lift direction of the force. This makes it easy to lift the load when
a load standing on the floor!

50 N

50 N
50 N
50 N
50 N

100 N 100 N
50 N

100 N
100 N
100 N 100 N

Figure 5.34 A fixed pulley offers Figure 5.35 A movable pulley Figure 5.36 A compound pulley
no MA but does change the does provide an MA. is a combination of a fixed and
direction of the force. movable pulley.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

To increase the VR of any block and tackle, a pulley block with

more than one pulley in each block can be used. A long length of
rope is tied to the top block then passes around each of the pulleys
in turn.
The pulleys might be side by side (as in Figure 5.37) or above each
other, as shown in the diagram in Figure 5.38.
The VR of these systems is given by the number (N) of sections of
rope used to lift the load. If there is only one section then VR = 1, if Figure 5.37 A pulley block with
there are two sections then the VR = 2, etc. three pulleys
• VR = number of sections of rope that lift the load (a) (b)
• VR = N
These systems are never 100% efficient since there is friction fixed
on thepulley fixed pulley
pulley and some of the effort is used to lift the lower block instead
of the load. If the machine was 100% efficient then VR = MA = IMA
so:
effort effort
• IMA = VR
• IMA = N

load here load here

Figure 5.38 Two pulley blocks

with three pulleys in each

F2=33 13 N
F2=100 N F2=50 N F2=25 N

100 N 50 N 1
33 3 N

25 N
s=20 cm N=4
s=10 cm s=30 cm N=3 s=40 cm
N=2
N=1

F1=100 N F1=100 N F1=100 N F1=100 N

h=10 cm h=10 cm h=10 cm h=10 cm

N=1 N=2 N=3 N=4

Figure 5.39 The VR of a pulley system depends on the number of

sections of rope that lift the load.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

Think about this… Activity 5.6: Investigating a system of pulleys

What advantages and • Arrange the pulley blocks as shown in Figure 5.40. Attach
disadvantages are there to a forcemeter to measure the effort. Place a known weight
changing the diameter of on the lower block. Pull the forcemeter downwards so that
the pulleys wheels, as shown the load rises slowly at a uniform speed. Note the steady
in Figure 5.38? Hint: think reading. Repeat and take the average reading. Table 5.3
about the IMA offered by a shows how to record your results.
wheel and axle. (a) (b)

fixed pulley fixed pulley

KEY WORDS
fixed pulley a grooved wheel effort effort
on a fixed axle with a rope
looped over it
movable pulley a grooved
wheel on a movable axle with
a rope looped round it load here load here

pulley a simple machine

comprising a wheel with a Figure 5.40 Using (a) two, and (b) four pulleys to raise a load
grooved rim over which a rope • Return the load to its low original position. Note the
or chain is passed position on the rule of the load and the hook of the
transmission a set of two or forcemeter (the effort). Raise the load a known distance.
more gears Measure how far the effort moves. Repeat and take the
complex machine a device average reading.
where two or more simple • Calculate MA, VR and the efficiency.
machines are combined to
make a single mechanism • Repeat, using different weights as the load.
differential pulley a pulley Table 5.3 Investigating a system of four pulleys.
combined with a wheel and
axle Load Effort MA Distance Distance VR Efficiency
jackscrew a screw combined moved by moved by
with a lever load effort
3 N 1.5 N 2.0 10 cm 40 cm 4 50%
5 N 2.0 N 2.5 12 cm 48 cm 4 62.5%
etc.
The table shows results for a system of four pulleys. The
mechanical advantage is less than four and the velocity ratio
is exactly four (it is equal to the number of strings holding the
load).

More complex machines

A complex machine is one where two or more simple machines
are combined to function as a single mechanism. Examples
include scissors, wheelbarrows, bicycles, the differential pulley and
the jackscrew. We will look at two examples in more detail, the
differential pulley and the jackscrew.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

The differential pulley

R r
A differential pulley is a pulley in combination with a wheel and
axle. It is sometimes called a “chain hoist” and it can be used to lift
extremely large masses over a short distance. F

It is composed of two fixed pulleys at the top. These are attached to

each other and both rotate together. However, they have different
radii (R and r). One long loop of rope (or more commonly a chain)
passes around the pulleys. The excess hangs off the pulley in a loop.
To lift a load you pull on the loop, causing the pulleys to rotate and W
slowly lift the load. The mechanical advantage is calculated using Figure 5.41 The key features of a
the standard equation: differential pulley
• AMA = load /effort
In this case the load = W and the effort = F so:
• AMA = W / F
The VR (and so the IMA) is given by: effort
socket
under
• VR = IMA = 2R / (R – r) car
length
load

As R – r approaches zero the IMA increases. If R is about the same

as r it almost gets to the stage where the weight looks like it is no
longer lifting as you end up pulling long lengths of chain or rope pitch

downward for a very small vertical movement. However, you are

able to lift very heavy loads.

The jackscrew Figure 5.42 A simple jackscrew

A jackscrew is a screw in combination with a lever. The MA from used as a car jack
the lever allows large weights to be lifted by the screw.
The mechanical advantage is calculated using the standard equation:
• AMA = load /effort
W
In this case the load = W and the effort = F (the force applied at the
end of the lever) so:
• AMA = W / F
F
p
The VR (and so the IMA) is given by:
• IMA = VR = 2πR / P
R
The longer the handle (R) and the smaller the pitch (P) the greater
the IMA, but it would take even more turns in order to lift the car!
Summary
In this section you have learnt that: Figure 5.43 The key features of a
jackscrew
In this section you have learnt that:
• For a lever the AMA = load / effort and the VR (and so IMA)
= distance of the effort to the fulcrum (dE) / distance of the
load from the fulcrum (dL).
• There are three orders of levers, depending on the relative
positions of the load, fulcrum and effort.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

• For a wheel and axle the AMA = load / effort and the VR
(and so IMA) = radius of wheel (R) / radius of axle (r).
• There are three different types of pulley systems: fixed,
movable and compound.
• For a pulley the AMA = load / effort and the VR (and so IMA)
= the number (N) of sections of rope used to lift the load.
• A complex machine is a combination of two or more simple
machines (for example, a jackscrew is a combination of
screw and lever – this can be used to lift very heavy loads).

Review questions
1. Explain how a lever can act as a force multiplier.
2. For the following simple see-saw calculate:
a) the load that could be lifted
b) the mechanical advantage (assume the lever is 100%
efficient).

load

80 N

4 cm 30 cm

Figure 5.44 A simple see-saw

3. A simple wheel and axle is used to lift a bucket of water out

of a well. The radii of the wheel and axle are 20 cm and 4 cm,
respectively. Determine:
a) the velocity ratio (and so the IMA)
b) the theoretical effort required to lift a load of 30 N
assuming no energy losses
c) the efficiency if the actual effort required is 10 N.
4. Describe the three different types of pulley.

End of unit questions

1. Explain why for every simple machine the actual mechanical
advantage is less than the ideal mechanical advantage.
2. By giving an example of a simple machine (including its
dimensions) explain what is meant by force multiplier, speed
multiplier and direction changer.

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 UNIT 5: Simple machines

3. An inclined plane rises to a height of 2 m over a distance of 6 m.

Calculate:
a) the angle of the slope
b) the VR (and so IMA) of the inclined plane
c) the theoretical force required to push an object with a mass
of 200 kg up the slope.
4. Give three examples of wedges.
5. A 10 cm long, 2 cm wide wooden wedge is pushed into a soft
wood block. Calculate:
a) the velocity ratio of the wedge
b) the load on the soft wood if the effort applied is 30 N
(assuming the wedge is 100% efficient).
6. Explain how screws could be considered to be similar to
inclined planes.
7. Describe the three classes of lever and give a practical example
of each.
8. Explain how a jackscrew is used and how to calculate its ideal
mechanical advantage.

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 Fluid statics Unit 6

Contents
Section Learning competencies
6.1 Air pressure • Define the term air pressure and use the definition to solve related
(page 141) problems.
• Describe atmospheric pressure and explain its variation with
altitude.
• Explain how to measure atmospheric pressure and show that
760 mmHg is equal to one atmosphere.
6.2 Fluid pressure • Define the term fluid and state the similarities and differences
(page 151) between liquids and gases.
• Define the term density and relative density and determine each
for a given body.
• Explain how the pressure in a liquid at rest varies.
• Apply the formula p = hρg and use it to solve problems (including
determining the pressure inside a fluid taking into account
atmospheric pressure).
• State Pascal’s principle, and apply it to solve problems and explain
applications (such as the hydraulic lift).
• Explain the use of a manometer.
• Demonstrate an understanding of, distinguish between and
calculate atmospheric, gauge and absolute pressure.
• State Archimedes’s principle and the principle of flotation.
• Distinguish between true weight and apparent weight of a body.
• Calculate the buoyant force acting on the body in a fluid and
explain why bodies float or sink.
• Calculate the density of a floating body or density of a fluid using
the flotation principle.

How does a massive ocean liner, made of steel, float on the water,
yet a tiny penny sinks? Why is it when you go swimming you can
feel the water pushing up on you, yet you can’t feel the massive
weight of the column of air on top of your head? This is all down
to fluid statics, the study of the density and pressure in stationary
liquids and gases.
From simply breathing in and out, to the blood pumping through
your veins, pressure in liquids and gases plays an important role in
our lives. Without atmospheric pressure our blood would simply
boil and life on Earth would not even be possible.
In this unit we will investigate atmospheric pressure, look into what
causes pressure in liquids and gases, explore the factors that affect
it and learn how to use a range of simple pieces of equipment to
measure pressure.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

6.1 Air pressure

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the term air pressure and use the definition to solve
related problems.
• Describe atmospheric pressure and explain its variation with
altitude. Figure 6.1 Injections don’t hurt
• Explain how to measure atmospheric pressure and show that much because the needle exerts a
760 mmHg is equal to one atmosphere. very high pressure on the skin.

Under pressure
If you’ve ever had an injection you will have noticed how easy it is
for the doctor to push the needle through your skin. This is because
the needle has a very sharp point and so when the doctor exerts a
relatively small force the needle creates a great deal of pressure on
the skin.
Pressure is defined as the amount of force acting per unit area.
• Pressure is equal to force per unit area.
If a large force acts on a small area it creates a greater pressure.
For example, most animal predators have pointed teeth. When a
crocodile or shark bites into its prey, the pressure is very large and
so the teeth sink in!
The reverse is also true. A large vehicle like a tractor or truck may Figure 6.2 The area over which
have some very large tyres. These increase the area over which the the force is acting affects the
force is acting and so reduce the pressure. This means it is less likely pressure it exerts.
for the tractor to sink into the mud and get stuck.
The pressure exerted by a force may be calculated using the
equation below:
• pressure = force / area
• p = F / A
p = pressure in Pa.
F = force in N.
A = area in m2.
Pressure is measured in pascals. One pascal is equal to a pressure of
1 N per square metre (1 N/m2). The pascal is the SI derived unit of
pressure (this includes all forms of pressure).

Worked example
A boy weighs 500 N and the soles of his feet have an area of
0.05 m2. Determine the pressure he exerts when he stands Figure 6.3 A large force pressing
a) on both feet and b) on one foot. on a small area creates greater
pressure than a smaller force on a
larger area.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Did you know? On both feet:

The pascal is named after p = F / A State principle or equation to be used (definition of pressure)
Blaise Pascal. He was a p = 500 N / 0.05 m2 Substitute in known values and complete
French physicist most noted calculation
for his experiments with
p = 10 000 Pa or 10 kPa Clearly state the answer with unit
barometers in the mid-17th
century (a barometer is If he stands on one foot his weight will be the same but the
an instrument to measure area will be halved to 0.025 m2:
air pressure; more on this p = F / A State principle or equation to be used (definition of
later). pressure)
p = 500 N / 0.025 m2 Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
Activity 6.1: Pressure
p = 20 000 Pa or 20 kPa Clearly state the answer with unit
Complete the table below:
Force Area Pressure We didn’t really need to do that last calculation. We can see that
720 N 4.0 m2 if the area halves and the force stays the same then the pressure
0.02 m2 240 kPa doubles (pressure is inversely proportional to area).
5.0 N 1.0 Pa
Worked example
A book rests on a desk. Its covers measures 20 cm by 25 cm. It
Activity 6.2: Your own exerts a pressure of 100 Pa. Determine the mass of the book.
pressure p = F / A State principle or equation to be used (definition of
Stand on a piece of squared pressure)
paper. Carefully draw around F = p × A Rearrange equation to make F the subject
your feet (or get a partner In order to find the mass we first need to find the weight of
to do this for you). the book. This is the force the book exerts on the desk. The
area of the book is 0.20 m × 0.25 m = 0.05 m2.
F = 100 Pa × 0.05 m2 Substitute in known values and complete
calculation
F = 5 N Clearly state the answer with unit
This is the weight of the book so to find its mass we use w =
mg.
Figure 6.4 In order to w = mg  so  m = w /g State equation and rearrange equation to
determine the pressure you make m the subject and solve
exert you need to measure the m = 5 N / 10 N/kg Substitute in known values and complete
area of your feet! calculation
Use this to work out the m = 0.5 kg or 500 g Clearly state the answer with unit (ideally kg)
area of your feet (to do this
count the number of squares
and multiply by the area of
each square). What causes air pressure?
Measure your weight in N Although we can’t feel it in our day to day lives, air has mass. This
(or your mass in kg and means it also has a weight. One cubic metre of air has a mass of
multiply by 10 N/kg), then about 1 kg and so a weight of 10 N. The simplest way to think about
use the equation p = F / A air pressure is to treat it as the pressure due to the weight of the air
to determine your pressure. above pushing down on a certain area. This may seem like a silly
idea but actually it is pretty close to the truth.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

A more complete picture involves thinking about the actual air

particles. These are in constant motion, they are travelling in
different directions and some travel faster than others. When the air
particles are near a surface some will bounce into it and so exert a
force on the surface. It is this force that gives rise to a pressure.

Atmospheric pressure
Force
The atmosphere is the layer of air that surrounds the Earth. Above
your head right now there is a column of air about 40 km tall. The
exact height is quite hard to determine due to the fact that as the
Figure 6.5 Air particles crashing
height above the ground increases the air gets thinner and thinner
into a surface apply a force to that
until there is practically no air.
surface.
This column of air has a weight, which presses down on you and it
is this that gives rise to atmospheric pressure.
We don’t normally notice atmospheric pressure. If you move your
hands up and down you can’t really feel it, but it is definitely there!
The reason we don’t feel it is because not only does it push on you Atmospheric pressure
pushing on the body
equally from all directions (left, right, front and back) but our
bodies push back out.
Pressure inside the body

There is a kind of equilibrium between the pressure in our bodies

and the surrounding atmosphere. If you went somewhere where the
pressure was much greater than atmospheric pressure our bodies
would be crushed. For example, deep-sea submarines have to be
very strong to withstand the crushing effect caused by the pressure
of the water. Figure 6.6 The pressure in our
bodies pushes back against
atmospheric pressure.

Figure 6.7 A deep-sea submarine has to withstand very high

pressures.
The reverse is also true. If you went somewhere where the pressure
was very low (e.g. into space without a pressurised space suit) the
pressure inside our bodies would push outwards with some very
nasty effects!

How big is atmospheric pressure?

The weight of the column of air above 1 m2 at ground level is around Figure 6.8 Without a pressurised
101 000 N! This means atmospheric pressure at ground level is space suit this astronaut would
around 101 kPa. This is often referred to as 1 atmosphere or 1 atm: experience severe difficulties.
• 1 atm = 101 kPa

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Think about this…

In fact the pressure inside
our bodies is generally a bit
higher than atmospheric
pressure. Think about how
you already know this and
why do you think this is
important?

Did you know?

The planet Venus has a
much denser atmosphere Figure 6.9 Venus has a much greater atmospheric pressure than the
that we do on Earth. The Earth.
pressure on the surface is
around 90 atm! That is 9 101 000 Pa is a very large pressure, but we rarely notice it in our day
MPa or 9 million N per to day lives. It is about the same as having a medium-sized elephant
square metre. That is the balance on the top of your head!
same pressure you would In the mid-17th century a German named Otto Von Guericke (who
experience if diving to a was mayor of Magdeburg) invented a vacuum pump. This clever
depth of nearly 1 km under machine removed the air from inside a chamber and so the force
water. due to atmospheric pressure could really be seen.
Von Guericke used his pump to removed air from inside two brass
hemispheres touching each other. With the air removed the pressure
from the atmosphere squeezed the two hemispheres together. With
no counter pressure from the air inside, the hemispheres were
locked tightly together. In 1654, in front of Emperor Ferdinand III,
he demonstrated how tightly by using thirty horses in two teams of
15 to try to separate the hemispheres. They couldn’t do it!

Figure 6.10 Magdeburg

hemispheres

KEY WORDS
atmosphere the layer of air
surrounding the Earth
vacuum pump a machine for
removing the air from inside a
chamber
Figure 6.11 Teams of horses could not pull the hemispheres apart.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

The atmospheric pressure pushing the two hemispheres together

Activity 6.3:
was too strong. the hemispheres could not be separated. It was not
Atmospheric pressure
until air was allowed back inside the hemispheres that the difference
in pressure was small enough to allow them to be pulled apart. Fill a glass to the very top
and then place a card on
What effect does altitude have on atmospheric pressure? top of it. Make sure there is
no air trapped between the
The actual atmospheric pressure in the room today might be a bit
glass the card.
higher or lower than 1 atm. The heating effect from the Sun causes
small changes in pressure due to the uneven heating of the Earth’s While holding the card
surface. This leads to high or low pressure weather systems. You can carefully turn the glass over
think of a high pressure system as meaning there is a slightly greater and then let go of the card.
mass of air above your head than on an average day. It should stay in place!
Atmospheric pressure is
pushing the card up and
preventing the water from
rushing out.

Activity 6.4: The effect

of altitude
Plot a graph of altitude
against atmospheric pressure
using the information in
Table 6.1.
Figure 6.12 Differences in atmospheric pressure can lead to powerful
storms. Did you know?
The height above sea level, or altitude, also has a significant effect on At 1 atm, water boils at
atmospheric pressure. Imagine climbing a tall mountain; the higher 100 °C. However, if the
you get, the smaller the column of air above you. This means there atmospheric pressure drops
is a smaller mass of air above you and so less weight pushing down. so does the boiling point. At
the top of tall mountains the
As altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases.
pressure is so low water will
Table 6.1 shows how the pressure varies with altitude. You can see boil at 75 °C! In the mid-
that it is not a simple relationship and it depends on temperature 19th century explorers used
changes and position on the Earth. this fact to determine their
altitude.
Table 6.1 Pressure at different altitudes
Altitude (m) Approx. pressure (Pa)
0 101 000
1000 90 000
2000 79 000
5000 54 000
10 000 26 000
15 000 12 000
20 000 6000
25 000 1300
30 000 270
Figure 6.13 As you climb a mountain the surrounding
atmospheric pressure drops.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Measuring atmospheric pressure

There are several instruments used to measure atmospheric
pressure. The most common is a barometer.
Think about the mercury in the dish. On the outside, air pressure
is pressing down on the mercury. On the inside, the column of
mercury in the tube is pressing down with an equal pressure. If
these pressures were not equal, the level of mercury in the tube
would alter until the pressures were balanced.

Figure 6.14 A barometer Until about 1650 the rise of liquid up a tube was explained by saying
that the vacuum ‘sucks up’ the liquid. This is not so – a vacuum
cannot suck, because there is nothing there to do the sucking! The
rise is due to air pressure on the surface of the liquid outside.
A mercury barometer is long and inconvenient, heavy, and contains
a liquid that is hazardous and easily spilt. Therefore, an aneroid
barometer is commonly used. (Aneroid means without liquid.) It
is compact and portable. A flat circular metal box, with only a little
air inside, is the important part (Figure 6.16). A spring prevents
its sides from being pushed in. The box is corrugated to make it
strong, so that it does not collapse under air pressure. When the
pressure changes, the upper face of the box moves. The movement
is magnified several hundred times by a system of levers, which
move a pointer over a circular scale, graduated in centimetres. It
is graduated by comparing its readings with those of a mercury
barometer.
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Figure 6.15 A diagram of a �����������
simple barometer ������������������
����������

Did you know? ��������������������

The volume of an object is

affected by the temperature
�������������������� �������������� ������
and the surrounding
pressure. Chemical
reactions also depend on Figure 6.16 The construction of an aneroid barometer
pressure and temperature.
In order to ensure Why 760 mmHg?
experiments are conducted Pressure is often expressed in the units of mmHg. If the
under the same conditions atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 atm then the height of the
across the globe the column of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm. We can prove this
International Union of Pure mathematically.
and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) define standard The column of mercury will have a weight and the weight must
temperature and pressure equal the force due to the atmospheric pressure pushing up on the
as a temperature of 0 °C bottom of the column. Let’s imagine a column of mercury 760 mm
and a pressure of 100 kPa. tall with a radius of 5 mm. This exerts a force equal to its weight.
However, several different The weight is given by w = mg and we can determine the mass of
organisations use slightly the column from its density and volume (ρ = m / V and so m = ρV
different values! and V = πr2h as this is the volume of a cylinder). So:
• V = πr2h

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

• V = π(0.005 m)2 × (0.76) m r

• V = 5.97 × 10-5 m3
The density of mercury is 13 570 kg/m3 so its mass is:
• m = ρV
• m = 13 570 kg/m3 × 5.97 × 10-5 m3 h

• m = 0.81 kg
Therefore the weight of the column can be found:
• w = mg Figure 6.17 The volume of a
cylinder
• w = 0.81 kg × 9.81 N/kg
• w = 7.9 N
This weight must equal the force due to the pressure on the bottom
of the column. So we can use the pressure equation to determine
the pressure required to support of column of this height.
• p = F /A Think about this…
As it is a cylinder the area of the base of the column is given by A = As atmospheric pressure can
πr2 so: support a column of water
• p = F / πr2 10 m high this is also the
maximum height to which
• p = 7.9 N / π × (0.005 m)2 a column of water can be
• p = 101 000 Pa or 101 kPa drawn up by a vacuum pump
(i.e. by creating a pressure
You can repeat the calculation above for columns with different
difference). For any higher,
radii; the answers are always the same! You can combine all the
water pumps must be used.
steps into one big equation:
• p = ρ πr2h g / πr2
The areas cancel, which shows that the area of the column does not KEY WORDS
matter. Any column will reach the same height. This gives us:
aneroid barometer a device
• p = ρ h g (more on this equation later). for measuring atmospheric
You might ask, why use mercury? Mercury is quite toxic and needs pressure that uses a
to be handled very carefully; why not use water instead? This is corrugated metal box rather
because water has a much lower density than mercury (around than liquid
1000 kg/m3 vs. 13 600 kg/m3). This means for that atmospheric barometer a device for
pressure can support a column of water around 10 m tall! This measuring atmospheric
would make our barometer far too large to be practical. pressure
pressure difference the
Some uses of air pressure relative value of the pressure
of gas in different chambers
There are several uses for air pressure. Most rely on creating a
pressure difference by pumping air into or out of a chamber.
Pumping air into a chamber creates a greater pressure and pumping
air out of a chamber creates a lower pressure.
If you create an area of lower pressure then the atmospheric
pressure is larger in relative terms. As a result air is pushed in due to
the greater force from the atmospheric pressure. Notice that there is
no such thing as sucking to pull air into a machine.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Uses of air pressure

A suction pad is a round rubber pad, perfectly flat on one side.
Wet this side and press the pad against a window or smooth
��������������������� wall, pushing out all the air from under it. The pad sticks firmly.
Atmospheric pressure holds it in place. The pads are used to lift and
move large sheets of plate glass, metal and plastics, to put notices on
windows, and on many toys, e.g. arrows, that stick to walls.
���������������������� If you drink through a drinking straw, you are making use
of atmospheric pressure. You suck on the air inside the straw.
Therefore the atmospheric pressure outside is greater than the
pressure inside, and liquid is pushed up (Figure 6.18).
A lift pump (common pump) is often used to raise water from wells.
A piston moves up and down a tube (Figure 6.19). There is a valve
in the piston and also one at the end of the tube. A valve is usually
made of leather, and has brass on it to make it heavy. The valves are
Figure 6.18 Atmospheric pressure
normally shut. They let water pass upwards but not downwards.
pushes the drink up the straw
���� �� ���� ��

KEY WORDS
common pump a pump that �������

relies on atmospheric pressure

to move water ���

drinking straw a thin tube ������������

used to suck liquids into the �����������

mouth
force pump a pump that
� � � �
relies on atmospheric pressure
and compressed air to move
water, often to a great height Figure 6.19 The four stages in the operation of a lift pump
lift pump a pump that relies • Downstroke: Foot valve B closes under its own weight. Valve A
on atmospheric pressure to opens and lets air pass through it into the space above the piston.
move water • Upstroke: Valve A closes under its own weight. The pressure
suction pad a round rubber under the piston is less than atmospheric. Atmospheric pressure
pad that relies on atmospheric forces water into the tube through B.
pressure to stick to smooth
• Downstroke: Valve B closes and A opens. Water passes through A
surfaces
into the space above the piston.
• Upstroke: Valve A closes and water is lifted up the tube and out of
the spout. More water passes through B to keep the pump filled.
Atmospheric pressure determines the height to which water can
be pumped. Even a perfect pump can raise water only 10.4 m. In
practice, because of leaks at the valves and piston and of dissolved
gases from the water, most pumps raise water about 7 m only.
Delivery of water is not continuous.
A force pump can pump water to a great height. Some, used by
firemen, can force water hundreds of metres high.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

There is a foot valve B (see Figure 6.20), as in the lift pump, but it ��
has a solid piston and a delivery tube at the bottom of the pump. ���������

There is a valve A in the delivery tube where it joins a chamber.

• Upstroke: The pressure in the tube under the piston becomes less. ���

Valve A closes and foot valve B opens. Water is forced through B �����
������
into the tube by atmospheric pressure.
• Downstroke: B closes. Valve A opens; water is forced through it
and the delivery pipe into chamber C. The pressure on the piston ����
�������
����������������

(and not atmospheric pressure) determines the height to which ������

the water is pumped.

The force pump itself delivers water only on the downstroke; the
flow of water stops on the upstroke. However, the air trapped in
chamber C is compressed during every downstroke. The pressure
of this air continues to force out water during the upstroke, and Figure 6.20 A force pump
therefore the pump delivers a steady stream of water.

Bicycle pump
The handle moves a piston in a metal cylinder (Figure 6.21). There
is a cup-shaped leather or rubber washer on the end of the piston.
This acts as a valve and lets air move in one direction only. The soft
edge of the washer fits closely to the sides of the cylinder.
���������

������
������

�������

������

������

��������

��������������

��� ��������

�������������� �������

�������� ����������

Figure 6.21 How a bicycle pump works

• Upstroke: The pressure below the piston is reduced. Atmospheric

pressure forces air between the washer and the wall of the cylinder.
• Downstroke: The pressure below the piston is increased. The
washer is pressed tightly against the walls of the cylinder,
making it airtight. When the pressure rises above the pressure
inside the tyre, the tyre valve opens and air is forced into the
tyre.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

A bicycle pump with the washer reversed acts as a vacuum pump or

KEY WORDS
suction pump.
siphon a tube which can
move liquid using the Siphon
difference between the
pressure of the liquid and A siphon is a convenient way of removing liquid from a container
atmospheric pressure such as an aquarium or petrol tank.
Activity 6.5: To show the action of a siphon
• Fill a tall jar with water. Submerge a long rubber tube so
that it fills with water.
• Leave one end in the water, close the other end with the
fingers (to prevent the water running back), and lift it out
������������
of the jar. Lower this end until it is below the water level
� �
in the jar. Open it and let water flow out into a second jar
(Figure 6.22).
The water flows so long as the end C is below water level A.
The further C is below A, the faster is the flow of water.
�
• Now raise the second jar until it is higher than the first.
Water flows in the other direction. (The tubing must always
be full of water and its ends must be under the water.)
Figure 6.22 A siphon

Activity 6.6: Vacuum How a siphon works

cleaner The pressure at A and B is atmospheric. Therefore the pressure at
Can you explain how a C is atmospheric pressure plus the pressure due to the column of
simple vacuum cleaner water BC. Hence, the pressure at C is greater than atmospheric and
works? Remember that it the water can push its way out against the atmosphere.
does not suck up the dust.
Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area. It can
be calculated using the equation p = F/ A.
• Pressure is measured in pascals (Pa), where 1 Pa equals a
pressure of 1 newton per square metre.
• Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of the column
of air above you pushing down on you. On a typical day this
is equal to 101 kPa.
• As your altitude increases the atmospheric pressure
decreases.
• A barometer is a simple instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure. The pressure from the atmosphere
pushes the fluid up the tube.
• 1 atm is equal to 760 mmHg.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Review questions
1. Define pressure and states its units.
2. A wooden block of mass 2.0 kg is 20 cm thick, by 10 cm wide by
30 cm tall. Calculate the minimum and maximum pressure this
block could exert on a surface.
3. Explain the causes of atmospheric pressure and why it changes
with altitude.
4. Describe how a barometer works and show that at 1 atm the
height of a column of mercury would equal 760 mm.
5. Calculate the pressure in Pa if the reading from a barometer is
820 mmHg.

6.2 Fluid pressure

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the term fluid and state the similarities and
differences between liquids and gases.
• Define the term density and relative density and determine
each for a given body.
• Explain how the pressure in a liquid at rest varies.
• Apply the formula P = hρg and use it to solve problems
(including determining the pressure inside a fluid taking
into account atmospheric pressure).
• State Pascal’s principle, and apply it to solve problems and
explain applications (such as the hydraulic lift).
• Explain the use of a manometer.
• Demonstrate an understanding of, distinguish between and
calculate atmospheric, gauge and absolute pressure.
• State Archimedes’s principle and the principle of flotation.
• Distinguish between true weight and apparent weight of a KEY WORDS
body. flow smooth unbroken
• Calculate the buoyant force acting on the body in a fluid movement of a substance
and explain why bodies float or sink. fluid a substance that will
flow e.g. gases, liquids
• Calculate the density of a floating body or density of a fluid
using the flotation principle. gases substances in a state
of matter where particles can
move about randomly and are
What are fluids? widely spaced, with no bonds
between them
Can you name a fluid? I suspect you came up with either water, an
oil of some sort, petrol or maybe something like milk. However, I liquids substances in a state
doubt many, if any, of you came up with air. In physics a fluid refers of matter where there are
to a substance that will flow along a pipe. In common use fluids weak bonds between the
tend to mean just liquids. However, in science fluids include all particles which are close
gases as well as liquids together but can still move

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Another characteristic of fluids is that they can change their shape.

This means they always take the shape of the container they are put
in. For example, consider a rectangular glass box. A liquid and gas
will both fill the bottom of the container; however, a solid will not.

Figure 6.23 Natural gas is a fluid.

Solid Liquid Gas

KEY WORDS Figure 6.24 Fluids take the shape of their container.
incompressible where the There are still some very important differences between liquids
volume of a substance stays and gases. Perhaps the most important is the fact that gases can
the same when force is be compressed by forces. You can squeeze a balloon filled with air
applied and its volume will go down. However, liquids are incompressible;
density the mass per unit effectively this means the volume of a liquid stays the same when
volume of a substance force is applied.
Table 6.2 summarises the key properties of liquids and gases.
Table 6.2 Liquids and gases
Liquid Gas
Particles Quite close together, with no Far apart with no set pattern;
set pattern; particles can move particles can move past each
past each other. other.
Bonding Weak bonds between the No bonding between the
particles particles
Can flow / change their shape Yes Yes
to match a container
Compressible No; the particles are already Yes; there is lots of space
close together. between the particles.

Fluid density
The density of any fluid may be calculated using the standard
equation for density:
• density = mass / volume
• ρ = m / V
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
As the particles are closer together in a liquid, liquids have higher
densities than gases. Table 6.3 includes some typical densities of
fluids.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Table 6.3 Densities of fluids

Think about this…
Fluid Density (kg/m3) Density is also often
Mercury 13 600 measured in g/cm3. 1 g/cm3
Honey 1400 is equal to 1000 kg/m3. How
would convert from g/cm3 to
Water 1000 kg/m3 and vice versa?
Sea water 1020
Diesel 950
KEY WORDS
Alcohol 800
relative density the ratio
Petrol 740 between the density of two
Air 1.20 substances
Carbon dioxide 1.98
Nitrogen gas 1.25
Both temperature and pressure have an effect on the volume
of a fluid. Therefore the densities in Table 6.3 are at standard
atmospheric pressure (101 kPa) and a temperature of 20 °C.
For liquids it is fair to assume that the density is uniform
throughout the liquid (as they are incompressible). However, for
large volumes of gas the density increases as the gas gets closer to
the surface of the Earth (due to gravity). This is most noticeable in
the Earth’s atmosphere. As the altitude increases the air gets less
dense; the air is described as getting thinner.

What’s relative density?

The term relative density is often used to compare the density
between two fluids. In most cases this involves comparing the
density of a fluid to that of water; however, it could be any other
substance.
The relative density of a substance is the ratio between its density
and the density of water. For example, if something has a relative
density of two it means it is twice as dense as water. A relative
density of 0.25 means it has ¼ of the density of water. You can
calculate relative density using:
• relative density = density of substance / density of water.
The relative density of alcohol would be:
• relative density = density of substance / density of water Activity 6.7: Relative
density
• relative density = 800 kg/m3 / 1000 kg/m3
Determine the relative
• relative density = 0.8.
density of:
Notice relative density has no units since it is a ratio. 1. mercury
If we are comparing two identical volumes of fluids then the relative 2. carbon dioxide
density can be calculated as the ratio of the masses of the same
volume of fluid: 3. petrol
• relative density = mass of substance / mass of equal volume of 4. honey.
water

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Activity 6.8: Measuring relative density

This method uses a density bottle (Figure 6.25) to find the ��������������
relative density of a liquid. A density bottle has a ground-glass
stopper, which fits exactly. There is a small hole in the stopper
through which liquid and air can flow out when the stopper is
��������������������
put in the neck of the bottle. (This means that no air bubbles
can be trapped under the stopper, which would give a false
result.)
• Weigh a clean, dry density bottle with its stopper (mass = A).
• Fill with water and put in the stopper. Water should come out
of the hole in the stopper. Dry the outside of the bottle and
weigh it again (mass = B).
• Pour out the water, rinse with some of the liquid whose
relative density is to be found. Fill with the liquid, put in the Figure 6.25 A density bottle
stopper, dry carefully and weigh (mass = C).
mass of liquid (C – A)
Relative density = =
mass of water (B – A)

Did you know? Pressure in fluids

If the relative density of a We’ve already discussed atmospheric pressure but if we investigate
substance is relative to the pressure in fluids in general we find there are two key points to
density of water it is often consider:
called specific gravity. If the • Pressure increases with depth.
object has a specific gravity
greater than 1, it will sink in • At any given depth the pressure is equal in all directions.
water (more on this later).
Pressure and depth
In any fluid the pressure increases with depth. The taller the column
of the fluid above you, the greater the pressure it exerts. You can see
������������
this by conducting a very simple experiment.
�����������

�������� Activity 6.9: Pressure and depth

�����
Take a tall tin can and carefully make several holes going up
����������������
one side (three or four should do it).
Quickly fill the tin with water and observe how the water
squirts out of the holes.
You will notice that the stream from the bottom hole travels
Figure 6.26 The effect of depth on further. This is because the water is under more pressure at the
pressure bottom of the can.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

We have already derived an equation for pressure in fluids in

Section 6.1: Water

• p = hρg
• p = pressure in Pa
• h = depth of fluid in m Dam

• ρ = density of fluid in kg/m3

• g = gravitational field strength (9.81 N/kg)
Be careful not to mix up p and ρ (the Greek letter rho); make sure
you look carefully before completing any calculations.
To recap:
Figure 6.28 shows a tank, filled with water of density ρ to a depth h.
The base of the tank has area A. What is the pressure on the bottom
of the tank? Figure 6.27 Dams have to be
The pressure is caused by the weight of the water in the tank, thicker at the bottom in order to
pressing down on the bottom. withstand the greater pressure.
• Volume of water = h × A
• Mass of water = volume × density = ρ × h × A
• Weight of water = mass × g = ρ × h × A × g
• Pressure = weight / area = ρ × h × A × g / A = ρ × h × g.
This equation shows that the pressure increases with depth (h); in
fact the pressure exerted by the fluid is directly proportional to the �������
������
��������
�������

depth of fluid. Dive twice as deep and the pressure exerted by the
water above you is doubled.
������

Worked example
Figure 6.28 The pressure on the
Calculate the pressure exerted by the water at the bottom of a bottom of the tank is caused by
swimming pool 6 m deep. the weight of the water above it.
p = hρg State principle or equation to be used (pressure in fluids)
p = 6 m × 1000 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg Substitute in known values and
complete calculation Activity 6.10: Pressure
calculations
p = 60 000 Pa Clearly state the answer with unit
Using information in the
Calculate the force this pressure would exert on a concrete
density table (Table 6.3)
block with an area of 3 m2
calculate the pressure
p = F / A State principle or equation to be used (definition of exerted by the fluid in the
pressure) following situations:
F = p × A Rearrange equation to make F the subject 1. Diving in sea water to a
F = 60 000 Pa × 3 m Substitute in known values and complete
2 depth of 15 m.
calculation 2. The base of a column of
F = 180 kN Clearly state the answer with unit mercury 760 mm tall.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Pressure acts equally in all directions

In fluids, despite the pressure being caused by the column of fluid
above you, the pressure acts equally in all directions. If you imagine
a very small cube placed under water, the pressure on each cube
face would be same.
If you hold your hand up horizontally in front of you the pressure
on the top is the same as the pressure on the bottom.
Technically there is a very small difference in the height of the
column of air on the top compared to the bottom (the thickness of
your hand) but essentially the pressure is the same.

Activity 6.11: Pressure in a can

Figure 6.29 Pressure is the same
in all directions on a small cube. You can show this using
another tin can. This time
make four or five holes at
the same depth around the
Pressure on the top
bottom of the can.
Again quickly fill it with
water and you can see all
the streams of water are the
same. In other words the
pressure is the same in all Figure 6.31 Pressure is the same
Pressure on the bottom directions inside the can. in all directions.

Figure 6.30 The pressure on the

top and on the bottom of your What about the effect of atmospheric pressure?
hand is essentially the same.
If you go swimming the pressure acting on you is not just due to
the water above you. You must not forget to include atmospheric
Did you know? pressure.
This topic is called fluid
statics (or hydrostatics), Atmospheric pressure
meaning we are dealing
with stationary fluids.
A moving fluid exerts Water
less pressure on its
surroundings. This is h
studied in hydrodynamics
and is very important when
it comes to keeping aircraft
in the air.
p = patm+pfluid

Figure 6.32 The total pressure on a swimmer

The pressure on the swimmer would be the sum of the pressure due
to the fluid and the atmospheric pressure. In terms of an equation
this could be written as:
• p = patm + hρfluid g

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Pascal’s principle Worked example

Activity 6.12: Water transmits pressure Determine the pressure

acting on a diver 20 m
• Take two syringes of different sizes. Connect them with below the surface.•
plastic or rubber tubing. Fill the syringes and the tube with
water (Figure 6.33). p = patm + hρfluidg Express
total pressure in terms of
• Press one syringe with one hand, and the other with the atmospheric pressure and
other hand. Feel how their forces differ. pressure from fluid
• In this case, h = 20 m
and ρfluid = 1000 kg/m3
p = 101 000 Pa + (20 m
�����������
������ ������ × 1000 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg)
����������������������
Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
Figure 6.33 Using water pressure to magnify a force.
p = 301 000 Pa or 301 kPa
Clearly state the answer
If you conduct the experiment above the difference in the forces is with unit
clear.
This difference comes down to the fact that liquids are
incompressible; this means they can transfer pressure from one Think about this…
place to another. The force applied to the smaller syringe creates a
Discuss with a partner why
pressure inside the liquid. This pressure is transferred throughout
this effect does not happen
the liquid and is the same value everywhere. This pressure acts on
in gases.
the larger syringe and because the area of the syringe is larger the
force exerted is also greater. Remember, from Unit 4, energy cannot
be created or destroyed. Just like the simple machines studied in
unit 5, if the output force gets bigger it must move through a smaller KEY WORDS
distance. hydraulic machines
This phenomenon is referred to as Pascal’s principle and it states: machines that rely on the
• The pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to incompressibility of liquids to
do work
every part of the fluid, as well as to the walls of the container
without reducing in value. Pascal’s principle principle
stating that the pressure
Pascal’s principle is used in the design and construction of simple applied to an enclosed fluid
hydraulic machines. Figure 6.34 shows two different sized pistons, is transmitted to every part of
which form part of a hydraulic system. the fluid without reducing in
If a force is applied to the left hand piston it will create a pressure value
inside the fluid.
• p = F1 / A1
This pressure is transferred throughout the liquid. It is the same F1 F2

everywhere. A2

• p on the left = p on the right. A1 p

p

The piston on the right has a much larger area. The force from this
piston is equal to: p

• F2 = p × A2
Figure 6.34 Pascal’s principle

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

As A2 is much bigger than A1, F2 will also be bigger than F1. In fact
KEY WORDS
if the piston has double the area the force will be doubled. If the
hydraulic lift a hydraulic piston has ten times the area the force will be 10 times greater!
machine used to raise heavy
For example, let’s imagine the areas are:
objects
hydraulics presses a A1 = 2 m2  A2 = 6 m2
hydraulic machine used to If a force of 100 N is applied on A1 then the force at A2 will be 300 N
shape metal or compress (three times bigger). Let’s prove it though calculation:
materials into smaller volumes
p = F / A State principle or equation to be used (definition of pressure)
hydraulic brakes a
mechanism which uses fluid to p = F1 / A1 Relate to this context
transfer pressure from a foot p = 100 N / 2 m2 Substitute in known values and complete calculation
pedal to push brake pads onto
brake discs p = 50 N/m2 Clearly state the answer with unit
From Pascal’s principle the pressure is the same throughout the
liquid so:
p = F2 / A2 State principle or equation to be used (definition of pressure
expressed in this context)
F2 = p × A2 Rearrange equation to make F2 the subject
F2 = 50 N/m2 × 6 m2 Substitute

in known values and complete
calculation
F2 = 300 N Clearly state the answer with unit
As the pressure is same throughout the fluid we can summarise the
relationship between the forces and areas in the following equation:
• F1 / A1 = F2 / A2

Hydraulic machines
Pascal’s principle has many applications; one of the simplest is the
hydraulic lift. This is used to lift a heavy object (such as a car)
off the ground. Just like our example, a small force is applied to a
smaller area piston. This creates a pressure inside a hydraulic fluid,
which is transferred to a larger area piston. This piston creates a
much larger force and, if the object to be lifted sits on top of the
large piston, it can be easily lifted by the smaller force at the smaller
area piston.
Other examples include hydraulic presses and hydraulic brakes (in
cars).
Hydraulic presses are used to shape metal (e.g. make motor-car
bodies), to press waste paper or cotton wool into bales of small size,
to press oil from oil seeds, and to lift cars so that work can be done
easily underneath.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Activity 6.13: A hydraulic lift

• Inner tube method: Turn the brick so that a smaller surface is
Use the inner tube of a bus or lorry tyre. on the bag. A larger pressure is needed to
Take out the valve, and fit about lift the brick as much as before.
�������
1.5 metres of rubber tubing to the tube
over the metal valve. Put a funnel into the
other end of the rubber tubing. Place a
large wooden board on the flat inner tube, ����

and stand on the board. Pour water into

the funnel. The inner tube fills with water
and lifts you.
�����

• Polythene bag method: ��������

�����
���
Connect some rubber tubing to a closed
polythene bag. Place a brick with its �������������

largest surface on the bag. Blow into the Figure 6.35 A hydraulic lift operated by air pressure
tubing. The brick is lifted.

The hydraulic press (Figure 6.36) changes a small force into a large
one. It consists of a cylinder and a piston, of large diameter, joined Think about this…
by a pipe to a second cylinder and a piston of small diameter. Water Why is it a serious problem
or oil is pumped into the small cylinder, and it lifts the large piston if air bubbles get into the
with an enormous force. A release valve lets the liquid run away hydraulic brake lines of a car?
after the piston has done its work.

��������������������

�������������

����

�������������

�����

���������������

Figure 6.36 A hydraulic press, used to compress a bale of cotton

A car’s hydraulic brakes work in a similar way. By pressing the foot
on the brake pedal, a small force is applied to a piston with a small
diameter. The pressure is transmitted through oil pipes to pistons of
large diameter on the car wheels. These push the brake pads against
the brake discs to stop the wheels.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

What is the difference between atmospheric, gauge

and absolute pressure?
When it comes to measuring the pressure of a fluid there are several
different terms you may come across. These include atmospheric
pressure, gauge pressure and absolute pressure.

Absolute pressure
The absolute pressure is the actual pressure at a given point. It
is the true pressure of a system if all of the factors are taken into
account (including atmospheric pressure).
Figure 6.37 Pressure gauges may
read absolute pressure or gauge Atmospheric pressure
pressure. Atmospheric pressure has already been discussed. It is the pressure
of the surrounding air when measured at the surface of the Earth.
KEY WORDS It has a value of 101 kPa. Atmospheric pressure varies depending
on the temperature, the altitude above sea level and the impact of
absolute pressure the actual
weather systems.
pressure at a given point
gauge pressure the difference Gauge pressure
between absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure Pressure gauges often give readings of gauge pressure rather than
absolute pressure. Gauge pressure is the pressure difference between
a system and atmospheric pressure.
If the pressure gauge reads 25 kPa it would mean 25 kPa above
atmospheric pressure (giving 126 kPa in total). If the gauge was
disconnected it would read 0 Pa even though the absolute pressure
is still 101 kPa.
Gauge pressure can be calculated using the equation below:
• pg = ps – patm
• p = gauge pressure
g
• p = system pressure (the absolute pressure of the system being
s
measured)
• patm = atmospheric pressure
This is often used to determine the absolute pressure of the system.
For example, if a compressed gas was measured and the gauge
pressure of the system was 49 kPa then the absolute pressure would
be:
• pg = ps – patm   so  ps = pg + patm
• p = 49 000 Pa + 101 000 Pa
s
• p = 150 000 Pa
s

As gauge pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure it is possible to

obtain negative readings. A reading of –10 kPa would mean 10 kPa
below atmospheric pressure.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

System pressure (above atmospheric pressure)

Gauge pressure
(blue arrows)

Increasing pressure
System pressure (below atmospheric pressure)

Absolute pressure
(green arrows)

Zero pressure (absolute)=0 kPA

Figure 6.38 The relationship between gauge pressure, absolute
pressure and atmospheric pressure

Measuring pressure KEY WORDS

We have already looked at simple and aneroid barometers. However, Bourdon gauge an
there are a number of other ways to measure the pressure of a fluid. instrument for measuring the
Most modern techniques use electronic pressure sensors. However, pressure of a gas
there are two other common mechanical techniques. manometer a U-shaped tube
filled with liquid which is used
Bourdon gauge to measure pressure
A Bourdon gauge is a more practical instrument for measuring the
pressure of a gas (Figure 6.39). Inside the gauge is a flattened tube
with one end sealed. The tube is coiled round in a spiral. The open
end is connected to, say, the gas supply. As the gas presses in, it
causes the spiral tube to uncurl slightly. This makes the needle move
round the dial, indicating the pressure.

�����������
����
��� ���
����

������� ���������� ��� ���

������

����
�
������������

��������
����������

Figure 6.39 A Bourdon gauge

Manometer
A manometer is a simple instrument often used to measure the
pressure of a gas supply. It comprises a U-shaped tube open at both
ends. The tube is filled with a liquid (this is often coloured to make
it easier to see).

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

If one side of the manometer is connected to a system under

pressure, the liquid will move. For example, if one end was
connected to a gas supply the liquid would be pushed down as the
supply is at a greater pressure than the surrounding atmosphere.
The height difference between B and C can then be used to
determine the pressure of the gas supply.
• pressure of gas = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to the
column of liquid BC
• pressure of gas = patm + hBCρg
Figure 6.40 A simple manometer For example, if a water-filled manometer was connected to a gas
supply and the height difference (BC) was 9 cm the pressure of the
gas would be:
����������
• pressure of gas = patm + hBCρg
• pressure of gas = 101 000 Pa + 0.09 m × 1000 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg
�
������������
• pressure of gas = 101 900 Pa
� � This would most likely be expressed as a gauge pressure of 900 Pa.
�����

Figure 6.41 Using a manometer

Forces in fluids
to measure the pressure of the gas Objects seem less heavy in water. For example, it is easy to hold up a
supply friend horizontally in a swimming pool. Try doing this in air!

Figure 6.43 Despite their large mass elephants appear to be lighter

Figure 6.42 A manometer being underwater.
used There is a force from the water that pushes you up, acting against
gravity. This force is called a buoyant force (or sometimes
Think about this… upthrust). It arises due to the fact that as pressure increases with
If using a manometer to depth if you immerse an object in a fluid the pressure on the bottom
measure the pressure of will be greater than the pressure on the top.
higher pressure gases why is This can be shown by considering the equation, p = hρg. The
it a good idea to use mercury? difference in pressure can be found by using:
Why is water usually used for • Δp = Δhρg
gas supplies?

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Water

ptop

Δ p=pbottom − ptop

Δ p=Δhρg

pbottom

Figure 6.44 The pressure is greater at a greater Figure 6.45 The pressure difference = Δhρg
depth in water, so there is a bigger force on the
lower surface of the block than on the upper
surface.
Fb
This difference in pressure means there is a difference in force
acting on the top and bottom of the object. The force on the bottom
is greater and so there is net force upwards.
If you hold a cork underwater and then release it the buoyant force
accelerates it towards the surface of the water. Equally if you drop
a stone in the water it accelerates through the water much more Figure 6.46 The pressure difference
slowly than it did through the air as the buoyant force means the net leads to a force acting vertically
force acting on the stone is reduced. upwards.
The size of the buoyant force (Fb) depends on a number of factors
including the density of the fluid and the volume of the object.
Buoyant forces are not just limited to liquids. Air also provides a
buoyant force but it is very small (as the density of air is much less
than that of water). In order for it to have a significant effect the
volume of the object must be huge. Hot air balloons ‘float’ in the air
due to the buoyant force of the air pushing them up, acting against
their weight.

Apparent weight
As we mentioned earlier, objects immersed in water (or any liquid)
appear to weigh less. Obviously their weight has not changed (w Figure 6.47 The buoyant force
= mg) but they now have an apparent weight. The buoyant force from the air keeps the hot balloon
pushes upwards, acting against the objects weight and so the weight in the air.
appears to drop.
The apparent weight may be calculated using the equation below: KEY WORDS
• apparent weight = weight – buoyant force
buoyant force a force from
Gases (like air) also provide a buoyant force but it is usually too the water which pushes a
small to need thinking about. body upwards against gravity
This equation is more commonly used to determine the buoyant upthrust a force from the
force acting on an object: water which pushes a body
• buoyant force = weight – apparent weight upwards against gravity

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

a) Using a forcemeter we canFbeasily determine the buoyant force acting

on a stone (see Figure 6.49).
Here the buoyant force is equal to:
weight buoyant force = weight – apparent weight S tate principle or equation
weight
to be used
b) buoyant force = 6.0 N – 4.0 N S ubstitute in known values and
complete calculation
buoyant force = 2.0 N Clearly state the answer with unit

Fb Archimedes’s principle
You probably know the story of Archimedes in his bath. King Hiero
had ordered a new gold crown, in the shape of a wreath of leaves.
The crown was the correct weight, but he suspected that the jeweller
weight had cheated him by mixing silver with the gold. Could Archimedes
find a way of checking the crown without damaging it?
Archimedes was in his bath when he thought of the solution. As
everyone knows, when you get in the bath, the water level rises
Figure 6.48 The forces acting on because your body displaces some of the water. Archimedes, seeing
an object a) in air b) in water how he could put this to use, leapt from the bath and ran down the
street shouting ‘Eureka!’ which means ‘I have it!’
Here is how Archimedes tested the crown. He put a weight of gold
� � � � equal to the crown, and known to be pure, into a bowl which was
filled with water to the brim. Then the gold was removed and the
� �
� �
� �
� � ���
�
�
�
���
�
�
�
king’s crown put in, in its place. This caused the bowl to overflow.
� �

Archimedes was using the fact that gold is denser than silver, so
it takes up less space. He found that the new crown had a greater
volume than one made of pure gold. It was indeed a cheat, and the
jeweller was punished.
Archimedes realised that when an object is immersed in a liquid it
displaces a certain volume of the liquid.

Figure 6.49 Measuring the

buoyant force acting on a stone

KEY WORDS
Volume of displaced liquid
Archimedes’s principle
principle stating that the Figure 6.50 A stone placed in a beaker of water will cause the level of
weight of the fluid displaced water to rise as it displaces its own volume.
by an object is equal to the
buoyant force acting on it

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

He determined that the weight of the displaced fluid was equal to

the buoyant force. Or in his own words:
• Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed
up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
object.
In other words, the buoyant force acting on an object is equal to the
weight of the displaced liquid.
• buoyant force = weight of displaced fluid
The greater the volume of liquid displaced the greater the buoyant
force.

Activity 6.14: Testing Archimedes’s principle

Use thin thread to tie an object (a stone, • Weigh the beaker and the displaced water.
metal weight or glass stopper is suitable) You have to find the buoyant force on the
to the hook of a newtonmeter (a spring object, and compare it with the weight of
balance). Note its weight. water displaced.
• Weigh a beaker. Upthrust = weight of object in air – weight of
• Place an overflow can on the bench and object in water
fill it with water. When no more water Weight of displaced water = weight of beaker
drips out of the can, place the weighed with water – weight of empty beaker
beaker under its spout (see Figure 6.51).
• Lower the object carefully into the water � �

until it is partially immersed. Note the

��

��������������

apparent weight of the object. ���

• Weigh the beaker with the displaced water ������

in it. ������

• Replace the beaker and water under the

����������
spout. Lower the object into the can until ��������������

it is totally immersed but not touching

the bottom of the can. Note the apparent
weight of the object. Figure 6.51 Testing Archimedes’s principle

We can modify our equation for apparent weight in light of

Archimedes’ principle:
• apparent weight = weight – buoyant force
• buoyant force = weight of displaced fluid
• apparent weight = weight – weight of displaced fluid

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

KEY WORDS Floating and sinking

law of flotation law stating Whether or not an object floats or sinks depends on the weight of
that if the buoyant force is the object and the size of the buoyant force acting on the object.
equal to the weight of the
object then the object will
float

buoyant force

a – weight is greater than buoyant force, so the stone sinks

b – weight is equal to the buyoyant force, so the cork floats

c – weight is less than the buoyant force so the balloon rises

Figure 6.52 The relative sizes of the buoyant force and the weight
determine whether an object will float or sink.
In order to float an object must displace a volume of fluid (liquid or
gas) equal to its own weight. This is called the law of flotation.
If the weight of the volume of fluid displaced is equal to the weight
of the object then the object will float.
A large steel ship is able to float because it displaces such a large
volume of water. This volume of water has the same weight as the
ship.
Figure 6.53 The ship floats due to
the law of flotation. When you step into a small boat you might notice the boat sinks
down a little in the water. This is because as the weight of the boat
increases it needs to displace a greater volume of liquid in order to
float, and so it sinks down lower in the water. A heavily loaded boat
sits much lower in the water than a lightly loaded boat.

Boat (not loaded)

Boat (loaded)

Figure 6.54 A boat that is Figure 6.55 A boat that is heavily

not heavily loaded displaces a loaded needs to displace a much
smaller volume of liquid in order larger volume of water in order to
to float. float.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

In the late 19th century greedy ship owners were overloading their
ships and several ships sank as a result. The Englishman Samuel
Plimsoll developed the waterline (or more commonly the Plimsoll
line). This was a line that by law must be painted on all large ships.
For safety reasons, when the ship is fully loaded the level of the
water must not be above the Plimsoll line.

Worked example
A toy submarine has a weight of 6.2 N in air. When immersed
in water it has a weight of 4.6 N. Determine the buoyant force
. and the weight of water displaced
buoyant force = weight – apparent weight State principle or
equation to be used
buoyant force = 6.2 N – 4.6 N Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
Figure 6.56 The Plimsoll line on
buoyant force = 1.6 N Clearly state the answer with unit
a ship
weight of displaced fluid = buoyant force Make it clear the two
quantities are equal from Archimedes’s principle
• weight of displaced fluid = 1.6 N Clearly state the answer with
Think about this…
unit If you look carefully at the
image of the Plimsoll line you
can see that there are several
different lines depending on
What about density? whether the ship is in fresh
If, even when fully immersed, the weight of the volume of liquid water, salt water, cold water
displaced is less than the weight of the object, then the object will (North Atlantic) or warm
sink. A small cube of steel does not displace enough water to float. water (tropical). Why is this?
However, if you hammer out the steel into a bowl shape it displaces
a greater volume of water and so will float.

Figure 6.57 The same mass of steel will sink or float depending on its
shape and so the amount of fluid it displaces.
In other words, if the density of the object is greater than the density
of the fluid it will sink.
This means we need to consider the relative density between the
object and the liquid. If the relative density is less than one the
object will float (as the weight of the object will be less than the
weight of the volume of liquid it displaces). If the relative density is
more than one the object will sink (as the weight of the object will
be more than the weight of the volume of liquid it displaces). We
can modify our previous equations to include the density of the
object and the density of the fluid.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Worked example
A floating wooden block has a volume of 0.4 m3 and displaces
0.3 m3 of water. Determine the density of the block.
ρobjectVobject = ρfluidVfluid State principle or equation to be used (a
version of Archimedes’s principle)
ρobject = ρfluidVfluid / Vobject Rearrange equation to give ρobject
ρobject = (1000 kg/m3 × 0.3 m3) / 0.4 m3 Substitute in known
values and complete
calculation
ρobject = 750 kg/m3 (or a relative density of 0.75) Clearly state
the answer
with unit

• w = mg and ρ = m / V
• weight of object = m g and so weight of object = ρ V g
object object object
• weight of displaced liquid = m g and so weight of displaced
fluid
fluid = ρfluidVfluid g
If the object is floating then:
• buoyant force = weight of displaced liquid = weight of object
So:
• ρ V g = ρfluidVfluid g
object object

The g’s cancel, giving:

• ρ V = ρ V
object object fluid fluid

This equation only applies if the object is floating.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• A fluid is any substance that can flow. This includes gases as
well as liquids.
• Gases may be compressed but liquids are incompressible.
• Density is defined as the mass per unit volume and it may be
calculated using the equation ρ = m / V. Density is measured
in kg/m3.
• The relative density of a substance is the density of the
substance compared to another (e.g. compared to water).
• In fluids the pressure increases with depth and is the same
in all directions.
• In fluids the pressure due to the fluid is equal to p = hρg.
The total pressure is equal to the pressure due to the fluid
plus atmospheric pressure.
• Pascal’s principle states that liquids transfer pressure from
one place to another without any reduction in pressure.
• Gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pressure
and atmospheric pressure.
• A manometer is a simple U-shaped tube filled with liquid
used to measure pressure.
• The apparent weight of a body is equal to the weight of the
object minus the buoyant force acting on it.
• Archimedes’s principle states that the weight of the
displaced fluid is equal to the buoyant force acting on the
object.
• The principle of flotation states if the buoyant force (or
weight of displaced fluid) is equal to the weight of the
object then the object will float.
• If the object is floating then the density of the floating
object can be calculated from: ρobjectVobject = ρfluidVfluid where
Vfluid is the volume of the displaced fluid.

Review questions
1. Explain what is meant by the term fluid and give three
examples.
2. Calculate the pressure caused by sea water when diving to a
depth of 100 m. What is the total pressure acting on the diver?
3. State Pascal’s principle and describe one of its applications.

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 UNIT 6: Fluid statics

4. Two pistons are connected together to make a hydraulic lift. The

smaller piston has an area of 0.05 m2 and the larger piston has
an area of 2 m2. Calculate the following:
a) The pressure in the fluid and the force at the larger piston if
the force on the smaller piston is 50 N.
b) The pressure in the fluid and the force from the smaller
piston required to lift a car of mass 1200 kg.
5. Describe the relationship between the buoyant force and the
weight of an object if the object:
a) is floating
b) is sinking
c) is rising up through the water.

End of unit questions

1. An elephant has a mass of 3200 kg. Each of its feet covers an
area equal to 0.08 m2. Calculate the pressure from each foot.
2. Describe what causes pressure in gases in terms of the particles
in the gas.
3. Describe some similarities and difference between liquids and
gases.
4. How deep under water would you need to be in order to be at
double atmospheric pressure?
5. Explain the meaning of the terms atmospheric pressure,
absolute pressure and gauge pressure.
6. Describe the use of a manometer and calculate the pressure of a
gas supply that causes a column of water 15 cm high.
7. State Archimedes’s principle and explain how this leads to the
law of flotation.
8. Explain why a heavily loaded boat sinks lower in the water.
9. The weight of an object is measured in air to be 7.0 N. The
object is then immersed in water and its apparent weight is
measured to be 4.0 N. Determine the buoyant force and state
whether or not the object floats.
10. A large ocean liner floating in the sea has a volume of
375 000 m2 and displaces 50 000 m2 of sea water. Determine the
density and mass of the ship. Explain why, despite being made
of metal, the ship is able to float.

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 Temperature and heat Unit 7

Contents
Section Learning competencies
7.1 Temperature and • Explain the difference between heat and temperature.
heat (page 172) • Define the term thermal equilibrium.
7.2 Expansion of • Describe the thermal expansion of solids and derive the expression
solids, liquids and for the linear and surface expansion of solids.
gases • Find the relationship between the coefficient of linear, area and
(page 179) volume expansion and solve related problems.
• Know applications of the thermal expansion of materials.
• Distinguish between apparent and real expansion of a liquid and
solve problems involving the expansion of liquids using V = VoγΔT.
• Explain the abnormal expansion of water.
• Compare the expansion of gases with the expansion of solids and
liquids.
7.3 Quantity of heat, • Describe the factors that affect the amount of heat absorbed or
specific heat liberated by a body.
capacity and heat • Define the terms specific heat capacity and heat capacity and
capacity calculate the amount of heat energy absorbed or liberated by a
(page 191) body using Q = mc∆T.
• Calculate the heat capacity of a body.
• Identify different units of heat energy.
• Explain the significance of the high specific heat capacity of
water.
• Use the relationship heat lost = heat gained to solve problems
involving heat exchange.
• Describe the uses of a calorimeter.
7.4 Changes of state • Define the terms latent heat, latent heat of fusion and latent heat
(page 199) of vaporisation.
• Solve problems involving change of state.

On a hot day our ice cream melts more quickly, but why? On a cold
day we may need a coat and if its gets very cold it might even snow.
Our perception of temperature is all relative; what’s cold to us might
be described very differently from a resident of northern Canada!
The concepts of heat and temperature are not just used in weather
forecasting. The bread in an oven needs to be baked at just the
right temperature, the wheels are fitted onto a train’s axle using
low temperatures in a technique called shrink fitting, and air
conditioning and central heating systems only function due to our
understanding of heat and temperature.
This unit looks at the meaning of the terms heat and temperature,
the effects of different temperatures and some applications that rely
on these phenomena.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

KEY WORDS 7.1 Temperature and heat

atoms the smallest parts of
By the end of this section you should be able to:
a chemical element that can
take part in a reaction • Explain the difference between heat and temperature.
average kinetic energy the • Define the term thermal equilibrium.
mean kinetic energy of all the
particles in a substance
ions an atom or group of What is heat?
atoms that has acquired an
electrical charge by gaining or When we cook food, we might say we are heating it up. The
losing one or more electrons temperature of the food increases. It seems like heat and temperature are
molecules the smallest unit the same thing, but they are not!
of a substance, consisting of a We already know that matter is made up of moving particles
group of atoms, which retains (molecules, atoms and ions). In solids these particles are tightly
the chemical and physical bonded together and so they can only vibrate, whereas in fluids
properties of the substance (liquids and gases) the particles can move around more freely.
particles small units of Heat is one form of energy; it is therefore measured in joules and
matter such as atoms, ions is a scalar quantity. Heat is a flow of energy from hotter regions to
and molecules colder ones.
• Q = ΣEk + ΣU

100°C 100°C Q is the symbol used for heat energy. From Unit 4, Ek is kinetic
energy and U is potential energy. Remember, Σ means sum of.
Imagine two beakers of boiling water. Beaker A contains 1 kg of
1 kg boiling water and beaker B contains 0.5 kg of boiling water. They are
500 g
both at the same temperature, 100 °C, but there are more particles
in beaker A and so there is more energy contained within it than
Beaker A Beaker B
with beaker B.
Figure 7.1 Two beakers of boiling When we heat up a substance, we are transferring energy to the
water substance. This means one of two things could happen.
• The particles of the substance gain kinetic energy and so move
more rapidly.
and/or
• The bonds between the particles in the substance are broken
and the potential energy of the particles increases. When this
happens, the substance changes state.

What is temperature?
Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’. The higher the temperature,
the hotter the object. The complication is that ‘hotter’ may not mean
more heat when comparing two objects.
The temperature of a substance is a measurement of the average
kinetic energy of the particles within the substance. If the particles
in a substance have a higher average kinetic energy then the object
Figure 7.2 A hot day. But what is is at a higher temperature. That is to say if the particles are, on
the difference between heat and average, moving faster then the object is at a higher temperature.
temperature? The water molecules in a glass of water at 50 °C are, on average,
moving faster than those in a glass at 20 °C.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Water molecules

20 °C

Water molecules

50 °C

Figure 7.3 On average, the particles are moving faster if the object is
at higher temperature.

10 kg of water at room temperature may contain more energy

than a tiny metal spark from a sparkler. However, the spark is
at higher temperature (maybe 500 °C compared with 25 °C).
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles; heat is the total thermal energy inside the substance (the
total kinetic and potential energies added together). On average, the
particles are moving faster in the spark; however, there are far more
particles in the water, all with a kinetic energy and potential energy.

It is important to notice we use the average kinetic energy. In any

substance some particles will be moving faster than others and so
these particles will have more kinetic energy than the others.

0 °C Figure 7.4 The water may contain

more heat energy even though it
Number of Molecules

is at a lower temperature than the

1000 °C spark.

2000 °C
Think about this…
As the temperature of a body
indicates the average kinetic
energy of the particles, it
Speed does not depend on the
number of particles present.
Figure 7.5 This graph shows how many particles have a given speed at
three different temperatures.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

If we look at Figure 7.5, we can see that at 0 °C, most particles

Did you know? have a relatively low speed and hence a relatively low kinetic
At room temperature all energy – only a relatively small number of particles have a high
gases will have the same speed and a high kinetic energy. As a substance is heated to a
average kinetic energy. This higher temperature, for example 1000 °C, the graph shows us that
means the lower mass gas the average speed and consequently average kinetic energy of the
particles are, on average, particles is greater than at 0 °C.
travelling faster. One of the
reasons there is very little
helium in the atmosphere
is because they are so light Temperature scales
a significant number of A range of temperature scales have been used in the past, though
helium atoms are going fast scientists now tend to deal with the Kelvin scale (K) or the Celsius
enough to escape the Earth’s scale (°C). The Fahrenheit scale (°F) is still used by the United States
gravitational pull and float but is rarely used by the scientific community.
off into space. The heavier
To design a temperature scale two fixed reference points have to be
gases, like oxygen, nitrogen
used. The scale is then based on these points with a certain number
and carbon dioxide are on
of jumps in between them.
average moving slower and
so don’t escape. For example, in the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is given
as 0 °C , with the second fixed point being the boiling point of water
KEY WORDS – the difference between the two fixed points is divided into 100
equal divisions so the boiling point of water is 100 °C.
absolute zero the
temperature at which a
substance has no thermal
energy
Celsius scale a temperature
scale where the freezing point
of water is fixed at 0 degrees
and the boiling point at 100
degrees C
Kelvin scale a temperature
scale that uses absolute zero
as one of its fixed points

Figure 7.6 The freezing point and boiling point of water were the two
fixed points used on the Celsius scale.
The Kelvin scale uses absolute zero as one of its fixed points. This is
the temperature at which a substance will have no thermal energy
and it is not possible to get a lower temperature (0 K or –273.15 °C).
The Kelvin scale has a units symbol of K; there is no degree symbol
included.
The Kelvin and the Celsius scales are often used together as they
have the same scale division. This means a change of 20 K is the
same as a change of 20 °C.
The Kelvin scale may seem unusual as it uses fixed points that we
Figure 7.7 The Swedish
are not familiar with but, importantly, temperatures measured in
astronomer Anders Celsius first
the Kelvin scale are directly proportional to the average kinetic
proposed the Celsius scale in
energy of the particles present. For example, the particles in a block
1742.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

of iron have on average twice as much kinetic energy at 200 K than

at 100 K.
Did you know?
The Celsius scale is
The Fahrenheit scale uses one fixed point as the temperature of an
named after the Swedish
ice, water and ammonium chloride mixture (0 °F) – the second
astronomer Anders Celsius.
fixed point is normal body temperature (98 °F).
In 1742 he proposed the
The diagram in Figure 7.8 shows how these temperature scales Celsius temperature scale,
compare. We will use the Celsius and Kelvin scale in our with one key difference. He
calculations. set his lower fixed point
Temperature Scales (the freezing point of water)
Farenheit Celsius Kelvin as 100 °C and the boiling
point as 0 °C. This meant
Boiling using his scale the number
Point of 212°F 100°C 373.15 K got smaller as the substance
Water
got hotter! The scale was
Highest reversed the year after he
Temp. 134°F 56.7°C 330 K died.
ever recorded
in US

Freezing
Point of 32°F 0°C 273.15 K Think about this…
Water 0°F -18°C 255 K At absolute zero a substance
will have zero internal energy.
Moon at What does this tell you
-280°F -173°C 100 K
its coldest about the kinetic energies
Absolute -460°F -273°C 0K and potential energies of the
Zero
particles? Do you think it will
be possible to reach absolute
zero?

Figure 7.8 Comparing different temperature scales

Did you know?
A bouncing ball
The place that has the world’s
If a ball is bounced repeatedly, it gains heat energy and its highest average temperature
temperature increases. The photographs in Figure 7.9 show thermal is Dalol, Ethiopia, in the
images of a ball before and after the ball is bounced. The higher Danakil Depression. The
temperatures are shown progressively in red, orange, and yellow; average temperature is an
green and blue indicate lower temperatures almost unbelievable 35 °C,
Look at the temperature scales down the side of the photos – what or 308 K.
temperature scale do you think is being used and where has the heat
energy come from to increase the temperature of the ball?
Activity 7.1: Temperature
scales
How would you convert a
temperature recorded on
the Celsius scale into a
temperature on the Kelvin
scale (K) and vice versa?
Before bouncing After bouncing

Figure 7.9 Bouncing a ball will increase its temperature.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

heat What happens when a substance absorbs heat

energy?
As a substance absorbs heat energy, the particles vibrate more (in
Figure 7.10 As the particles
a solid) or move faster (in a liquid or gas) as the heat energy is
vibrate more they spread out and
converted into the kinetic energy of the particles as the temperature
so the substance expands.
rises. As the particles gain more energy, we can see that they move
further apart from each other, which means the substance will
expand (increase in size).
HEAT The diagram in Figure 7.10 shows how the particles in a solid move
ENERGY
A B further apart as the solid is heated.
The expansion of substances on heating is called thermal
Figure 7.11 A and B are in expansion. This happens in solids, liquids and gases. We will deal
thermal contact. A is hotter than with this in more detail in Section 7.3.
B; it has a higher temperature.
Thermal equilibrium
Heat energy flows from a hotter body to a colder body. Place
your hand near an oven and you can feel the heat energy flowing
into our hand. It feels hot! Place your hand inside a fridge and the
heat energy flows from you into the fridge, it feels cold. An ice
cube in boiling water will absorb heat energy from the hotter water,
but the same ice cube in deep space will radiate heat energy to its
surroundings.
When there is a movement of heat energy from a hotter object to
a colder object, we say that the two objects are in thermal contact.
Objects in thermal contact do not have to be in physical contact
but they could be touching each other. So, we would say that the ice
cube and the boiling water are in thermal contact with each other.
Imagine that we have two objects, A (at 90 °C) and B (at 50 °C). A
and B are in thermal contact. There will be a net flow of heat energy
will flow from A to B.
As heat energy is lost from A, the particles in A will slow down.
They have, on average, less kinetic energy and so the temperature of
A will decrease. The opposite happens at B. As B gains heat energy,
Think about this… the particles in B move faster, their average kinetic energy will
The concept of thermal increase and so the temperature of B rises.
equilibrium allows us to
measure temperature. This process of heat loss from A and heat gain by B will go on until
Imagine our object B A and B both reach the same temperature. At this point, thermal
is a thermometer; what equilibrium is reached (heat loss from A will equal heat gained by
temperature will the B so that there is no net movement of heat energy between the two
thermometer read when it bodies).
is at thermal equilibrium • If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, they will also be at
with object A? Will this the same temperature.
temperature be exactly
the same as the original The details of how two bodies in thermal contact obtain thermal
temperature of A? equilibrium are governed by the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics has more than one form but all are
really different ways of saying the same thing. It is essentially the law
of conservation of energy; that is, that energy cannot be created or
destroyed but can be transformed into other forms.
Imagine a gas that has a certain internal energy (the sum of the gas
particles’ kinetic and potential energy). The increase in internal
energy of the gas, ∆U, will be equal to the heat energy it has
gained, ∆Q, plus any work done on the gas, ∆W (for example if it is
compressed).
• ∆U = ∆Q + ∆W Figure 7.12 Heating or doing
• ∆U = change in internal energy in J work on a gas increases its
internal energy and so its
• ∆Q = heat energy added to system in J
temperature.
• ∆W= work done on system in J
Notice in this case ∆U is the internal energy of the gas. Even though Did you know?
it is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the particles in
There is also a zeroth
the gas it is essentially a potential (stored) energy in the gas, hence the
law of thermodynamics,
symbol U. All these terms are energies and so measured in joules.
which states that if object
We can see from the equation that if no work is done (∆W = 0), the A and B are individually in
heat energy we add to the object will equal the increase in internal thermal equilibrium with
energy. This means the temperature of the object will rise. In other another object C, objects A
words, energy has not been created or destroyed, just transformed and B are also in thermal
into other forms. equilibrium with each other.
We can also increase the internal energy by doing work on the This law has important
substance. Imagine the gas inside a pump. If we rapidly compress implications – it means that
the pump with our thumb over the end we are doing work on the if C is our thermometer,
gas inside it. In this case the work goes into increasing the internal it will indicate the same
energy of the gas. The gas gets hotter. temperature for both
objects A and B.
The equation may be used to calculate the change in internal energy, if
there is work being done and there is a flow of heat into a substance.
For example, consider a gas that is being heated and compressed.
KEY WORDS
There is a heat flow into the gas of 500 J and 200 J of work is done on expand to increase in size
the gas by compressing it. The change in internal energy is: thermal contact when there
∆U = ∆Q + ∆W S tate principle or equation to be used (First law of is a movement of heat energy
thermodynamics) between a hotter and a colder
object
∆U = 500 J + 200 J S ubstitute in known values and complete calculation
thermal expansion the
∆U = 700 J Clearly state the answer with unit
increase in size of a substance
However, what if the object is hotter than its surroundings? Imagine as a result of heating
a cup of tea. If you stir it really fast you might do 20 J of work on the thermal equilibrium
tea. At the same time there has been a flow of heat from the tea to the situation where there is no
surroundings of 100 J. What is the change in internal energy? net movement of heat energy
∆U = ∆Q + ∆W S tate principle or equation to be used (First law of between bodies
thermodynamics)
∆U = –100 J + 20 J S ubstitute in known values and complete calculation
∆U = –80 J Clearly state the answer with unit

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

In this case the tea has lost 100 J to the surrounds so ∆Q = –100
J. The overall change in internal energy is –80 J, so the tea’s
temperature will fall. Theoretically it is possible to stir it fast enough
to keep the tea at the same temperature. In which case ∆U = 0 J and
so ∆Q = –∆W, but you would have to stir it very fast!

Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics concerns the direction of heat
flow between two bodies. Usually, as we have seen when we looked
at thermal equilibrium, heat energy flows spontaneously from hotter
objects to colder objects. The second law of thermodynamics might
be expressed as:
Figure 7.13 Doing work on a cup • Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at
of tea as heat flows from the cup lower temperature to a material at higher temperature.
to the surroundings.
Heat energy will not flow from a colder object to a hotter one
HEAT
spontaneously unless work is done. Energy must be used to reverse
ENERGY the usual flow of heat energy. This principle is used in refrigerators,
A B freezers and air conditioning units. The contents of a fridge are
cooled by a liquid evaporating, but work has to be put in so as to
condense the gas for further use.
Figure 7.14 There is a net energy
flow from hotter to colder objects.
Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
HEAT
ENERGY In this section you have learnt that:
COLD HOT
• Heat is energy transferred from hotter regions to cooler
ones.
WORK • The temperature of a substance is an indication of the
average kinetic energy of the particles and the Celsius and
Figure 7.15 Energy will flow from Kelvin scales are both temperature scales.
colder to hotter objects if work is
done on the system. • On heating, the particles of a substance move faster and
move further apart so that a substance expands on heating.
• The first law of thermodynamics states that during heat
transfer processes, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The second law of thermodynamics states that heat energy
will flow from hot objects to colder objects and that if work
is put in, heat energy can be removed from a cold object.
• When bodies are in thermal contact, heat energy flows from
hot objects to cold objects until thermal equilibrium is
reached and the bodies are at the same temperature.

Review questions
1. What will be the key difference in the energy of the particles in
Figure 7.16 In a fridge heat iron at 250 K and 500 K?
flows from inside the fridge to its
2. Explain why a solid expands on heating.
surroundings even though it is at
a lower temperature.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

3. Describe what happens, in terms of the movement of heat

energy, when a hot object is in thermal contact with a cold
object. Explain how this process could be reversed.
4. Convert the following temperatures to the Kelvin scale:
a) –273.15 °C
b) 0.0 °C
c) 1000 °C.

7.2 Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Describe the thermal expansion of solids.
• Derive the expression for the linear and surface expansion
of solids.
• Find the relationship between the coefficient of linear, area
and volume expansion and solve related problems.
• Know applications of the thermal expansion of materials.
• Distinguish between apparent and real expansion of a
KEY WORDS
liquid. substance material or matter
• Solve problems involving the expansion of liquids using V =
VoγΔT.
• Explain the abnormal expansion of water.
• Compare the expansion of gases with the expansion of
solids and liquids.

The expansion of solids

We have already seen that when a solid is heated, its particles
move further apart and hence the solid expands (increases in
size). The ball and ring experiment shown in Figure 7.17 is a good
demonstration of the expansion of a solid.
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Figure 7.17 The hoop and ball experiment.

The cold metal ball easily passes through the ring. After heating, the
Figure 7.18 When Concorde flew
metal ball expands and it is no longer able to pass through the ring.
at over twice the speed of sound,
How much a solid expands on heating will depends on the it got so hot that it increased its
substance and how much its temperature increases. 61.6 m length by about 30 cm.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

lc
Linear expansion of solids
before heating
When a metal rod is heated it expands and increases in length. This
Δl
expansion is referred to as linear expansion. The diagram in Figure
lc
7.19 shows a metal rod, of length lc (measured in metres), before
lh and after heating.
after heating
The rod’s temperature has increased by ∆T. It increases in length
Figure 7.19 Linear expansion of a on heating; the increase in length, ∆l, is the difference between the
narrow metal rod. length before heating, lc, and the length after heating, lh. This could
be written as:
• ∆l = lh – lc
KEY WORDS
So, for an increase in temperature of ∆T, the fractional increase
coefficient of linear
in length = ∆l/lc. If a 50 cm rod expanded by 2 cm the fractional
expansion the increase
expansion would be:
in length of a 1 m rod of
given substance when its • fractional increase = ∆l/lc
temperature increases by 1 K • fractional increase = 2/50
linear expansion the increase • fractional increase = 1/25 or 0.04
in length of a substance due
to heating The fractional increase in length per unit of temperature (°C or K)
increase is given the symbol α. It is found by dividing the fractional
increase by the increase in temperature, ∆T.
• α = ∆l /lc /∆T
Which is the same as:
• α = ∆l/l ∆T
c

α is also known as the coefficient of linear expansion for the solid.

It represents the increase in the length of a 1 m rod of a given
substance when its temperature increases by 1 K. It is measured in
/K or K–1.
So, the increase in length of a heated rod, ∆l, can be found by
rearranging the above equation.
• ∆l = α lc ∆T
The values for the linear expansion coefficient of some solids are
shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 The linear expansion coefficients of some solids
Substance Linear expansion coefficient (×10–5 K–1)
aluminium 2.3
copper 1.7
brass 1.9
iron 1.1
concrete 1.2

This means that a 1 m iron rod will expand by 1.1 × 10–5 m for every
1 K rise in temperature. With these values, we can now calculate the
increase in length of a material.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Worked example Activity 7.2: Expansion

calculations
Calculate the increase in length of a 50 cm brass rod that is
heated from 25 °C to 70 °C. Calculate the increase in
length of a 27 cm brass rod
∆l = α lc ∆T Express Δl in terms of known factors that is heated from 10 °C
In this case lc = 0.50 m and ∆T = 70 °C – 25 °C = 45 °C to 100 °C. αbrass = 1.9 × 10–5
K–1.
∆l = 1.9 × 10–5 K–1 × 0.50 m × 45 °C Substitute in known values
and complete calculation Calculate the length of a
concrete section of a bridge
∆l = 4.3 × 10–4 m Clearly state the answer with unit at 45.00 °C, when it is
Calculate the length of an iron rail at 400 °C, when it is 25.000 m long at 18.00 °C.
exactly 100 m long at 200 °C. αconcrete = 2.2 × 10–5 K–1.
∆l = α lc ∆T Express Δl in terms of known factors
In this case lc = 100 m and ∆T = 400 °C – 200 °C = 200 °C
Think about this…
• ∆l = 1.1 × 10–5 K–1 × 100 m × 200 °C Substitute in known
values and complete calculation
Why do you think that it is
safe to build a bridge made
• ∆l = 0.22 m Clearly state the answer with unit out of concrete reinforced
Therefore, length of rail at 400 °C = 100 m + 0.22 m = 100.22 m with iron?
Ensure new length is calculated not just left as Δl

Surface (area) expansion of solids

In the examples we have looked at in linear expansion, the sample
has been long in comparison to its height and width, so that the
only significant expansion is in length. In practice, many objects
are not long and thin and we need to develop a strategy to deal
with these objects. We will start by looking at the expansion, in two
dimensions, of a metal plate.

Figure 7.20 It is very important

to consider the surrounding
temperature and temperature
before heating after heating
variations when laying train
surface area = Ac surface area = Ah tracks.

Figure 7.21 Two-dimensional expansion of an object

As the plate is heated to cause an increase in temperature, ∆T, it

expands in width and height such that the surface area when heated,
Ah, is larger than the original surface area, Ac. So:
• ∆A = A – A
h c

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

The fractional increase in surface area, β, per unit rise in

Activity 7.3: Surface area
temperature (°C or K) is given by:
expansion
• β = ∆A / Ac ∆T
Calculate the increase in
surface area of an iron drain • ∆A = β A ∆T
c
cover with a surface area of
0.75 m2 at 20 °C, when it is What is the relationship between α and β for a
heated to a temperature of given substance?
53 °C.
We will start by recalling what β, the surface expansion coefficient,
biron = 2.2 × 10–5 K–1 means and rewriting the expression:
• β = ∆A / Ac ∆T
before heating • β = A after
– Aheating
/ A ∆T
surface area = Ac = lc2 h areac = A c= l 2
surface h h

Therefore:
α lcΔT

• β A ∆T = A – A
c h c
l = l + α l ΔT
lc Making
lc Ah the subject of hthec equation:
c

• A = βA ∆T + A
h c c

which, after simplifying, gives:

lc lc α lcΔT
• A = A (1 + β∆T) – this expression will be of use later.
after heating h c
lh = lc + α lcΔT
surface area = Ah = lh2 We will now write another expression for Ah, in terms of α, the
α lcΔT linear expansion coefficient. If a square body of length lc is heated
such that its temperature increases by ∆T, each side increases in
lh = lc + α lcΔT length, ∆l, by αlc∆T (see the section on linear expansion).
c lc
Consequently, the surface area of the heated body, is give by Ah = lh2.

lh, the length of each side of the heated body is related to lc:
lc α lcΔT
• l = l + αl ∆T
h c c
lh = lc + α lcΔT
Consequently,
Figure 7.22 Relating linear • A = l 2 = (l + αl ∆T)2 = l 2(1 + α∆T)2 = l 2(1 + 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
h h c c c c
expansion to surface expansion
• A = l 2(1 + 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
h c

We can further simplify this last form of the expression:

• l 2 = A
c c
• Ah = Ac(1 + 2α∆T + α2∆T2)
As α is a very small number, α2∆T2 will be very small compared
to 2α∆T and so we will make an approximation and not include
this small term in the final expression. In other words, α2∆T2 is
approximately zero, so:
• Ah = Ac(1 + 2α∆T)
We can now compare this expression with the one we obtained
earlier in terms of β:
• Ah = Ac (1 + β∆T)
Now we can see that β∆T = 2α∆T and therefore β = 2α.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Remember, that this is an approximation but a very good one. We

do not find tables of β values for substances as they are obtained
from α values using β = 2α.

Volume expansion of solids

We now need to consider the expansion of a solid in three
dimensions, where the length, breadth and height of the substance
all increase on heating. before heating
As the block is heated to cause an increase in temperature, ∆T, it volume = Vc

expands in width, height and breadth such that the volume when
heated, Vh, is larger than the original volume, Vc.
So:
• ∆V = V – V
h c

The fractional increase in volume, γ, per unit rise temperature (°C

or K) is given by:
• γ = ∆V / Vc∆T
• ∆V = γV ∆T before heating after heating
c
volume = Vc volume = Vh
What is the relationship between α and γ for a given substance?
We will start by recalling what γ, the volume expansion coefficient, Figure 7.23 Three-dimensional
means and rewriting the expression: expansion of an object
• γ = ∆V / Vc ∆T
Therefore: Activity 7.4: Volume
• γ = V – V / V ∆T expansion
h c c

Making Vh the subject of the equation: Calculate the increase in

• V = γV ∆T + V the volume of an aluminium
h c c block with a volume of
which, after simplifying, gives: 0.008 m3 at 25.00 °C, when
• V = V (1 + γ∆T) – this expression will be of use later. it is heated to a temperature
h c
of 90 .00 °C. γaluminium = 6.9 ×
We will now write another expression for Vh, in terms of α, the 10–5 K–1.
linear expansion coefficient. If a cube, of length lc, is heated such
that its temperature increases by ∆T, each side increases in length,
∆l, by αlc∆T (see the section on linear expansion).
before heating after heating
volume = Vh = lh3 volume = Vh = lh3 = (lc + α lcΔT)3
lh = lc + α lcΔT

α lcΔT

lc
lc α lcΔT
lc lc lh = lc + α lcΔT
lc lc α lcΔT
Figure 7.24 Relating linear expansion
lh = lc + α lcΔT to volume expansion

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Consequently, the volume of the heated body, is give by Vh = lh3

lh, the length of each side of the heated body is related to lc:
• l = l + αl ∆T
h c c

Consequently,
• V = l 3 = (l + αl ∆T)3 = l 3(1 + α∆T)3 = l 3(1 + 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2 +
h h c c c c
α3∆T3)
• V = l 3(1 + 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2 + α3∆T3)
h c

We can further simplify this last form of the expression:

• l 3 = V
c c
• Vh = Vc(1 + 3α∆T + 3α2∆T2 + α3∆T3)
As α is a very small number, α2∆T2 and α3∆T3 will be very small
compared to 3α∆T, and so we will make an approximation and not
include these small terms in the final expression. In other words,
α2∆T2 and α3∆T3 are approximately zero, so:
• V = V (1 + 3α∆T)
h c

We can now compare this expression with the one we obtained

earlier in terms of γ:
• Vh = Vc (1 + γ∆T)
Now we can see that γ∆T = 3α∆T and therefore γ = 3α.
Remember, that this is also approximation. Once again we do not
find tables of γ values for substances as they are obtained from α
values using γ = 3α.

1D, 2D and 3D expansion summary

lc

Linear expansion Area expansion Volume expansion

Δl ΔA ΔV
= αΔT = 2αΔT = 3αΔT
lc Ac Vc

Figure 7.25 1D, 2D and 3D expansion summary in terms of α

It often helps to consider α as one-dimensional (1D), β as 2D (so
2α) and γ as 3D (so 3α).

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Problems and applications of thermal expansion

Think about this…
The thermal expansion of objects can be a problem. Engineers have How could you tell that the
to allow for the expansion of concrete and iron on a hot day when photo of the expansion joint
building a bridge by constructing an expansion gap to allow for the on a bridge was taken on a
expanding materials. Railway tracks also have expansion gaps and cold day?
sections of pipelines in hot countries are linked by flexible pipe,
which can accommodate the expanding pipe.
KEY WORDS
bimetallic strip a strip
made of two different metals
bonded together along their
length

An open expansion Railway line

joint on a bridge
Figure 7.26 Engineers must consider thermal expansion in a range of
contexts.

We can also take advantage of the expansion of materials and put

them to good effect. In hot riveting, a hot steel rivet is used to join
two metal sheets. Whilst still hot, the rivet is hammered to give
a tight joint. As the rivet cools it contracts and makes the joint
between the two metal sheets even tighter.

hot rivet - expanded

cold rivet - contracted

metal sheets

Figure 7.27 Hot riveting uses the contraction of metals to make

tighter connections.

The bimetallic strip

A bimetallic strip is made out of two metals, for example iron and
brass bonded together. The coefficient of linear expansion (α) of Figure 7.28 The Eiffel Tower in
iron (1.1 × 10–5 K–1) is less than that of brass (1.9 × 10–5 K–1). When Paris and the Sydney Harbour
the strip is heated, the brass expands more than the iron and the Bridge were constructed using hot
strip bends. riveting.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

The bimetallic strip is used in a thermostat. This is a switch for an

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electric circuit that turns on and off according to the temperature.
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Invar
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contacts move apart
Figure 7.29 The bimetallic strip when bar is too hot
contacts

KEY WORDS Figure 7.30 A bimetallic strip used as part of a thermostat

real expansion the actual When the temperature rises, the brass section of strip expands faster
increase in size of a substance than the iron and the strip bends so as to break the contact. As the
temperature drops, the strip contracts, the contacts close and the
apparent expansion the
circuit is restored. We can use this arrangement to switch on and off
observed increase in size of
heating circuits in buildings and cookers, for example – when the
a substance, which may be
desired temperature is reached, heating stops and it will not start
affected by the expansion of
again until the temperature has dropped.
its container
Liquid in glass thermometers
Mercury in glass and alcohol in glass thermometers use the
expansion of a liquid up a narrow glass tube. The higher the
temperature, the more the mercury or alcohol expands and the
further the liquids move up the capillary tube. As we have already
seen, the Celsius scale uses two fixed points. We can calibrate a
thermometer for the Celsius scale using the following method.
a) Place the bulb of an ungraduated thermometer in crushed ice –
mark the level of the liquid (alcohol or mercury) when it stops
moving. This is the first fixed point.
b) Place the bulb of the ungraduated thermometer in steam from
boiling water. Mark the level of the liquid (alcohol or mercury)
when it stops moving. This is the second fixed point.
c) Divide the distance between the two fixed points into 100 equal
divisions – the first fixed point is at 0 °C and the second 100 °C.
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Did you know? �����������������

�����������
The word thermometer �������������
comes from the Greek ������
“thermo”, which means ����� �����
�������������
warm, and “meter”, to �����

measure.
Figure 7.31 Calibrating a thermometer

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Expansion of liquids
Liquids require a container and consequently it only really makes
sense to discuss the volume expansion of a liquid. Liquids will tend
to expand more than solids for a given increase in temperature but
volume expansion coefficients can also apply to liquids.
• ∆V = γVc∆T
∆V = change in volume.
∆T = change in temperature.
Vc = starting volume.
γ = volume expansion coefficient.
The expansion of liquids is made more complex, however, by the
need for a container. On warming, the container itself will also
expand. If you ask most people to predict what they will see when
the apparatus below is heated, they will suggest that the water level
will rise up the narrow glass tube as it expands.
The water level will indeed rise up the glass tube, but not before it
first drops slightly! As the flask is heated, the glass it is made from Figure 7.32 A thermometer is
expands and so the water level drops until the water itself warms a simple yet very useful piece of
up and expands. The expansion of a vessel holding a liquid means equipment.
the actual or real expansion of the liquid is not actually observed.
Instead, only an apparent expansion of the liquid is observed.
Consequently, the extent to which we see the liquid expand (the
apparent expansion) is less than its actual expansion (real expansion). Activity 7.5: Expansion
It is possible to allow for the expansion of the vessel in calculations: of a liquid
• γreal = γapparent + γvessel Calculate the increase in
so: the volume of 0.0025 m3 of
• γapparent = γreal – γvessel mercury at 5.00 °C, when it
is heated to a temperature
We will use this relationship to calculate the real and apparent of 55 .00 °C. γmercury = 1.8 ×
expansion of 1000 cm3 of water when it is warmed from 20 °C to 10–4 K–1.
80 °C.
γglass = 9.90 × 10–6 K–1 .γwater = 2.07 × 10–4 K–1. ∆T = 80 °C – 20 °C = 60 °C.
• real expansion = ∆V narrow glass tube
real

∆Vreal = γrealVc∆T State relationship to be used

∆Vreal = 2.07 × 10–4 × 0.001 m3 × 60 °C S ubstitute in known values and
complete calculation
∆Vreal = 1.24 × 10–5 m3 Clearly state the answer with unit water

• apparent expansion = ∆Vapparent

γapparent = γreal – γvessel State relationship to be used
γapparent = 2.07 × 10–4 K–1 – 9.90 × 10–6 K–1 = 1.97 × 10–4 K–1 Substitute
in known values and complete calculation
So:
∆Vapparent = γapparentVc∆T State relationship to be used Figure 7.33 What will happen to
the liquid if this object is heated?

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

∆Vapparent = 1.97 × 10–4 K–1 × 0.001 m3 × 60 °C Substitute in known

values and complete calculation
∆Vapparent = 1.18 × 10–5 m3 Clearly state the answer with unit
This calculation demonstrates that the real expansion of a liquid is
greater than the apparent expansion.

Expansion of solids, liquids and gases

For a given change in temperature, ∆T, liquids will tend to expand
significantly more than solids. This difference is clear when we
compare values of coefficients of volume expansion for solids and
liquids. We can see that γliquid > γsolid.
Table 7.2 Volume expansion coefficient of solids and liquids
Substance Volume Substance Volume expansion
(solid) expansion (liquid) coefficient (γ)
coefficient (γ) (×10–5 K–1)
(×10–5 K–1)
aluminium 6.9 petrol 95.0
copper 5.1 ethanol 75.0
brass 5.7 water 21.0
iron 3.3 mercury 18.0

You will notice that there are no volume expansion coefficients for
gases. This is because the volume of a gas is dictated by a number
of factors. The temperature is certainly one of these, but we also
have to consider the pressure and the amount (number of moles)
of gas present. The relationship between the volume of a gas and its
temperature can be shown using the ideal gas equation:
• pV = nRT
p = pressure of gas in Pa
V = volume of gas in m3
n = number of moles of gas in mol
R = universal gas constant (8.314 J/K/mol)
T = absolute temperature in K
You will notice that there is no constant in the equation relating
to the nature of the gas. The equation applies to all “ideal gases”
and is a good approximation for most gases. If the pressure and
the amount of gas are constant, we notice that the volume is
proportional to the absolute temperature:
• V ∝ T
So, if the absolute temperature of a given quantity of gas is doubled
at constant pressure, the volume doubles!
Gases will consequently tend to expand more for a given
temperature rise than liquids, which in turn expand more than
solids.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

The unusual behaviour of water Density of Water vs.

Temperature

In most cases when a liquid is frozen, the solid formed will have a 1000.0
lower volume than the initial liquid. We can explain this in terms of
kinetic theory.

Density of Water
999.9

(kg/m3)
In a solid, the particles are closer together than they are in a liquid. 999.8

Hence, for a given mass of substance, the solid usually has a lower
999.7
volume and a higher density than its liquid state. Water though
is an exception. The graph in Figure 7.34 shows that water has a 999.6
maximum density at just under 4 °C. 0 2 4 6 8 10
Temperature
Let’s look at this graph in a little more detail. As the water cools (°C)
below 10 °C, the water behaves as expected at first. It increases in Figure 7.34 How the density of
density as its particles lose energy and move closer together. Then, water changes with temperature.
at just below 4 °C, the density starts to decrease. A drop in density
can only mean that the water molecules are further apart in water at
2 °C than they are at 8 °C. Why is this?

To understand this unusual observation, we need to know more

hydrogen bond
about the forces acting between water molecules. Water has the
chemical formula H2O; it is composed of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom. Liquid water has a very high boiling point for H δ+ H δ+
its molecular size because strong intermolecular forces (hydrogen
bonds) form between the oxygen atom in one molecule and a O H O
δ+ δ−
hydrogen atom in another. To boil water, these strong hydrogen δ−
bonds have to be broken. H
δ+
Normally in liquid water, each water molecule forms one hydrogen
bond to another water molecule. As the temperature of water drops Figure 7.35 A hydrogen bond
towards 4 °C though, the molecules are closer together and each between water molecules
molecule begins to form a second hydrogen bond with another
water molecule. In order for this second hydrogen bond to form,
the molecules now need to be in very exact relative positions and
the molecules end up moving further apart to allow this second
bond to form. This gives water below 4 °C and ice a more open
molecular structure than warmer water.
Strong stable hydrogen bonds
Loose hydrogen bonds between between H2O molecules at 0 °C,
continuously moving H2O molecules forming a rigid hexagonal crystal
at 10 °C lattice structure

H2O molecule

Figure 7.36 The molecules are

Large gaps between
molecules held rigidly
further apart in frozen water
apart Lot of open space than in water at 4 °C.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

So, with a more open structure, ice and cold water below 4 °C have a
lower density and a higher volume than warmer water. This explains
why ice will float on water. The expansion of water on freezing can
cause other problems though. When it gets cold, water in pipes can
freeze, expand and then break the pipe!

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• The thermal expansion of solids can be explained in terms
of the increasing distance between particles that occurs on
warming.
• The expression for the linear expansion of solids is ∆l =
αlc∆T – we can use this to find by how much the length of a
sample expands.
• The expression for the surface area expansion of solids is ∆A
= βAc∆T – we can use this to find by how much the surface
area of a sample expands.
• The expression for the volume expansion of solids is ∆V =
γVc∆T – we can use this to find by how much the volume of a
sample expands.
• The relationship between the coefficient of linear (α), area
(β) and volume (γ) expansion is as follows: β = 2α, γ = 3α.
• The applications of thermal expansion include the bimetallic
strip in thermostats, hot riveting and thermometers.
• The real expansion of a liquid is less than the apparent
expansion as the vessel holding the liquid also expands.
• The abnormal expansion of water can be explained in terms
of its more open molecular structure below 4 °C.
• Gases expand more than both solids and liquids for a given
rise in temperature.

Review questions
1. Explain why solids expand on heating.
2. Calculate the increase in length of a 2 m brass rod that is heated
from 0 °C to 150 °C. αbrass = 1.9 × 10–5 K–1.
3. Calculate the surface area of an iron drain cover with a surface
area of 0.67 m2 at 10 °C, when it is heated to a temperature of
105 °C. βiron = 2.2 × 10–5 K–1.
4. Show that, for a given material, the surface expansion coefficient
(β) is about twice the linear expansion coefficient (α).
5. Calculate the increase in the volume of a 0.1 m3 sample of water
at 10.00 °C, when it is heated to a temperature of 80.00 °C. γwater
= 2.1 × 10–4 K–1.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

6. Explain what is meant by the apparent thermal expansion

of a liquid and compare its magnitude with the real thermal
expansion of the same liquid under the same conditions.
7. Explain why water expands on freezing.

7.3 Quantity of heat, specific heat capacity and

heat capacity

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Identify different units of heat energy.
• Define the terms specific heat capacity and heat capacity.
• Describe the factors that affect the amount of heat
absorbed or liberated by a body.
• Calculate the amount of heat energy absorbed or liberated
by a body using Q = mc∆T.
• Calculate the heat capacity of a body.
• Describe the uses of a calorimeter.
• Explain the significance of the high specific heat capacity
of water.
• Use the relationship heat lost = heat gained to solve
problems involving heat exchange.

What are the units of energy? Did you know?

As discussed in Unit 4, the scientific unit of energy is the joule (J). The British Thermal
You may see another unit of energy called the calorie (cal). Unit is still used in some
One calorie is the quantity of heat energy required to increase the applications today. It is the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C. The amount of energy in joules quantity of energy needed
required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C is 4.18 J to raise the temperature of 1
and so: lb of water by 1 °F, which is
about 1060 J.
• 1 cal = 4.2 J
The calorie is less frequently used now but you will see later that its
definition is connected to the work we do later in this section.

What is meant by the term specific heat capacity?

If we were heating a substance to raise its temperature, the amount
of heat energy required would depend on three things:
1. The substance being heated. A given mass of aluminium will
require more energy to raise its temperature by 1 K than the
same mass of wood.
2. The mass of the substance. The greater the mass of the substance,
the more heat energy will be required to raise its temperature.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

3. The temperature rise required. For a given mass of a

Worked example
particular substance, a large temperature increase will
Calculate the quantity of heat energy require a larger amount of heat energy than a small
required to heat a 1.00 kg block increase in temperature.
of iron from 290 K to 320 K. The Each substance has a specific heat capacity (c), which is
specific heat capacity of iron is 470 defined as:
J/kg K. • The heat energy required to raise the temperature of
Q = mc∆T State principle or equation 1 kg of a given substance by 1 K.
to be used (from definition of specific
The units of specific heat capacity are J/kg K and Table
heat capacity)
7.3 shows the specific heat capacities of some materials.
In this case, m = 1.00 kg, c = 470 J/ We can see that metals tend to have lower specific heat
kg K, ∆T = (320 K – 290 K) = 30 K capacities than non-metals and that water has a notably
Q = 1.00 kg × 470 J/kg K × 30 K high value.
Substitute in known values and Table 7.3 Some different specific heat capacities
complete calculation
Q = 14 100 J = 14.1 kJ Clearly state Substance Specific heat capacity (J/kg K)
the answer with unit iron 470
So, 14.1 kJ of heat energy would be copper 420
required to increase the temperature brass 380
of a 1.00 kg iron block by 30 K.
aluminium 910
Equally, if the 1.00 kg iron block
cooled by 30 K, the iron block would water 4200
have to lose 14.1 kJ of heat energy rubber 1700
to the surroundings.
glass 670

From the definition of specific heat capacity, the quantity

Worked example
heat energy required (Q) to increase the temperature of a
Calculate the quantity of heat energy substance is found using the equation below:
lost from a 580 g sample of water • c = Q / m∆T
if it cools from 333 K to 278 K. The
This is usually written as:
specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J/kg K. • Q = mc∆T
Q = mc∆T State principle or equation m = mass of substance (kg)
to be used (from definition of specific c = specific capacity of substance (J/kg K)
heat capacity)
∆T = change in temperature (K). Remember, a change
In this case, m = 0.58 kg, c = 4200 J/ in temperature of 1 °C is the same as a change in
kg K, ∆T = (333 K – 278 K) = 55 K temperature of 1 K. So, in this case °C or K may be used.
Q = 0.58 kg × 4200 J/kg K × 55 K
Substitute in known values and Activity 7.6: Specific heat calculations
complete calculation
Calculate the specific heat capacity of a 2.0 kg
Q = 13 398 J = 134 kJ Clearly state block of a solid that requires 63 700 J to raise its
the answer with unit temperature by 35 K.
So, as the 580 g sample of water A solid has a specific heat capacity of 800 J/kg K.
cools from 333 K to 290 K, it would How much heat energy would be released a 250 g
lose 134 kJ of heat energy to its sample of this solid if its temperature falls from
surroundings. 310 K to 260 K?

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

How can we find the specific heat capacity of a Worked example

substance?
A 300 g block of brass at
There are several methods we can use to determine the specific heat
298 K is supplied with
capacity of a substance, but remember that to calculate this value we
1026 J of energy from an
will always need to know the mass of the substance, the amount of
electrical heater. Calculate
heat energy supplied to it as well as its starting temperature and
the final temperature of
final temperature. All of these slightly different approaches involve
the brass block after this
heat exchange. The heat from a hot body is used to warm a colder
heating, assuming that there
body. In approaching these heat exchange calculations we use the
has been no heat loss. The
principle that the heat energy lost from the hot body will equal the
specific heat capacity of
heat gained by the cold body.
brass = 380 J/kg K.
• Heat energy lost by hotter body = heat energy gained by colder
Q = mc∆T State principle or
body
equation to be used (from
Sometimes, we try to prevent heat loss to the surroundings using definition of specific heat
insulation. The experimental approach of measuring heat capacities capacity)
and the heat changes during chemical and physical processes is
∆T = Q / mc Rearrange
called calorimetry.
equation to make ΔT the
subject
Electrical heating
In this case, m = 0.30 kg,
This method can be used to find the specific heat capacity of a solid
c = 380 J/kg K, Q = 1026 J.
or a liquid. The diagram in Figure 7.37 shows the apparatus used to
find the specific heat capacity of a solid. In this case, the hot body ∆T = 1026 J /(0.30 kg × 380
losing the heat energy is the electrical heater. J/kg K) Substitute in
known values and complete
calculation
thermometer
• ∆T = 9 K Clearly state the
+−
electrical heater of answer with unit
known power
So, we have found that
∆T = 9 K. As the brass
Figure 7.37 Finding the block has been heated, the
insulation
specific heat capacity of temperature would have
solid sample of
known mass
a known mass increased and so the final
temperature = 298 K + 9 K =
If we know the power rating of the heater and we know how long 307 K or 34 °C. Ensure the
the heater is switched on for we can determine the quantity of heat final temperature is
energy supplied to the block. For example, a 100 W electrical heater calculated, not just ΔT
supplies 100 J of heat energy every second.
We will use the following experimental data to calculate the specific
heat capacity of aluminium using this apparatus.
A 100 W electrical heater, running for 5 minutes, warmed a 0.50 kg Did you know?
block. The start temperature of the aluminium block was 20 °C and
Even on his honeymoon in
its final temperature was 85 °C.
the Swiss Alps, James Joule
Energy supplied = power × time S tate principle or equation to be used did not stop work. He tried
(from the definition of power) to show that when water
E = P × t Express in the standard symbols falls through 778 feet, its
temperature rises by 1 °F but
E = 100 W × (5 minutes × 60) = 100 W × 300 s Substitute in known all the spray got in the way!
values and complete calculation

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

E = 30 000 J Clearly state the answer with unit

KEY WORDS
Assuming all this energy goes into heating the block
calorimetry the experimental
approach to measuring heat Q = 30 000 J
capacities and heat changes Q = mc∆T S tate principle or equation to be used (from definition of
during chemical and physical specific heat capacity)
processes
final temperature the c = Q / m∆T Rearrange equation to make c the subject
temperature of a substance In this case, m = 0.50 kg, ∆T = (85 °C – 20 °C = 65 °C) = 65 K, Q =
after heating 30 000 J.
insulation material which c = 30 000 J /(0.50 kg × 65 K) S ubstitute in known values and complete
does not conduct heat energy calculation
and hence can prevent heat
loss c = 923 J/kg K Clearly state the answer with unit
starting temperature the We have ignored any heat energy supplied to the thermometer and
temperature of a substance any heat lost to the surroundings, and assumed that the electrical
before heating heater is 100% efficient in this calculation.
Electrical heating can also be used to determine the specific heat
Thermometer capacity of a liquid. An insulated container could be used for the
liquid and the data obtained will be the same as for the example
above. Alternatively, a calorimeter could be used to hold the liquid.
A calorimeter is a polished metal can. In this case, the liquid is
Stirrer
continuously stirred and we will take into account the heat energy
supplied to the calorimeter as well as that supplied to the liquid. The
diagram in Figure 7.38 shows the use of a calorimeter to determine
Heater the specific heat capacity of water.
We will use some experimental data from this method to calculate
the specific heat capacity of water. The important factor to
Water
remember here is that some of the heat energy supplied by the
Insulated
base heater will warm the calorimeter and stirrer as well as the water.
Calorimeter
The electrical heater has a power rating of 200 W. It caused the
Figure 7.38 Determining the water to increase in temperature from 25 °C to 74 °C after running
specific heat capacity of a liquid for 5 minutes.
Mass of water = 200 g
Mass of aluminium calorimeter and stirrer = 400 g
Specific heat capacity of aluminium = 910 J/kg K
Heat energy supplied = heat energy + heat energy received
by heater (Qh) received by by aluminium
water (Qw) calorimeter (Qc)
The water and the stirrer will be in thermal equilibrium and so the
temperature change for both will be the same (i.e. ∆T = 74 °C – 25
°C = 49 °C = 49 K).
Heat supplied by heater (Qh):
Did you know?
E = P × t S tate principle or equation to be used (from the definition of
“calorimeter” comes from power)
the Latin calor, which
E = 200 W × (5 minutes × 60) = 200 W × 300 s Substitute in known
means heat.
values and complete calculation

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

E = 60 000 J Clearly state the answer with unit

Activity 7.7: Specific
Qh = 60 000 J heat capacity calculation
Heat energy received by calorimeter and stirrer (Qc): A copper calorimeter
Qc = mc∆T S tate principle or equation to be used (from definition of and stirrer of mass 350 g
specific heat capacity) contains 250 g of a liquid.
A 500 W heater running for
Qc = 0.40 kg × 910 J/kg K × 49 K S ubstitute in known values and 2 minutes and 30 seconds
complete calculation heated this combination of
Qc = 17 836 J Clearly state the answer with unit liquid and calorimeter from
20 °C to 88 °C. Calculate
Heat energy received by water (Qw):
the specific heat capacity
Qh = Qw + Qc Express the relationships between the energies. of this liquid given that the
60 000 J = Qw + 17 836 J Substitute in known values specific heat capacity of
copper is 420 J/kg K.
Qw = 60 000 J – 17 836 J R
 earrange to make Qw the subject complete
calculation
Qw = 42164 J Clearly state the answer with unit
Specific heat capacity of water:
Qw = mc∆T S tate principle or equation to be used (from definition of
specific heat capacity)
c = Qw / m∆T Rearrange equation to make c the subject
In this case, m = 0.20 kg, ∆T = 49 °C, Qw = 42 164 J.
c = 42 164 J/(0.20 kg × 49 °C) S ubstitute in known values and
complete calculation
c = 4302 J/kg K Clearly state the answer with unit
Once again, this is an experimental value – one major source of
error will be heat loss to the surroundings, despite the precautions
taken.

Method of mixtures
This method can be adapted to measure the specific heat capacity of
a solid or liquid.
The diagram in Figure 7.39 on the next page shows the method
used to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid. The solid,
of known mass, ms, is heated in a water bath at 100 °C for at least 5
minutes. The solid is then quickly transferred to the cold water of
known mass, mw, in the calorimeter.
We know that the start temperature of the solid object is
100 °C. Once in the calorimeter, the hot object (in this case a steel
bolt) loses some heat energy to the colder water, and the colder
calorimeter and stirrer. We stir the water and record the highest
temperature on the thermometer.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

cotton thermometer
thread
stirrer
cover
cotton
thread
beaker

water outer
jacket
steel
bolt
calorimeter lagging
material
tripod
stand

HEAT steel
bolt

Figure 7.39 Determining the specific heat capacity of a bolt using the
method of mixtures
In this case, the heat lost by the hot bolt will be equal to the heat
gained by the water and the calorimeter/stirrer.
Mass of water = 200 g.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Mass of copper calorimeter and copper stirrer = 100 g.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 420 J/kg K.
Start temperature of water + calorimeter = 20 °C.
Highest temperature of water after addition of the steel bolt = 25 °C.
Mass of steel bolt = 125 g.
Temperature of steel bolt before cooling = 100 °C.
Heat lost by bolt = heat received by water + heat received by
calorimeter/stirrer
Qb Qw Qc
Heat received by water Qw:
• Q = mc∆T
w

m = 0.200 kg
c = 4200 J/kg K
∆T = 25 °C – 20 °C = 5 °C = 5 K
• Q = 4200 J
w

Heat received by calorimeter/stirrer Qc:

• Q = mc∆T
c

m = 0.100 kg
c = 420 J/kg K
∆T = 25 °C – 20 °C = 5 °C = 5 K
• Q = 210 J
c

Heat lost by bolt Qb:

• Q = Q + Q
b w c
• Qb = 4200 J + 210 J = 4410 J

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Specific heat capacity of steel bolt cb:

At the end of the experiment, the bolt, water and the calorimeter
and stirrer will be in thermal equilibrium and all be at the same
temperature = 25 °C
∆T = start temperature of bolt – final temperature of bolt = 100 °C
– 25 °C = 75 °C = 75 K.
• Qb = m × cb × ∆T
• c = Q / m∆T
b b
• c = 4410 J / (0.125 kg × 75 K)
b
• c = 470 J/kg K
b

This method can be adapted to find the specific heat capacity of a

liquid by adding a hot solid of known specific heat capacity to the
liquid sample or even by pouring a hot liquid into a cooler one.

What is the heat capacity of a body? KEY WORDS

We have seen lots of examples of specific heat capacity. The word heat capacity the energy
specific here tells us that this is the heat energy required to increase required to raise the
the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K. In other words, this is temperature of a body by 1 K
specific to 1 kg of the substance.
The heat capacity of a body is the defined as the energy required to
raise the temperature of the given body by 1 K; the mass of the body
is not considered, only the energy required to raise its temperature
by 1 K.
• heat capacity = Q / ∆T
Let us look again at the calculation to determine the specific heat
capacity of the steel bolt.
The experimental data shows us that the steel bolt lost 4410 J and
its temperature fell by 75 K, or, to increase its temperature by 75 K,
4410 J of heat energy would be required.
So, if 4410 J of energy causes a 75 K rise, the heat capacity would be:
• heat capacity = Q / ∆T
• heat capacity = 4410 J / 75 K
• heat capacity = 58.8 J/K.
Note that the units do not include a mass term.
The specific heat capacity of steel is 470 J/kg K and if the heat
capacity of a body is known, the specific heat capacity of the
material of which it is made can be found provided the mass of the
body is known.
• Specific heat capacity = heat capacity of body / mass of body
Let’s try this with the steel bolt used in the last specific heat capacity
experiment.
So, for the steel bolt of mass 0.125 kg:

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

• specific heat capacity = heat capacity of body / mass of body

Activity 7.8: Heat
capacity of a ball • specific heat capacity = 58.8 J/K / 0.125 kg
A plastic ball experiences • specific heat capacity = 470 J/kg K
a temperature rise of 10 K We will now try another example:
when 600 J of heat energy
are supplied to it. Calculate A solid block requires 3000 J of heat energy to increase its
the heat capacity of the temperature by 60 K. Calculate the block’s heat capacity and use this
ball. What else would you value to calculate its specific heat capacity if the block has a mass of
need to know in order to 50 g.
calculate the specific heat • heat capacity = Q / ∆T
capacity of the ball? • heat capacity = 3000 J / 60 K
• heat capacity = 50 J/K
• specific heat capacity = heat capacity of body / mass of body
• specific heat capacity = 50 J/K / 0.05 kg
• specific heat capacity = 1000 J/kg K

Why is the high specific heat capacity of water so

important?
If you look back at the table of specific heat capacities of different
substances, you will see that water has an especially high value. We
should think about this further and see if it is important.
If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it means that a
large amount of heat energy is required to bring about a rise
in temperature of 1 kg water by 1K. This is important when we
remember that water is widely used in industry and in internal
combustion engines for cooling.
If a liquid with a low specific heat capacity was used for cooling
purposes, a given mass of this liquid would receive very little heat
energy before its temperature increased to its boiling point, at which
stage it would no longer act as a coolant.
So, the fact that a given mass of water will receive a large amount of
heat energy compared to other liquids before it boils makes it very
useful for cooling.
The reverse is also true. A large mass of hot water contains a very
Figure 7.40 Water’s high specific large amount of energy. This can then be pumped around the house
heat capacity makes it useful for and as the water cools is transfers this heat energy to rooms inside
cooling systems. the house.

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat
energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a given
substance by 1 K.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

• The heat capacity of a body is the heat energy required to

raise the temperature of the body by 1 K.
• The factors that affect the amount of heat absorbed or
liberated by a body are the temperature change, the mass of
the body and the material making up the body.
• The amount of heat energy absorbed or liberated by a body
can be calculated using Q = mc∆T.
• The high specific heat capacity of water is significant as
water is used for cooling.
• A calorimeter is used in specific heat capacity and heat
capacity experiments.

Review questions
1. Define the term “specific heat capacity of water”.
2. A metal bar of mass 100 g is warmed from 20 °C to 80 °C. How
much heat is absorbed by the metal bar if the specific heat
capacity of this metal is 450 J/kg K.
3. In an experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of a
metal, the following results were obtained:
Mass of metal = 300 g.
Start temperature = 20 °C.
End temperature = 75 °C.
Power rating of electrical heater = 100 W.
Time of heating = 150 s.
Use this data to calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.
4. A hot metal block is placed into 50 g of water in an insulated
container. The water increases in temperature from 20 °C to
32 °C. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg K.
Calculate the quantity of heat energy supplied to the water from
the metal block.

7.4 Changes of state

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the terms latent heat, latent heat of fusion and
latent heat of vaporisation.
• Solve problems involving change of state.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Heating and cooling curves

If we heat a solid, its particles gain energy and begin to vibrate faster
and move further apart as its temperature increases. This continues
until the solid melts. Even though the solid is continuously heated
as it melts, its temperature will not increase until the entire solid has
melted.
If the heat energy the substance gains is not used to increase the
average kinetic energy of its particles (the temperature does not
change) what is it being used for? We can see that the same effect
occurs when a liquid boils. As the liquid is being heated at its
boiling point, the temperature does not increase until all of the
liquid has boiled.
The graph in Figure 7.42 shows how the temperature of a solid (A)
varies with time as it is heated until melts (B) and finally forms a
liquid (C). This is called a heating curve. The liquid is heated until
it boils (D) until all of the liquid changes state into a gas (E), which
Figure 7.41 No matter how long continues to increase in temperature as it is heated.
you heat it the temperature of
boiling water will not go over
100 °C. E gas

boiling point D
Did you know? liquid to gas

The term phase is Temperature/K C liquid

sometimes used instead
of state – i.e. at room solid to liquid
melting point B
temperature and pressure A solid
water is in a liquid phase.
Time

Figure 7.42 This graph shows how the temperature of water changes
KEY WORDS
as it is continuously heated.
cooling curve a graph
We cannot link the heat energy being absorbed during melting
showing the temperature of a
and boiling with an increase in temperature and so the heat energy
substance against time as it
appears to be hidden or latent.
loses heat energy and changes
state If latent heat is not being used to increase the kinetic energy of the
heating curve a graph particles of a substance, what is it being used for? During a change
showing the temperature of in state, the forces of attraction holding the particles together have
a substance against time as to be broken. This process requires energy and so, as a solid melts
heat energy is applied and it or a liquid boils, the heat supplied is used to separate the particles
changes state rather than to increase their kinetic energy. Consequently, the
temperature of the substance does not change during a change in
melted when a substance
state. This is true for melting, boiling as well as condensing and
has changed from a solid to a
freezing.
liquid state
phase the distinct form of A similar shape is seen when the cooling curve of a substance
a substance under different is examined (Figure 7.43). When changes of state occur, the
conditions e.g. solid, liquid, temperature remains constant as only potential energy is being lost
gas as forces of attraction act between the particles again.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Table 7.4 Some specific latent heats of fusion and vaporisation

Worked example
Substance Specific latent Specific latent
1. Calculate the heat energy required heat of fusion, heat of vaporisation,
to melt 1 kg of copper at its Lf (J/kg) Lv (J/kg)
melting point.
aluminium 390 000 10 900 000
Heat change absorbed on melting:
copper 209 000 4 730 000
Q = m × Lf State principle or
equation to be used (from gold 63 700 1 645 000
definition of specific latent heat) iron 245 000 6 080 000
Q = 1 kg × 209 000 J/kg water 334 000 2 500 000
Substitute in known values and
complete calculation Looking carefully at Table 7.4 we can see that the specific
latent heat of vaporisation is always much higher than the
Q = 209 000 J = 209 kJ specific latent heat of fusion. This means it takes a great
Clearly state the answer with unit deal more energy to turn a liquid to a gas than it does to
2. Calculate the mass of water that turn a solid into a liquid. This is because when a substance
changes state if the water is at changes from a liquid to a gas the bonds between all the
its boiling point and 500 kJ of molecules have to be broken apart, whereas the particles in
energy is supplied. a liquid remain bonded together.
Q = m × Lv State principle or The melting point of aluminium is 660 °C. So, at 660 °C,
equation to be used (from 1 kg of solid aluminium would require 390 000 J of heat
definition of specific latent heat) energy to change its state into a liquid. This also means
that 390 000 J of heat energy would be given out if 1 kg of
m = Q / Lv Rearrange equation to
liquid aluminium at 660 °C changed state into a solid.
make m the subject
Now we will work through some example calculations,
m = 500 000 J / 2 500 000 J/kg
using the specific latent heat data in Table 7.4.
Substitute in known values and
complete calculation Activity 7.10: Changes of state
m = 0.2 kg Clearly state the answer Calculate the heat energy required to boil 100 g
with unit of aluminium at its boiling point. Lv (aluminium
3. Calculate the heat energy = 10 900 000 J/kg).
liberated when 0.025 kg of Calculate the heat energy liberated when 2 kg of
aluminium freezes at its freezing water turns to a solid at its melting point. Lf (water)
point. = 334 000 J/kg.
Heat change given out on
freezing:
Now that we can use specific heat capacities and specific
Q = m × Lf State principle or
latent heats, we can calculate the heat energy required
equation to be used (from
when substances are heated, taking into account changes in
definition of specific latent heat)
state.
Q = 0.025 kg × 390 000 J/kg • Total energy required = energy required to increase
Substitute in known values and
temperature + energy required to change state
complete calculation
• Q = mcΔT + mL
Q = 9750 J = 9.75 kJ Clearly state total

the answer with unit For example, we will now calculate the heat energy
required to increase the temperature of 50 g of water from
In this case, this is the energy
25 °C to 125 °C.
given out to the surroundings as
the aluminium freezes. Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Specific heat capacity of steam = 2080 J/kg K.

Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2 501 000 J/kg.
We will need to calculate the heat energy required for this change in
three stages:
1. Heat energy required to heat 50 g of water from 25 °C to 100 °C
(∆T = 75 °C = 75 K):
• Q = mc∆T
• Q = 0.05 kg × 4200 J/kg K × 75 K
• Q1 = 15 750 J
2. Heat energy required to boil 50 g of water at 100 °C: thermometer

• Q = mLv
• Q = 0.05 kg × 2 501 000 J/kg stirrer

• Q2 = 125 050 J copper

calorimeter
3. Heat energy required to heat 50 g of steam from 100 °C to 125 °C ice
(∆T = 25 °C = 25 K):
• Q = mc∆T water

• Q = 0.05 kg × 2080 J/kg K × 25 K

• Q3= 2600 J.
So, the total amount of heat energy required for this process:
• Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
• Q = 15 750 J + 125 050 J + 2600 J
• Q = 143 400 J = 143.4 kJ

Experiment to determine the specific latent heat of (a)

fusion of ice thermometer

The apparatus in Figure 7.44 can be used to determine the specific

latent heat of fusion, Lf, of ice. stirrer

The copper calorimeter and stirrer is weighed before being copper

half
filled with water. The mass of the water present in the calorimeter
calorimeter

is then determined before the water is heated to at least 10 °C ice

above room temperature. Small quantities of ice are then addedwater

to the water, while stirring, until the temperature is below room
temperature and all the ice has melted. The mass of the calorimeter,
stirrer and water is then determined to find out the mass of ice
added.
We will use the experimental data obtained using this method to
determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Mass of calorimeter = 0.15 kg.
Mass of water = 2.00 kg.
Mass of ice added = 0.60 kg.
(a) (b)
Start temperature of ice = –10 °C.
Start temperature of water = 49 °C. Figure 7.44 A simple experiment
Final temperature of water = 20 °C. to determine the specific latent
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K. heat of fusion of ice.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J/kg K.

Specific heat capacity of copper = 420 J/kg K.
We will use the principle here that the heat energy lost from the
water and the calorimeter will go to warming and melting the ice
and then warming the cold water produced when the ice melts.
Heat energy absorbed by ice = Heat energy liberated from
and cold water calorimeter/stirrer and water and
water
1. Heat energy lost by calorimeter/stirrer and water:
• ∆T = 49 °C – 20 °C = 29 °C = 29 K
Heat energy lost by calorimeter:
• Qlost calorimeter = mcalorimeterccalorimeter∆T
• Q = 0.15 kg × 420 J/kg K × 29 K = 1827 J
lost calorimeter

Heat energy lost by water:

• Q = m c ∆T
lost water water water
• Q = 2.00 kg × 4200 J/kg K × 29 K = 243 600 J
lost water

Total heat energy lost by calorimeter/stirrer and water = 243 600

+ 1827 = 245 427 J.
2. Heat energy absorbed by ice and water in warming from –10
°C to 20 °C:
Heat energy require to warm ice from –10 °C to 0 °C (∆T = 0 °C
– –10°C = 10 °C = 10 K).
• Qice (–10–0) = micecice∆T
• Q = 0.60 kg × 2100 J/kg K × 10 K = 12 600 J
ice (–10–0)

Heat energy required to melt 0.60 kg of ice:

• Q = mL
melt ice f
• Qmelt ice= 0.60 kg × Lf
Heat energy require to warm cold water from 0 °C to 20 °C (∆T
= 20 °C – 0 °C = 20 °C = 20 K).
• Qwater (0–20) = micecwater∆T
• Q = 0.60 kg × 4200 J/kg K × 20 K = 50 400 J
water (0–20)

Heat energy absorbed by ice = Heat energy liberated from

and cold water calorimeter/stirrer and water

12 600 J + 0.6Lf + 50 400 J = 245 427 J
• 0.6Lf = 182 427 J
• L = 182 427 J / 0.6
f
• L = 304 045 J/kg = 304 kJ/kg
f

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
In this section you have learnt that:
• The terms specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent
heat of vaporisation relate to the energy required to melt
and vaporise 1 kg of a substance at constant temperature.
• It is possible to calculate the energy (Q) required or
liberated on a change of state for a given mass, m, of a
substance using the equation Q = mLf or Q = mLv.

Review questions
1. Calculate the heat energy required to melt 10 g of copper at its
melting point.
(Lf for copper = 209 000 J/kg).
2. Calculate the heat energy required to melt 1.2 kg of gold at its
melting point.
(Lf for gold = 63 700 J/kg).
3. Calculate the heat energy liberated when 75 g of iron freezes at
its freezing point.
(Lf for iron = 245 000 J/kg).
4. Define the term specific latent heat of fusion of magnesium.
5. Calculate the heat energy required to increase the temperature
of 0.1 kg of water from 10 °C to 150 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of steam = 2080 J/kg K.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2 500 000 J/kg.

End of unit questions

1. Write a paragraph explaining the difference between the heat
energy in a substance and the substances’ temperature.
2. Explain, with reference to the appropriate laws of
thermodynamics and particle movement, what happens when a
cold object is in thermal contact with hot object.
3. Calculate the increase in length of an iron pipeline that is
30.00 m long at 20 °C when it is warmed to 45 °C. αiron = 1.1 ×
10–5 K–1.
4. Calculate the increase in volume of ethanol that has a volume
of 2.5 × 10–4 m3 at 25 °C when it is warmed to 45 °C. Explain
why the apparent expansion will be less than this calculated real
expansion. γethanol = 75 × 10–5 K–1.
5. In an experiment to calculate the specific heat capacity of
a metal, the following data were obtained. Use the data to
calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal.

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 UNIT 7: Temperature and heat

Mass of metal = 200 g.

Start temperature = 20 °C.
End temperature = 105 °C.
Heat energy supplied by electrical heating = 2000 J.
6. A metal block increases in temperature from 15 °C to 60 °C
when supplied with 13 500 J of heat energy.
a) Calculate the heat capacity of the metal.
b) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal, if this
sample has a mass of 0.75 kg.
7. 20 g of water at 42 °C was placed in a well-insulated copper
calorimeter with a mass of 27 g at a temperature of 20 °C. Use
the specific heat capacities of water (4200 J/kg K) and copper
(420 J/kg K) to determine the final temperature of the water.
8. Calculate the heat energy required to increase the temperature
of 10.0 kg of water from 25 °C to 115 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of steam = 2080 J/kg K.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water = 2 500 000 J/kg.
9. Sketch a cooling curve for bromine as bromine vapour is cooled
from 100 °C to –20 °C. Bromine has a melting point = –7 °C
and a boiling point of 59 °C. Mark clearly on your graph the
melting and boiling point.
10. In an experiment to determine the latent heat of fusion of ice,
0.5 kg of ice at –5 °C was placed into 1.5 kg of water in a copper
calorimeter of mass (including stirrer) of 0.2 kg with both water
and calorimeter at 61 °C. The final temperature, when all the ice
had melted, was 25.0 °C. Use the data to calculate the latent heat
of fusion of ice.
Mass of calorimeter = 0.20 kg.
Mass of water = 1.50 kg.
Mass of ice added = 0.50 kg.
Start temperature of ice = –5.0 °C.
Start temperature of water = 61 °C.
Final temperature of water = 25.0 °C.
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J/kg K.
Specific heat capacity of copper = 420 J/kg K.

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 Wave motion and sound Unit 8

Contents
Section Learning competencies
8.1 Wave propagation • Define the terms wave and wave pulse.
(page 207) • Describe longitudinal and transverse waves.
• Define the terms compression and rarefaction.
8.2 Mechanical waves • Define and identify the following features of a wave: crest, trough,
(page 214) wavelength, frequency, amplitude and time period.
• Distinguish between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.
• Identify transverse and longitudinal waves in a mechanical media.
8.3 Properties of waves • State the wave equation and use it to solve problems.
(page 221) • Describe the characteristic properties of waves, including
reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
• Define the terms diffraction and interference.
8.4 Sound waves • Identify sound waves as longitudinal mechanical waves and
(page 228) describe how they are produced and how they propagate.
• Compare the speed of sound in different materials and determine
the speed of sound in air at a given temperature.
• Define the intensity of a sound wave and solve problems using the
intensity formula.
• Explain the meaning of the terms echo, reverberation, pitch,
loudness and quality.
• Explain the reflection and refraction of sound and describe some
applications.

Water waves are a common sight, either on the sea, in rivers or

even in the bath. But have you ever really thought about what the
term wave means? Maybe words like ripples, vibrations and energy
spring to mind.
Waves enable us to see and to hear, and can even be used to monitor
the health of unborn babies. Waves have a dangerous side too. The
devastating tsunami on 26 December 2004 demonstrated some of
the power of waves.
This unit looks at the different types of waves, their characteristics
and behaviour and some of their uses.

8.1 Wave propagation

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define the terms wave and wave pulse.
• Describe longitudinal and transverse waves.
• Define the terms compression and rarefaction.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

What are waves?

Waves can be thought of as a series of vibrations that travel
through a medium (a medium is another way of describing the
material through which the wave is travelling).
All waves transfer energy from one place to another. Light waves
travelling out from a light bulb transfer energy from the bulb to
your eye. Sound waves transfer energy from a speaker to your ear.
Although waves transfer energy from one place to another there is
no transfer of matter. The material the wave is travelling through
does not move along with the wave. In other words, when waves
Figure 8.1 Waves are a common travel through water the water does not travel along with the wave.
sight on water.
This can be seen by observing a duck (or any object that floats)
sitting on the water. As the wave moves past the duck it just bobs up
and down. It does not travel along with the wave.
Unless it is a gas, the particles inside any medium are pretty much
stationary. They move around a little and are always vibrating a little
but essentially they remain in their equilibrium positions. When
a wave passes through the material the particles in the medium
simply vibrate from side to side.
This vibration could be up and down, left to right or any variation,
but the particles always move back and forth past their equilibrium
position.

Figure 8.2 Rays of light travel out

as waves from a light bulb. Particle in the medium

Figure 8.5 The particles vibrate back and forth past their equilibrium
position.
If you plot a graph of the particle’s displacement from its
Energy transfer
equilibrium position against time you would get a graph similar to
Figure 8.6.
A B Displacement

Equilibrium position

Figure 8.3 Waves transfer energy

from A to B.

Direction of wave
Time

Figure 8.4 A duck floating on the

water just moves up and down as Figure 8.6 Particle’s displacement against time
the waves go past.
It’s starting to look like a wave!

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Wave pulses and continuous waves

Poke a stick into some water and you can see water waves (ripples)
travelling away from the stick. The stick acts as a source for the
direction of wave motion
waves.
If you just poke the stick once into the water a single ripple travels
outwards. This is referred to as a wave pulse. You can see the same
thing with some rubber tubing.
Here you can see that there are no repeated vibrations, just one direction of wave motion
short pulse.
Figure 8.7 A simple wave pulse
If instead of just poking the stick into the water once you were to
move it in and out you would create a series of ripples. New ripples
would be created every time the stick went into and out of the water.
This is referred to as a continuous wave.
As long as the source of the wave continues to vibrate a continuous
wave will travel out from it.
Activity 8.1: Waves on stretched rubber tubing
direction of wave motion
• Tie one end of a long piece of rubber tubing to a fixed point
in the room. λ

• Hold the other end, so that the tubing is taut (stretched

tightly).
• Move your hand up and down briefly (Figure 8.9). Watch the
wave pulse travel along the tubing. Does it reflect at the Figure 8.8 A simple continuous
fixed end? wave
• Repeat, moving your hand from side to side.
• Try moving your hand up and down at a steady rate; try KEY WORDS
different frequencies. What do you observe?
equilibrium position the
central point about which
vibrations occur
matter a physical substance
medium material or
substance
vibrate to move up and
down, or side to side, about a
central point
vibrations oscillations about
a central equilibrium point
waves a series of vibrations
that travel through a medium
Figure 8.9 Sending a wave pulse along a taut rubber tube continuous wave a wave with
repeated vibrations
source the cause of the wave
Longitudinal and transverse waves wave pulse a wave with no
There are two main types of wave. These types are classified by the repeated vibrations
direction of vibrations in relation to the direction of

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

wave movement. Remember, in both cases the material only

KEY WORDS
vibrates from side to side; it does not travel along the wave.
wave movement the direction
in which the wave is travelling Transverse
crests the maximum points of These are the waves most people think of. They go up and down (or
a transverse wave left to right) in a sinusoidal motion.
transverse waves where the
vibrations are perpendicular to In a transverse wave the vibrations are at right angles to the
the direction of wave motion direction of wave movement (or energy transfer). This might be up
and down or side to side.
troughs the minimum points
of a transverse wave A transverse wave is defined as a wave where the:
• Vibrations are perpendicular (at right angles) to the direction
of wave motion.
This can be seen in Figure 8.10.
Particles in material

Figure 8.10 Vibrations in a

Vibrations
transverse wave Wave motion (direction)

Examples of transverse waves include:

• all electromagnetic waves – more on these in Section 8.2
light
microwaves
radio waves
Think about this… X-rays
It is easy to remember etc.
that transverse waves are • S-waves in earthquakes
the sinusoidal type. If you • waves on strings
look carefully at the word
transverse it has a transverse • waves on the surface of deep water.
wave in the middle! All transverse waves comprise a series of crests (or peaks) and
troughs.
Crest (or peak)

Equilibrium position
(mid-point)

Figure 8.11 Crests and troughs Trough

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Like ripples on a pond, the crests travel outwards in the same

Activity 8.2: The human
direction as the wave motion.
transverse wave
You need about ten people
for this activity.
Form a line standing
shoulder to shoulder and
link arms tightly at the
elbow.
The person at the end of the
line acts as the wave source
and moves forwards and
backwards (only a few steps
are needed).
You should be able to see
Wave motion (direction) the vibration travel down
the line of people.
Figure 8.12 Crests travel along with the transverse wave.
This is a transverse wave as
It is important to remember that the particles just move up and the vibrations are at right
down past their equilibrium position. This can be seen by the red angle to the direction of
particle; it just moves up and down as the wave travels from left to wave motion.
right.

Longitudinal KEY WORDS

In a longitudinal wave the vibrations are in the same direction as longitudinal waves waves
the direction of wave movement (or energy transfer). This means where the vibrations are
the vibrations are forwards and backwards along the wave. parallel to the direction of
wave motion
A longitudinal wave is defined as a wave where the:
• Vibrations are parallel to (in the same direction of) the
direction of wave motion.
This can be seen in Figure 8.13.
Particles in material

Figure 8.13 Vibrations in a

Vibrations Wave motion (direction) longitudinal wave
As you can see, these are much more difficult to draw! You tend to
see the particles replaced with vertical lines so the wave motion is
easier to make out.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Examples of longitudinal waves include:

Think about this… • sound waves
Sound waves are often drawn
to look like transverse waves. • pressure waves
This is because plotting • waves forwards and backwards through a spring
a graph of displacement
• P-waves in earthquakes.
against time produces exactly
the same shape no matter When longitudinal waves travel through a material the particles
which type of wave it is. This bunch up then move further apart, then bunch up again. You can
makes comparing them and see this in Figure 8.14.
describing their features much
easier. However, they are Rarefaction

most definitely longitudinal

waves!

KEY WORDS Compression

compressions regions of a Figure 8.14 Compressions and rarefactions in a longitudinal wave

wave where the particles are
pushed together Regions where the particles are pushed together are called
higher pressure compressions. Regions where the particles are more spread out
comparatively greater pressure are called rarefactions. Compressions can be thought of as the
longitudinal version of a crest and a rarefaction is the equivalent of
lower pressure comparatively a trough.
smaller pressure
rarefactions regions of a If the longitudinal wave is travelling through a gas then a
wave where the particles are compression can be thought of an area of higher pressure and a
spread out rarefaction an area of lower pressure. Compressions appear to
travel through the material as the wave travels through it.

Did you know?

In an explosion a shock
wave (a compression)
travels outward from the Wave Motion (direction)
centre of the blast. It is this Figure 8.15 Compressions travel along a longitudinal wave.
area of higher pressure that
It is important to remember that the particles just move forwards
causes damage.
and backwards (look at the red line in the diagram).

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Both transverse and longitudinal waves can also been seen using a
Activity 8.3: The human
long spring.
longitudinal wave
Activity 8.4: Waves on a spring Just like before you need
Use a slinky spring. Lay it carefully on a long bench or table. about ten people for this
Ask your partner to hold one end firmly. activity. Again form a
line standing shoulder to
• As in the previous experiment, move your hand from side to shoulder and link arms
side to send a wave pulse along the spring (Figure 18.6(a)). tightly at the elbow.
Send a continuous series of waves along the spring.
This time the person at the
• There is a second way in which you can send a wave along end of the line (still acting
a stretched spring. Push the end backwards and forwards, as the wave source) moves
along the length of the spring (Figure 8.16(b)). Watch as from side to side.
the segments of the spring move back and forth.
You should be able to see
Can you observe both types of wave reflecting at the fixed end the vibration travel down
of the spring? the line of people and notice
areas of compression and
rarefaction. This time it
� is a longitudinal wave as
the vibrations are in the
same direction as the wave
motion.

Figure 8.16 Two types of wave on a stretched spring:

(a) transverse, and (b) longitudinal

Summary
In this section you have learnt that: • A transverse wave comprises a series of
• A wave transfers energy from one place to crests and troughs.
another as a series of vibrations. • In a longitudinal wave the vibrations are
• A wave pulse is a wave with no repeated parallel to the direction of wave motion.
vibrations. • A longitudinal wave comprises a series of
• The particles in the medium vibrate from compressions and rarefactions.
side to side; they do not travel through the • In a compression the particles are closer
medium with the wave. together and in a rarefaction they are more
• There are two types of wave, longitudinal spread out.
and transverse.
• In a transverse wave the vibrations are
perpendicular to the direction of wave
motion.

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Review questions
1. Explain the difference between a continuous wave and a wave
pulse.
2. Describe what happens to particles when a wave passes through
a medium.
3. Explain what is meant by a transverse wave and give three
examples.
4. Explain what is meant by a longitudinal wave and give three
examples.

8.2 Mechanical waves

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• Define and identify the flowing features of a wave: crest,
trough, wavelength, frequency, amplitude and time period.
• Distinguish between mechanical waves and electromagnetic
waves.
• Identify transverse and longitudinal waves in a mechanical
media.

Waves characteristics
No matter what the type of wave all waves share some
characteristics. These are terms you’ve probably heard before.
However, each has a very specific meaning:

Wave speed (v)

Wave speed is defined as:
• The distance the wave travels in one second.
Did you know? This is the same as the distance one peak or one compression travels
Nothing can travel faster in one second. It’s given the symbol v (or c for electromagnetic
than the speed of light waves) and like all speeds it is measured in metres per second (m/s).
through a vacuum. This is
the ultimate speed limit. It Amplitude (a)
is equal to 300 000 000 m/s Amplitude is defined as:
(or 3 × 108 m/s). That’s fast
• The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
enough to go around the
world just under 8 times per In simple terms it’s the maximum height of the wave. If you plot a
second. graph of particle displacement against distance along the wave the
amplitude can be easily determined.

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Displacement

Amplitude

Distance

Figure 8.17 Amplitude

Notice that it is from the equilibrium position (mid-point), it is not
the distance from top to bottom.
Amplitude is given the symbol a (or occasionally xo). As amplitude
is a displacement it is measured in metres (m).

Wavelength (λ)
Wavelength is defined as:
• The minimum distance between identical points on adjacent
waves.
For example, it is the distance from one peak to another, or from
one compression to another. Wavelength is given the symbol λ
(lambda); this is the Greek letter l.
As wavelength is a distance it is measured in metres (m).
Displacement Wavelength

Distance

Figure 8.18 Wavelength

Again, plotting a displacement against distance graph allows
wavelength to be easily determined.
Wavelength

Figure 8.19 Wavelength of a longitudinal wave

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KEY WORDS Frequency (f)

frequency the number of Frequency is defined as:
waves passing each second • The number of complete waves passing a given point per
Hertz the unit of frequency second.
reciprocal the inverse of a This can be determined by the number of crests or compressions
number which when multiplied that pass a given point per second. The higher the frequency, the
by the original number greater the number of waves per second.
equals 1
Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in hertz (Hz). A
time period the time taken
frequency of 10 Hz would mean 10 waves per second. The hertz is
for a complete wave to pass a
the SI derived unit for frequency.
given point
wave equation equation
Time period (T)
relating wave speed, frequency
and wavelength Time period is defined as:
electromagnetic waves • The time taken for one complete wave to pass a given point.
waves that comprise vibrations
This is the time taken for one complete particle vibration or
of electric and magnetic fields
oscillation. It is given the symbol T (or occasionally Τ ).
| |

mechanical waves waves that

comprise a series of vibrations As time period is just a measure of duration it is measured in
of matter seconds (s).
seismic waves waves that If you plot a slightly different graph of particle displacement
travel through the Earth, (against time) then the time period is the time between two peaks.
produced by earthquakes
Displacement Time period

Did you know?

The reciprocal of x is
equal to 1/x. For example,
the reciprocal of 5 is one
fifth (1⁄5 or 0.2), and the Time
reciprocal of 0.25 is 1
divided by 0.25, or 4.

Activity 8.5: Time Figure 8.20 Time period

periods
There are two important equations linking these terms. The first
Find the time period for the links frequency and time period.
following waves from their
frequency: If you consider a wave with a frequency of 4 Hz this would mean
four waves passing a point per second. Each wave would therefore
a) 20 Hz take 0.25 second to pass the point. The time period would be 0.25
b) 3 kHz s. The time period is the reciprocal of the frequency. A wave with
c) 0.2 Hz a frequency of 10 Hz would have a time period of 1/10 or 0.1 s. In
terms of an equation, we get:
Find the frequency of the
• frequency = 1 / time period
wave from the following
time periods: • f = 1 / T
a) 0.4 s This also means T = 1/f.
b) 0.2 ms Powers of ten prefixes are often used to describe frequencies and
c) 100 s time periods of waves. Some common examples are listed in
Table 8.1

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Table 8.1 Common powers of ten prefixes

Prefix Name Value Power Example
G Giga ×1 000 000 000 ×109 6.5 GHz = 6 500 000 000 Hz
M Mega ×1 000 000 ×106 3 MHz = 3 000 000 Hz
k Kilo ×1000 ×103
4.2 kHz = 4200 Hz
m Milli ×0.001 ×10–3 6 ms = 0.006 s
μ Micro ×0.000 001 ×10–6 40 μs = 0.000 040 s
n Nano ×0.000 000 001 ×10–9
8 nm = 0.000 000 008 m
The second equation is so important in our dealings with waves that
it is often simply called the wave equation. It relates wave speed, Activity 8.6:
frequency and wavelength. Electromagnetic
spectrum chart
• Wave speed = frequency × wavelength
In the text, we have touched
• v = f λ only briefly on some parts
We will look at this in more detail in Section 8.3. of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Some aspects
Mechanical vs. electromagnetic waves have been missed out
almost entirely – for
So far whenever we’ve been discussing waves we have talked about example, the importance of
particle vibrations within the medium through which the wave is electromagnetic radiation in
travelling. However, some waves can also travel through a vacuum; astronomy.
there are no particles in a vacuum and so something else must be
happening. Your task, together with
the rest of the class, is to
We call waves that travel through a material as vibrations of the produce a large, illustrated
material mechanical waves. Here the particles in the material chart of the electromagnetic
(water, wood, air, etc.) vibrate. It is these vibrations that form the spectrum. Your chart
wave. All mechanical waves require a medium to travel through. will show all parts of the
They include sound waves, water waves and seismic waves. spectrum, and show uses,
Electromagnetic waves, such as light, radio and x-rays, do hazards, production and
not require a medium to travel through. They are comprised detection.
of vibrating electric and magnetic fields. There are no particle • Decide how you will share
vibrations at all. This means electromagnetic waves are able to travel out the work. Perhaps
through a vacuum and when they travel through a medium there different groups will
are no particle vibrations inside that medium. take different parts of
the spectrum (infra-red,
Examples of mechanical waves visible, etc). Perhaps
you will look for useful
There are lots of examples of different mechanical waves. We will material related to
look at sound waves in Section 8.4. In this section we will look at different uses of radiation
two types in more detail, water waves and seismic waves. (industry, astronomy,
medicine, etc.).
Water waves • When you have gathered
Waves that travel on the surface of water can be thought of as images and other
transverse waves. However, there is often a slight drift in the information, join together
direction of wave motion, so they are not perfect transverse waves. to make a long chart of
the complete spectrum.
If you throw a stone into a pond you can see ripples as crests and Include on it scales of
troughs travelling out from the splash. If you poke a stick up and frequency and wavelength.

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down in the water you can create continuous waves travelling out
from the source (the stick).
Water waves arise due to the surface tension on the water. As
some of the water molecules are pushed down they pull their
neighbouring particles down and a trough is created; this then
travels away from the source.
The speed of water waves depends on the depth of the water. As the
Figure 8.21 X-ray of a marmoset
depth of the water increases, so does the wave speed. In deep water,
monkey, taken to see how its
water waves can travel very fast (in hundreds of km/h).
skeleton compares with other,
related species As water waves enter shallower water their speed reduces, so the
waves bunch up, the wavelength gets shorter but the amplitude
increases.
An easy way to remember this is to use: SSSS Water Waves,
shallower, shorter, steeper and slower.
Most water waves on the open sea are caused by the action of the
wind on the surface of the water. Tsunamis are different types of
water wave created by changes to the ocean floor or the coastline
(often due to earthquakes). In deep water, tsunamis are not really
Figure 8.22 Water waves on a noticeable. They travel very fast but have a long wavelength and
pond small amplitude. As they approach land they slow down and can
grow to massive heights.

Seismic waves
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes. They travel out from
the focus in all directions throughout the Earth. It is these waves
that usually cause the damage to buildings when they reach the
surface.

Figure 8.23 Water waves slow Epicentre

down but get taller as the water
gets shallower.

Did you know?

Focus
The speed of water waves
is given by the equation; v
= √gd, v = wave speed in
m/s, g = gravitational field Fault
strength in N/kg = 10 N/kg
and d = depth of water in m.
Figure 8.24 Seismic waves travelling out from an earthquake
There are three types of seismic waves: L-waves, P-waves and
S-waves. L-waves are complex types of rolling wave, which travel
along the surface of the Earth and cause the most damage to
buildings.
P-waves and S-waves travel through the Earth. It is the different
properties of these two waves that enable us to not only determine

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the exact location of the earthquake but also the structure of the
interior of the Earth. Think about this…
When water waves approach
The P in P-waves stands for primary, or pressure. P-waves are an
the coastline friction with
example of longitudinal waves and travel very fast (around 7000
the sea bed changes their
m/s, depending on the medium). They often arrive first (hence
characteristics. This leads to
primary waves) as they are faster than S-waves.
the wave rolling over itself
P-waves are able to travel through both the solid and liquid parts of and breaking onto the sea
the Earth’s interior. front (in this case it ceases to
The S in S-waves stands for secondary, or shear. S-waves are an be a transverse wave).
example of transverse waves and still travel fast (around 4000 m/s,
depending on the medium), just not as fast as P-waves.
S-waves are only able to travel through the solid parts of the Earth’s
Did you know?
interior. The fastest documented
tsunami was created by an
Different stations around the Earth record when the P-waves and
earthquake in Chile in May
S-waves arrive. The time delay between the waves and data collected
1960. The waves travelled
from other stations can be used to work out the exact location of the
the 11 000 km to New
focus. For example, if three stations A, B and C calculate the focus
Zealand in around 12 hours.
is 1000 km, 800 km and 500 km away from them, respectively, the
That’s an average speed of
exact position can be determined through triangulation.
around 900 km/h!
In addition to determining the location, we said earlier that
the differences between P- and S-waves allow us to determine
information about the structure of the Earth.
This is a very complex process but it relies on the fact that S-waves
are only able to travel through solid, whereas P-waves can travel
through solids and liquids.
Epicenter
s

P-
e
av

a
nd
-w

S
dS

-w
n

ave
P- a

Figure 8.25 Understanding

s

earthquakes might help predict

Liquid
outer Solid them and so save lives.
core inner core

105° 0k
m
P-wave P-wave 80
shadow zone shadow zone S
Station B Focus
No wav

ve t
wa c
p-

p- dire
s
dir es

km
ec

No

Mantle 500
t

10
00 S
km
Station C
140°
S
Station A
Crust

No direct
S-waves
Figure 8.27 Using seismic waves to determine to structure of the Figure 8.26 Using triangulation
Earth to determine the location of the
As the waves travel through the Earth differences in the density focus
of the medium cause the waves to bend. It is this bending and the

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complete lack of S-waves on the opposite side of the Earth that

Did you know? allows scientists to deduce that Earth must have a liquid outer core
Other examples of and a solid inner core. Complex mathematics is used to determine
mechanical waves include the dimensions of the core and the changes in density between
vibrations on strings and different layers inside the Earth.
springs. These vibrations
are used in musical Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
instruments.
In this section you have learnt that:
KEY WORDS • The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement from
the equilibrium position.
focus the underground point
of origin of an earthquake • The wavelength of a wave is the minimum distance from two
tsunamis huge water waves identical points on adjacent waves (e.g. peak to peak).
on the open sea often caused • The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a
by earthquakes given point per second.
P-waves (primary or • The time period of a wave is the time taken for one complete
pressure) a type of wave to pass a given point.
longitudinal seismic wave that
can travel through the solid • Mechanical waves are waves that comprise a series of
and liquid parts of the Earth’s vibrations of matter.
structure • Examples of mechanical waves include water waves, sound
S-waves (secondary or waves and seismic waves.
shear) a type of transverse • Electromagnetic waves comprise vibrations of electric
seismic wave that can only and magnetic fields. No particles are required and so
travel through the solid parts electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum.
of the Earth’s structure
• Electromagnetic waves form a family of waves called the
triangulation using
electromagnetic spectrum.
measurements from three
positions to work out an exact
point
Review questions
1. Define the terms amplitude, wavelength, frequency and time
period.
2. Make a scale drawing of a wave with amplitude 2 cm and
wavelength 8 cm. Mark the amplitude and the wavelength.
3. Look at the wave shown in Figure 8.28. What are the values of
its amplitude and wavelength?
displacement (cm)

0
5 10 15 20
distance (cm)

Figure 8.28

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4. Look at the wave shown in Figure 8.29. What are the values of its
amplitude and period?
displacement (cm)

0
10 20 30 40
time (s)

Figure 8.29
5. A wave has a frequency of 400 Hz. What is its period? Give
your answer in seconds and milliseconds.
6. A wave has a period of 20 µs (microseconds). What is its
frequency?
7. Describe an electromagnetic wave.
8. Describe the similarities and differences between P-waves and
S-waves.

8.3 Properties of waves

By the end of this section you should be able to:

• State the wave equation and use it to solve problems.
• Describe the characteristic properties of waves, including
reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
• Define the terms diffraction and interference.

The wave equation

We met the wave equation back in Section 8.2.
wave speed = frequency × wavelength
v = f λ
v = wave speed in m/s.
f = frequency in Hz.
λ = wavelength in m.
This equation can’t be derived in the traditional sense but it is more
a case of working it through logically from the definitions of v, f
and λ.
If a wave has a frequency of 10 Hz it will produce 10 waves per
second. If the wavelength of each wave is 2 m then it follows
logically that the train of waves created in one second would be
20 m long.

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This is the distance travelled by the wave in one second, or the wave
KEY WORDS
speed.
diffraction the spreading f = 10 Hz = 10 waves per second
2m
out of waves when they pass
through a gap or around an
obstacle
interference when two or
more waves pass through the
same point and combine to
either add up or cancel each 10 waves, each 2 m long = 20 m in one second
v = 20 m/s
other out
reflection when waves Figure 8.30 Showing how v = f λ
bounce off a fixed surface and
For example, if a wave has a wavelength of 3 cm and a frequency of
change direction
11 kHz its speed can be determined:
refraction when waves
change speed as they travel v = f λ State principle or equation to be used (the wave equation)
from one medium to another v = 11 000 Hz × 0.03 m S ubstitute in known values and complete
and hence change direction calculation
wave fronts lines used to v = 330 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
represent wave crests
Notice that wavelength must be in m and frequency in Hz.

Worked example

The two students in Figure 8.31 measure v = 0.15 Hz × 5 m Substitute in known values
the waves passing the end of a pier. They and complete calculation
measure the wavelength as 5 m and there v = 0.75 m/s Clearly state the answer with unit
were nine waves passing the pier per minute.
To calculate the wave speed we must first
determine the frequency. Nine waves in one
minute means nine waves in 60 seconds so:
9 / 60 = 0.15 waves per second, so the
frequency is 0.15 Hz. waves moving in this direction

We can now use the standard wave equation:

v = f λ State principle or equation to be used (the
wave equation) Figure 8.31 These students are calculating the
speed of the waves as they pass the pier

Activity 8.7: Using the wave equation

Complete the following table: The wave equation may be also
applied to electromagnetic waves,
Wave speed Frequency Wavelength Time period in which case the equation changes
(m/s) (Hz) (m) (s) slightly to:
400 2 c = f λ
360 4.5 c = speed of light in a vacuum
1200 0.005 (3 × 108 m/s).

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Worked example Worked example

A water wave travels at a speed of 80 m/s with a wavelength A radio station transmits at
of 20 m. Calculate the time period of the wave. a frequency of 97.0 MHz.
In order to find the time period we must first find the Calculate its wavelength.
frequency of the wave: c = f λ State principle or
v = f λ State principle or equation to be used (the wave equation) equation to be used
(the wave equation
f = v / λ Rearrange equation to make f the subject applied to
f = 80 m/s / 20 m Substitute in known values and complete electromagnetic waves)
calculation λ = c / f Rearrange equation
f = 4 Hz Clearly state the answer with unit to make λ the subject
Time period is the reciprocal of the frequency so: In this case the frequency is
97.0 MHz or 97 million Hz.
T = 1 / f State principle or equation to be used
λ = 3 × 108 m/s / 97 × 106
T = 1 / 4 Hz Substitute in known values and complete calculation Hz Substitute in known values
T = 0.25 s Clearly state the answer with unit and complete calculation
λ = 3.1 m. Clearly state the
Wave behaviour answer with unit

All types of wave exhibit certain behaviour; they exhibit reflection,

refraction, diffraction and interference.

Reflection
Reflection occurs when a wave reaches a fixed surface. The wave
cannot pass through the surface; instead, it reflects off it, so that its
direction changes. Figure 8.32 shows what happens when circular
ripples in a ripple tank reflect off a straight barrier.
• The ripples spread out as circles from the source.
• After they have reflected from the barrier, they are still circular. Figure 8.32 Ripples in a ripple
They continue to spread out but they are travelling in the tank reflect off a straight barrier
opposite direction.
In a picture like Figure 8.32, we are looking down on the ripples
from above. We see the pattern of the wave crests; if we draw lines
to represent these crests, we call them wave fronts. Figure 8.33
shows straight wave fronts reflecting off a straight barrier that is at
reflected
an angle. The barrier is at 45° to the ripples arriving from the left; ripples
the reflected ripples have been reflected through 90°.
Figure 8.33 helps us to understand the first law of reflection of light
– the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
How are waves affected by a curved reflector? At each point on the barrier
surface of a curved reflector, the waves obey the law of reflection;
incoming
that is, they reflect as if the surface at that point was flat. ripples
Figure 8.34(a) shows the effect when plane (flat) ripples reach a
concave reflector. The ripples are reflected inwards so that they Figure 8.33 The lines are called
converge at a point (we say that they are focused by the reflector). wave fronts; here they are
reflecting off a straight barrier

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Figure 8.34(b) shows how ripples are affected by a convex reflector;

in this case, the straight ripples are reflected so that they become
curved. They take the form of circular ripples spreading out as
though they were coming from a point on the other side of the
barrier.
Figure 8.34(a) also tells us how circular ripples will be affected by a
concave reflector. If they start from the focus of the reflector, they
will be reflected so that they become straight ripples. (To see this,
simply reverse the arrows in the diagram.)
(a) concave (b) convex
reflector reflector

incoming incoming
ripples ripples
Figure 8.34 Showing how plane
ripples are reflected by (a) a
concave reflector; (b) a convex reflected reflected
reflector ripples ripples

Refraction
The word refraction means breaking. Refraction is a property of all
waves (light, sound, etc.). It happens when waves change speed as
they move from one material to another.
Refraction can be shown using a ripple tank. Ripples travel more
slowly in shallower water than in deeper water, because they drag
on the bottom. A shallow area can be created in the tank by placing
a sheet of glass in the tank; typically, the water is 8 mm deep, but
only 3 mm deep above the glass.
deep water shallow water
= faster waves = slower waves

incoming
ripples

Figure 8.35 Wave fronts change

direction when their speed reflected
changes ripples

Figure 8.35 shows the pattern that results when the boundary
between the deep and shallow water is at an angle to the wave
fronts. Things to notice:
• The ripples change direction as they enter the shallower water.
• The ripples are closer together in the shallower water – their
wavelength has decreased.
You will learn more about refraction of light in Grade 10.

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Introduction to diffraction and interference

Diffraction and interference are behaviours totally unique to
waves. Essentially diffraction is the spreading out of waves when
they travel through gaps or around obstacles, whereas interference
is when two waves pass through each other and either add up or
cancel each other out.

Diffraction
Imagine you are sitting in a room. The door is open, and you can
hear music coming from the radio in the next room. You cannot see
the radio, but the sound waves it produces pass through the door
and spread out into the room you are in. This spreading out is an
example of a wave phenomenon called diffraction.
Diffraction occurs when a wave passes the edge of an obstacle,
or through a gap. It can be investigated using a ripple tank.
Figure 8.36 shows what happens when ripples reach a barrier with a
gap in it. From the photographs you can see the following:
• The ripples spread out into the space beyond the gap.
• The narrow gap has more effect than the wide one – there is
more spreading out with the narrower gap.
The effect of diffraction is greatest when the width of the gap is the
same as the wavelength of the waves, as in Figure 8.36(a). A bigger
gap has less effect.
Why do we not notice diffraction of light? The wavelength of light (a)
is very short – less than one-millionth of a metre. This means that
a very tiny gap is needed to diffract light – light waves will not be
noticeably diffracted as they pass through a doorway. In fact, light
is diffracted by very small gaps or obstacles. Figure 8.37 shows the
Moon hidden behind a church spire. The photo was taken at a time
when there were many tiny grains of pollen in the atmosphere, and
the light from the Moon is being diffracted by these, causing a ‘halo’
around it. The size of the pollen grains is similar to the wavelength
of light.

Activity 8.8: Observing diffraction of light

Grains of talcum powder are very small – similar to the
wavelength of light. They can diffract light to form a pattern
like the halo shown in Figure 8.37.
• Find two glass microscope slides.
• Sprinkle a very little talcum powder on one slide. Press the (b)
second slide on top of the first, and slide it around to give Figure 8.36 Diffraction of ripples
a thin film of powder between the two slides. as they pass through a gap in
• Hold the double slide close to your eye and look at it a ripple tank; the gap in (a) is
through a distant lamp. Can you see a diffraction halo similar in size to the wavelength
around the lamp? of the ripples; in (b) it is much
bigger.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Interference
What happens when two waves meet? A strange feature of waves is
that they pass straight through each other. Here is an example with
two sets of light waves. Switch on two torches (flashlights). Direct
their beams so that they cross over. The light waves from one torch
pass straight through the light waves from the other. If light was
made of particles, they would bounce off each other.
Now we need to think about what happens at the point where the
paths of the two sets of waves cross.

Constructive and destructive interference

To observe interference, we need two sets of waves. Figure 8.38
shows that there are two kinds of interference:
• If the two waves are in phase (in step) with each other, they
combine to make a bigger wave, with twice the amplitude. This is
called constructive interference.
Figure 8.37 You may have seen a
‘halo’ like this around the Moon, • If the two waves are out of phase with each other, they cancel
or around the Sun at sunset. It each other, so that there is no wave. This is called destructive
is caused by tiny pollen grains interference.
or water droplets in the air,
diffracting the light
(a)

(b)

Figure 8.38 Two waves can interfere (a) constructively, or

(b) destructively
Note that the two sets of waves must have exactly the same wavelength
(and frequency) if they are to interfere like this. Also, their amplitudes
should be the same if they are going to cancel exactly.
It is difficult to see interference with light. One example is the
coloured patterns you see where there is a thin film of oil on a
puddle of water, or if you look at the shiny surface of a compact
disc (CD). Where you see a bright red colour, for example, red light
waves are reflecting off the surfaces of the oil or CD and interfering
constructively to produce a bright colour. Different colours interfere
at different angles to produce the pattern.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Interference of ripples
A ripple tank can show the interference patterns produced when
two sets of ripples meet. There are two ways to do this:
• Use two vibrating dippers to produce two sets of circular ripples.
Where the ripples overlap, they produce a characteristic pattern
(Figure 8.39). At some points, the ripples add together (interfere
constructively) to produce a large effect. In between, they cancel
out so that the surface of the water is unperturbed. Figure 8.39 The two vibrating
• Alternatively, use a straight vibrating source to produce parallel balls produce sets of ripples
ripples. Direct these at a barrier with two gaps; the ripples pass that overlap with each other
through the gaps and diffract into the space beyond. Here, they to produce an interference
overlap to produce an interference pattern similar to the one pattern. At the top of the photo
shown in the photograph. you can clearly see regions
where the ripples are cancelling
• Summary out (destructive interference).
In this section you have learnt that:
In between are regions of
In this section you learnt that: constructive interference
• The wave equation is v = f λ.
• When waves bounce off a surface, this is called reflection. KEY WORDS
• When waves travel from one medium to another, their speed constructive interference
may change and so they may bend. This is called refraction. where two waves are in phase
with each other and combine
• Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass to make a bigger wave
through a gap or around an obstacle.
destructive interference
• Interference is when two or more waves pass through the where two waves are out of
same point and either add up or cancel each other out. phase with each other and
combine to cancel each other
out
Review questions
1. A guitarist plays a high note; its frequency is 2000 Hz. The
sound waves produced have a wavelength of 0.17 m. What is
the speed of sound in air?
2. A drummer plays a note with a frequency of 85 Hz. What is the
wavelength of this sound wave in air? (Speed of sound in air =
340 m s–1.)
3. A radio station broadcasts an FM signal with a wavelength of
2.85 m. If the speed of radio waves is 3 × 108 m s–1, what is the
frequency of the FM signal?
4. Explain the terms reflection, refraction, diffraction and
interference.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

KEY WORDS 8.4 Sound waves

longitudinal mechanical
waves waves comprising By the end of this section you should be able to:
vibrations in matter where the • Identify sound waves as longitudinal mechanical waves
vibrations are parallel to the and describe how the waves are produced and how they
direction of wave motion propagate.
audible range the range of • Compare the speed of sound in different materials and
sound frequencies that can be determine the speed of sound in air at a given temperature.
detected by the ear
ear drums membranes in the • Define the intensity of a sound wave and solve problems
ear that vibrate when a sound using the intensity formula.
wave enters the ear canal • Explain the meaning of the terms echo, reverberation,
pitch, loudness and quality.
Activity 8.9: To show • Explain the reflection and refraction of sound and describe
that sound is caused by some applications.
vibration
• Stretch a piece of elastic Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. Sound waves
and pluck it. Note the are produced whenever an object vibrates. When you speak your
way it moves. vocal cords in your throat vibrate as the air is pushed over them.
• Press one end of a ruler Different musical instruments produce sound by making a part of
down on a table. Twang the instrument vibrate.
the free end. As sound waves are mechanical waves they require a medium to
• Strike the prongs of a travel through. Sound obviously travels through air but it also travel
tuning fork against a through other gases, as well as solids and liquids. Importantly,
rubber stopper; note how sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
they move backwards and
Activity 8.10: To find whether sound can pass through
forwards. Let one of the
a vacuum
prongs touch a table-
tennis ball hanging on a • Hang an electric bell by cotton thread from the stopper of
thread. The ball moves. a bell jar (Figure 8.40). Make the bell ring. Place the jar on
Touch the still surface of the plate of an exhaust pump. Can you hear the sound?
water with the moving • Pump air out of the bell jar, letting the bell ring all the time
prongs; ripples spread out inside the jar. What do you observe about the sound?
across the surface.
• Let air enter the bell jar again. What happens?
Table 8.2 Vibrations in musical
instruments ���������������

Instrument Vibration
�������������
Drums Drum skin
Piano Strings
��������
Guitar, violin, Strings and
etc. body of
instrument
Trumpet and Lips (causing
��������������� ����������������
trombone the air inside
to vibrate) Figure 8.40 Can sound pass through a vacuum?

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

It is important to realise that sound waves are longitudinal. We Displacement

often see pictures of sound waves looking like transverse waves. Equilibrium
position
Remember, this is because a graph of particle displacement against
distance or time for both transverse and longitudinal waves looks Distance

like Figure 8.41.

Sound waves are a series of compressions and rarefactions and we
can see this by conducting a very simple experiment. Figure 8.41 Displacement against
distance
If you place a candle in front of a speaker and then play sounds
through the speaker (ideally just one tone) you will see the candle
flame wobble from side to side.
Activity 8.11: Sound
This shows that the vibrations are parallel to the direction of wave travels through many
motion. In fact if you think about how the speaker produces the substances
sound then it is even more obvious.
• A string telephone:
Join the bottoms of two
A
empty tin cans with
string. Speak into one
tin while a friend listens
with the other tin. Keep
B
the string tight so that it
presses against the metal.
Can sound pass through a
C
string?
• Lay a ticking watch or
clock at one end of a
table. Now place one ear
D against the table, at the
other end. Can you hear
the ticking? Does sound
Direction of sound wave
travel better through
Figure 8.43 How a speaker produces a sound wave wood than through air?
If you look closely at a speaker you will see the speaker cone moving • Clap your hands when
in and out. As it moves out it creates an area of higher pressure as it swimming under water.
compresses the air (B). The cone then moves back in and so creates Can you hear the sound
an area of lower pressure, and so a rarefaction (C). This process easily? This might be
continues, creating a longitudinal wave (D). tricky and so it helps if
you have a partner who
Hearing can clap while you swim!
When these vibrations reach our ears they travel down our ear canal
and make our ear drums vibrate. These vibrations are transmitted
to special cells inside your skull, which send a signal to your brain
that we interpret as sound.
Wave Motion (direction)

When we are young we can detect a range of frequencies from

around 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. This is referred to as our audible range.
This varies from person to person and factors such as age and
exposure to loud music dramatically changes this range. Table 8.3 Figure 8.42 Demonstrating sound
on the next page shows the audible range of several other animals. waves are longitudinal

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Think about this…

The speed of sound
To help remember the audible The speed of sound through air is around 340 m/s; this is around
range of humans think of 900 000 times slower than light, but still pretty fast.
20:20 vision. This is often In storms thunder and lightning occur at the same time. However,
used to represent good the light travels much faster than the sound. This means we always
eyesight. Well, humans also see the flash of lightning before the sound of thunder arrives. The
have 20:20 hearing, that is greater the time delay, the further away the storm.
20 Hz to 20 kHz!
In fact if we assume the light arrives without any real delay, then for
every second between the lightning and the thunder the storm is
around 300 m away.
Activity 8.12: Investigating the range of hearing
A signal generator connected to a loudspeaker can produce
sounds of a known frequency (Figure 8.45).

Figure 8.44 Different animals

Figure 8.45 Turning the dial on the signal generator changes the
have different audible ranges.
frequency of the sound from the loudspeaker.
Table 8.3 Different audible ranges • Listen as the frequency becomes higher and higher. At what
frequency does it become inaudible?
Animal Approximate
audible range • Repeat as the frequency is reduced.
(Hz) • Imagine that someone in your class claims to be able to
Human 20–20 000 hear frequencies that are higher than you can hear. How
could you check that they are telling the truth?
Bat 10–200 000
• It is said that younger people can hear higher notes than
Dog 15–40 000
older people. How could you test this idea?
Dolphin 120–110 000

Sound travels at different speeds through different materials. The

Did you know? speed of sound through water is around five times faster than in air
Elephants can detect very and in metals like iron it is faster still (around 15 times).
low frequency sound waves.
This is used for long-
distance communication
between herds. Due to its
low frequency it has a range
of around 10 km.

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Table 8.4 Speed of sound in different materials

Medium Speed of sound (m/s)

Dry air at 0°C 331
Dry air at 30°C 349
Moist tropical air 351
Water at 20°C 1484
Seawater at 15°C 1510
Wood 3850
Figure 8.46 A storm
Iron, steel 5000
Glass 5000
In general, the denser the material, the faster the speed of sound.
This is because the particles in the medium are closer together and Activity 8.13: Thunder
so the vibrations pass from particle to particle much quicker. and lightning
When sound waves travel through gases, things are a little more A clap of thunder arrives five
complex due to the motion of the particles. The density of the gas seconds after the lightning.
has an effect, and if two gases were at the same temperature then How far away is the storm?
sound would travel faster through the denser gas. However, the What would happen to the
temperature of the gas has a significant effect. time delay if the storm were
moving towards you?
When a gas is at a higher temperature the average kinetic energy
of the particles is higher. This means on average the particles are
moving faster (see Unit 7). The faster the particles are moving, the Table 8.5 Speed of sound in air
faster the speed of sound through the gas. This can be seen in Table
8.5. Air temperature Speed
(°C) (m/s)
As air gets warmer the speed of sound through it increases. The
speed of sound through any gas may be calculated using the –20 319
equation below: –10 325
• v = √(γR*T) 0 331
γ = the adiabatic index of the gas (a constant for the gas). For air, 10 337
this equals 1.4. 20 343
R* = another constant for the gas. It equals the molar gas constant / 30 349
the molar mass (R / M). For air. this is 286 m2/s2 K.
T = the temperature in K.
For air, this can be simplified to:
• v = √(kT)
where k = γ × R* = 1.4 × 286 m2/s2 K = 400 m2/s2 K and so:
• v = √(400 × T)
At 25 °C the speed of sound through air may be calculated using
this equation:
• v = √(400 × T)

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Remember, the temperature must be in K not °C. So, 25 °C = 298 K

Did you know?
• v = √(400 × 298 K)
Mach numbers (named
after the Austrian physicist • v = 345 m/s
Ernst Mach) are often used A simple way to determine the speed of sound is to measure the
to quantify the speed of time it takes for a sound wave to travel a known distance.
fast moving aircraft. Mach
1 represents the speed of Activity 8.14: Measuring the speed of sound using
sound, Mach 2 twice the echoes
speed of sound, etc. Aircraft
travelling at speeds greater • Stand facing a tall wall, at a distance of about 100 m
than Mach 1 are flying faster (Figure 8.48). Measure the distance to the wall.
than the speed of sound and • Clap two blocks of wood together, and listen to the echo.
are said to be supersonic. The time interval is too short to measure accurately.
• Now clap the blocks together so that each clap coincides
with the echo of the previous one. Using a stopwatch, time
a sequence of 10 claps. (Count 0, 1, 2, 3 … 9, 10.)
• Now you know the time taken for the sound to travel to the
wall and back ten times. Use this information to calculate
the speed of sound in air.
����
����

������������������

Figure 8.47 Modern jet fighters

are able to travel much faster
than the speed of sound.
Figure 8.48 Using echoes to measure the speed of sound

How do we describe sound waves?

What is the difference between louder and quieter sounds? Or
Displacement
higher pitch and lower pitch sounds? And why does the same note
sound different from a violin to a piano? In order to answer these
questions we need to be able to observe what is going on in terms of
the particles.
Time
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves, but we can use
an oscilloscope and microphone to help ‘see’ sound waves. An
Figure 8.49 The displacement of oscilloscope produces a trace on the screen that varies depending
air particles against time on the sound entering the microphone. It is essentially a trace of the
displacement of the particles against time.
Using an oscilloscope we can see the effect of changing volume and
pitch.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Loudness ������������

The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the sound

wave. The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
In louder sounds the particles move further from their equilibrium ����������

position.
The loudness of a sound is measured in decibels (or dB). This is a
complex scale. It is logarithmic not a linear scale. In other words
40 dB is much more than twice as loud as 20 dB.
Table 8.6 The loudness of different sounds
Figure 8.50 A simple oscilloscope
Sound Loudness (decibels)
Whisper 10
Leaves rustling in the wind 17
Shouting 70
Loud music 100
Jet engine 120 ������ ������ �����������

�
Figure 8.51 The difference
Pitch between a loud sound and a quiet
The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency of the sound wave. sound
The higher the frequency of the sound waves the higher their pitch.
In higher pitch sounds the particles vibrate more often past their
equilibrium position per second.
Timbre (quality)
The same note played on
������ ������ ������������
different instruments sounds �����������

� �
distinctly different. This Figure 8.52 The difference
difference is referred to the between a low pitch sound and a
timbre (or quality) of the high pitch sound
sound. Quality does not mean �������

good or bad, it just refers to the

difference in the sound.
You can see from Figure 8.53
above that the same note
produces a different trace on
the oscilloscope. This is because
of the complex nature of the KEY WORDS
number of different vibrations �������

produced by the instrument. loudness the audible strength

of a sound, which depends on
the amplitude of the sound
wave
pitch highness or lowness of a
sound, which depends on the
Figure 8.53 The same frequency of the sound wave
note produced by different timbre the quality of a sound
instruments ������

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Activity 8.15: Sounds on a scope

• Connect a signal generator to an oscilloscope and to a
loudspeaker. Watch how the trace on the scope changes as
the controls of the signal generator are altered.
• The sound is made louder: how does the trace change?
• The frequency is made higher: how does the trace change?
• Connect a microphone to the oscilloscope, in place of
the signal generator. Make different sounds in front of
the microphone and observe the traces. (Try clapping,
Figure 8.54 Different instruments whistling, playing an instrument.)
produce different quality notes.

Echoes, echoes, echoes, echoes….

Sound, like all waves, is able to reflect off surfaces. A reflection of
sound is called an echo.
You get the best echoes off solid surfaces, like metal sheets or stone.
Softer surfaces tend to absorb the sound waves and so there are
reflected less. You might have noticed this inside a cave or inside a
building with solid stone walls.
If the sound produced is in an enclosed space it may produce a
number of echoes. It sounds like the sound is building up then
slowly decaying away. This is called reverberation.
Figure 8.55 It is important to This is most noticeable when the source of sound stops but the
reduce the echo in recording reflections continue. Each time they reflect off the surface they
studios. lose some energy and so the amplitude decreases and the sound
becomes quieter.
Did you know?
The intensity of sound waves
“A duck’s quack doesn’t
echo” is a much-quoted The further the source of sound is away from you the quieter the
scientific myth. The truth is sound. This is because the energy is spread out over a much wider
that a duck’s quack does, it’s area.
just quite hard to hear due This happens with all waves. If you look closely at the ripples on a
to the shape of the sound pond you can see the amplitude of the wave decreases as you get
wave produced. further away from the source.
The intensity of any wave is defined as the energy received by each
square metre per second. A higher intensity would mean more
energy per second falling on each square metre.
• Intensity is equal to the energy incident on each square metre
of a surface per second.
This gives us units of intensity as W/m2, we use W as this is just
energy per second.
The further away the surface the more the energy gets spread out
and so the intensity falls. Imagine standing near a wall and shouting
Figure 8.56 The ripples get smaller at it (I know it sounds odd!). The sound spreads out as it leaves your
as the energy is spread out. mouth and strikes an area of the wall.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Figure 8.57 Stand close to a Figure 8.58 Stand further away

wall and the intensity is higher. and the intensity drops.

However, if you stand further away the sound has to travel a greater
distance before it strikes the wall and so it spreads out to cover a KEY WORDS
wider area. echo a reflection of a sound
The intensity is now lower as the energy per second per square wave
metre has dropped – it’s more spread out. intensity the energy received
by each square metre of a
In all cases the intensity of a wave can be determined using the surface per second
equation below.
reverberation multiple
• intensity = power /area reflection of sound waves in
If we think about the sound travelling out in all directions (in 3D) an enclosed space so that
from a source we can see that the energy spreads out in the shape the sound continues after the
of a sphere. So in this case the area is the surface area of a sphere source is cut off
(given by 4πr2). This means the equation becomes: inverse square relationship
• intensity = power /area where if one variable increases
by a factor of x2 then the other
• I = P / 4πr2 decreases by a factor of x2
From this equation we can see that if the wave travels twice as far
then the intensity falls to a quarter of its value. Three times as far
and it is a ninth. This is because the energy is spread over a much
larger area, double the distance and it’s four times the area, as shown
in Figure 8.59.
sphere area
4πr2 intensity at
surface of sphere I
9
P
=I I
4πr2 4
Source power A
P I A
A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
r A
A
2r
3r Figure 8.59 Intensity against
distance
This kind of relationship is called an inverse square relationship.
As the distance goes up by a factor of x, the intensity falls by x2. This
produces a graph like that in Figure 8.60 on the next page.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

100000
Think about this…
90000
Sound waves speed up as they
enter denser materials; this 80000
means when they refract they
70000
bend towards normal unlike
light (which slows down in 60000

Intensity
denser materials).
50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance

Figure 8.60 A graph showing how intensity varies with distance from
source.
You will come across a number of inverse square relationships in
the next few years.
KEY WORDS
ultrasound high frequency Worked example
sound waves, above human
hearing A speaker has a power output of 150 W. Determine the
hydrophones underwater intensity of the sound 1.5 m from the speaker.
microphones I = P / 4πr2 State principle or equation to be used (intensity for a
point source)
I = 150 W / 4π × (1.5 m)2 Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
I = 5.3 W/m2 Clearly state the answer with unit
The intensity of a sound wave is measured to be 0.7 W/m2
when 2.0 m from the source. Calculate the power of the source.
I = P / 4πr2 State principle or equation to be used (intensity for a
point source)
P = I × 4πr2 Rearrange equation to make P the subject
P = 0.7 W/m2 × 4π × (2.0 m)2 Substitute in known values and
complete calculation
P = 35 W Clearly state the answer with unit

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Uses of sound waves

Sound waves have many uses, in addition to the obvious uses in
communication and music.
Most of these uses depend on the behaviour of the sound waves when
they reflect or refract. Sound, like all waves, reflects off surfaces, but
sound waves also reflect off the boundary between materials if there
is a change in density between the materials. The greater this change
in density the greater the amount of sound reflected.
In Figure 8.61, sound waves refract as they enter a medium with a
different density (the red area). You can also see the sound waves Figure 8.61 The reflection and
reflect off the boundary between the materials (the green arrows). refraction of sound through
different materials
It is these reflections and refractions that can tell us a great deal
about the object and so make sound very useful indeed.
����
In fact for most uses ultrasound is used instead. Ultrasound is
just sound waves with a high frequency and so a relatively short �����������
wavelength. This means it does not diffract very much and so it
remains as a tight focused beam. ����������

Ultrasound is any sound above the audible range of humans. It can �����
be defined as: ������

• Sound waves with a high frequency, above human hearing,

above 20 kHz. ���
���
One example of the use of sound is SONAR. This stands for SOund
Navigation And Ranging, which is the sound wave equivalent of
radar. It is most often used by ships to determine the depth of the
sea bed, the location of a shoal of fish, or even the position of an Figure 8.62 Using SONAR to
enemy submarine. determine the depth of the sea
Sound is transmitted by the ship and it travels through the water. It
reflects off the sea bed and travels back up where it is detected by
special underwater microphones called hydrophones.
It is then a relatively simple process to determine the distance
travelled by the sound using distance = speed of sound through
water × time taken. The depth is then half this distance as the sound
has had to travel there and back!
Ultrasound is also used in pre-natal scanning. Here the ultrasound
travels into the womb and reflects off the unborn baby. This sound
is harmless (unlike using X-rays) and allows doctors to monitor the
progress of the developing baby.
Ultrasound is also used to detect flaws in metals and even to help
people park their cars! In each case it is the reflection and refraction
of the sound that makes the job possible.

Activity 8.16: Depth sounding

The speed of sound through sea water is around 1500 m/s.
A wave pulse is sent from a ship and takes 0.7 s to return.
Calculate the depth of the water. Figure 8.63 Using ultrasound to
monitor a baby

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves produced
when objects vibrate.
• Sound waves travel through different media as a series of
compressions and rarefactions.
• In general, sound travels faster in denser materials; however,
the warmer the gas the faster the speed of sound through it.
• The amplitude of a sound wave affects its loudness and the
frequency of the sound wave its pitch.
• A reflection of sound is called an echo and if several echoes
are trapped inside a room or object a reverberation may be
heard.
• The intensity of a sound wave is the energy received per
square metre of a surface per second.
• Sound has many uses including SONAR and pre-natal
scanning. Both rely on the sound waves reflecting and
refracting off different materials.

Review questions
1. Compare the speed of sound through the different materials in
the Table 8.4 (speed of sound through materials). Explain the
differences in the speed of sound:
a) between solids, liquids and gases
b) between warm air and cold air.
2. Explain the meaning of the terms loudness, pitch and timbre.
Illustrate your explanations with diagrams and examples.
3. A speaker produces a sound output at a power of 500 W.
Determine the intensity at:
a) 2.0 m
b) 4.0 m
c) 16 m
4. The intensity of a sound source is measured 3.0 m from the
source and it found to be 4.0 W/m2. Calculate the intensity
received at:
a) 1.0 m
b) 5.0 m
5. Describe one possible use of sound waves.

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

End of unit questions

1. a) In which type of wave are the vibrations at right angles to
the direction of travel?
b) What is the name given to the other type of wave?
c) Describe the vibrations in this type of wave.
d) Give an example of each type of wave.
e) Describe how you would demonstrate each type of wave
using a slinky spring.
2. Complete the table and draw the following waves to scale:
Wave Frequency Wavelength Time Amplitude
speed (Hz) (m) period (m)
(m/s) (s)
720 45 8.0
40 0.05 4.0
6000 0.002 3.0
3. An electromagnetic wave has a wavelength of 10 nm. Calculate
its frequency and identify to which part of the electromagnetic
spectrum the wave belongs.
4. What wave phenomena are described here?
a) A light wave slows down as it passes from air into water;
this causes it to change direction.
b)  Waves on the sea pass between two high walls into a
harbour. They spread out into the space behind the walls.
c)  Two alarm sirens are emitting a loud note; at points
between the two sirens the sound is very loud, but at other
points it is much fainter.
d)  An explorer shouts into a dark cave; a fraction of a second
later, he hears the sound of his own voice.
5. Draw diagrams to illustrate the difference between constructive
and destructive interference.
6. Two identical waves of amplitude 5 cm meet in a large ripple
tank. What will be the amplitude of the combined wave at a
point where they interfere constructively? And where they
interfere destructively?
7. Explain why, if someone is playing a guitar in the next room,
you may be able to hear the sound of the guitar through the
open doorway, although you cannot see the guitarist because
she is round the corner.
8. What is meant by an echo?
9. A child claps her hands together whilst facing a tall building.
The echo reaches her ears after 0.6 s. How far is she from the
building? (Speed of sound in air = 340 m s–1.)

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 UNIT 8: Wave motion and sound

10. Outline a method of finding the velocity of sound in air.

11. In an experiment to measure the speed of sound in a steel rod,
it is found that a sound will travel along a rod of length 2 m in a
time of 0.000 4 s. What is the speed of sound in steel?
12. Explain why a flash of lightning is usually seen before the clap
of thunder is heard.
13. A ship is sailing in a part of the sea where the bed is 600 m
below the ship. The ship uses sonar to detect the seabed. How
long will it take a pulse of sound to travel to the seabed and
return to the ship? (Speed of sound in water = 1500 m s–1.)

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 Index
absolute pressure 160, 161 density Fahrenheit scale 174–175
absolute zero 174, 175 of floating objects 167–168 fixed pulleys 134
acceleration 19–21, 26 of fluids 152–153 floating objects 166–167
direction 32–33 relative 153–154, 167 fluids 151–152
force and 20, 55–58 waves and 219–220, 231, 236 density of 152–153
mass and 56–57 destructive interference 226 forces in 162–165
see also uniformly accelerated differential pulleys 137 pressure in 154–156
motion diffraction 225 see also gases; liquids
air pressure 142–150 displacement 16, 26–27 force pumps 148–149
air resistance 34 displacement-time graphs 22–25, 36 force-distance graphs 92–94
altitude distance 16 force-extension graphs 48, 49
atmospheric pressure and 145 distance-time graphs 24–25 forces 43–44
density and 153 drinking straws 148 acceleration and 20, 55–58
amplitude of waves 214–215 effects of 44–45, 46–50
aneroid barometers 146 Earth in equilibrium 10–13
angular momentum 74 atmosphere 143–146, 153 in fluids 162–165
apparent weight 61, 163–164, 165 gravitational field strength 58–59, Newton’s pairs 72–73
Archimedes 119, 130, 164 72 pressure and 141–142
Archimedes’ principle 164–165 as reference frame 37 resolving 7–8, 53–55, 57–58,
Aristotle 44, 45 seismic waves in 218–220 62–63
atmospheric pressure 143–147, 156, earthquakes 218–220 fossil fuels 106
160, 161 echoes 234 free body diagrams 43–44
efficiency of machines 121–123, 125, free fall 34–36
balanced forces 55 127, 130 frequency of waves 216
barometers 146–147 effort 117 friction 64–65
bicycle pumps 149–150 elastic collisions 83, 103–104 calculating 66–69
bimetallic strips 185–186 elastic deformation 51 effects of 70, 118
boiling points 145, 200, 201 elastic limit 50–51 factors affecting 65–66
Bourdon gauges 161 elastic potential energy (EPE) 100 reducing 69–70
buoyant force 162–164 electrical work 89 work done against 91–92
electricity, generation 106 fulcrum 128, 131–132
calories (cal) 191 electromagnetic forces 43
calorimeters 194–195 electromagnetic waves 217 Galileo Galilei 34, 119
Celsius scale 174–175 energy gases 151–152, 188
changes of state 200–204 conservation of 102–105, 177 gauge pressure 160–161
closed systems 102 forms 96 gears 133–134
coefficient of friction 66–67 heat see heat energy geothermal power 107, 108, 109
coefficient of linear expansion 180 kinetic see kinetic energy graphs
collisions 76–78 in oscillating systems 104–105 displacement-time 22–25, 36
conservation of energy in 103–104 potential see potential energy distance-time 24–25
elastic and inelastic 83, 103–104 total mechanical energy 100 force-distance 92–94
complex machines 136–137 units of 96, 111–112, 191 force-extension 48, 49
compound pulleys 134 in waves 208 velocity-time 25–27, 32, 36
compressions 212 work and 88, 96–100 gravitational field strength 58–60, 72
conservation of energy, law of energy resources 105–106 gravitational potential energy (GPE)
102–105, 177 in Ethiopia 108, 109 99–100
conservation of linear momentum, law renewable 106–108 gravity 43, 44
of 76–78, 79, 81–82 equilibrant forces 53, 55 acceleration due to 34, 35, 60
constructive interference 226 equilibrium 10–13, 143 work done against 90, 91–92
contact forces 44 linear 84–85
continuous waves 209 thermal 176 hearing 229, 230
cooling curves 200–201 expansion joints 185 heat capacity 197–198
Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave 88 explosions 78–79, 212
crests of waves 210–211

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 heat energy 101, 102, 172, 175 loudness 233 plastic deformation 51
absorption 176, 191–192 lubrication 70 Plimsoll line 167
changes of state 200–204 polishing 69
from friction 91, 118 mach numbers 232 pollution 106
heating curves 200 machines 117–118 potential energy 98–100, 102
Hooke’s law 47–49, 51, 93 complex 136–137 in oscillating systems 104–105
hot riveting 185 as direction changers 120 work and 98–99
hydraulic machines 157, 158–159 efficiency of 121–123 power 110–111
hydroelectric power 107, 108 as force multipliers 119 velocity and 113–114
hydraulic 157, 158–159 pre-natal scanning 237
ice, specific latent heat of fusion simple 118–119, 124–136 pressure 141–142
203–204 as speed multipliers 119–120 depth and 154–155
impulse of a force 80–81 Magdeburg hemispheres 144–145 direction of 156
inclined planes 68–69, 119, 124–125 magnetic forces 44 effect on volume 153
inelastic collisions 83, 103–104 magnitude 2 in fluids 154–156
inertia 45–46 manometers 161–162 measuring 161–162
inertial frame of reference 37 mass 58–59 pulley systems 119, 134–136, 137
instantaneous speed 18 acceleration and 56–57 pumps 148–150
instantaneous velocity 18 inertia and 46 Pythagoras’s theorem 5–7, 54
intensity of sound waves 234–236 kinetic energy and 96–97
interference 226–227 mass-spring systems 105 rack and pinion 134
mechanical advantage (MA) 120–121 radioactive waste 106
jackscrew 137 efficiency and 121–123 rarefactions 212
joules (J) 88, 89, 111–112, 191 of simple machines 125, 126, 127, real weight 61
129–130, 132, 134, 137 reference frame 37
Kelvin scale 174–175 mechanical waves 217–220 reflection 223–224, 234, 237
kilograms (kg) 58 mechanical work 88–89 refraction 224, 237
kilowatt-hour (kWh) 111–112 against friction 91–92 relative density 153–154, 167
kinetic energy 96–98, 102 against gravity 90, 91–92 relative velocity 37–39
in collisions 83, 103–104 calculating 88–90 renewable energy resources 106–108
linear momentum compared 103 kinetic energy and 97–98 resultant forces 7–8, 53–55, 57–58,
in oscillating systems 104–105 machines 117–118 62–63
temperature and 172–174 positive or negative 95 resultant vectors 4, 7–9
work and 97–98 potential energy and 98–99 reverberation 234
kinetic friction 65, 91–92 variable forces 92–94 ripple tanks 227
melting points 200, 201
latent heat Moon 34, 59–60, 225, 226 scalar quantities 2, 3
of fusion 201 movable pulleys 134 scale diagrams 11, 84
of vaporisation 201 musical instruments 220, 228, 234 screws 119, 127
law of flotation 166 seismic waves 218–220
laws of thermodynamics newtonmeters 50 simple machines 118–119, 124–136
first law 177–178 Newton’s laws of motion siphons 150
second law 178 first law 45, 97 solar power 107–108
levers 119, 128–130 linear momentum and 79–80, solids, thermal expansion 179–184,
in the body 132 81–82 188
classes of 131–132 second law 55–58, 62–63, 79–80, SONAR 237
lift pumps 148 97 sound waves 208, 212, 228–229
lifts third law 71–74 characteristics 232–233
hydraulic 158, 159 newtons (N) 44, 57 intensity 234–236
passenger weight in 61–62 Newton’s pairs 72–73 reflection 234, 237
light, speed of 37 non-contact forces 44 refraction 237
light waves 208 nuclear forces 43 speed of 230–232, 236
limiting friction 65 nuclear power stations 106 uses 237
linear equilibrium 84–85 specific gravity 154
linear expansion 180–181, 184 oscillating systems 104–105 specific heat capacity 191–192
linear momentum 74–76 oscilloscopes 232–233 determination of 193–197
kinetic energy compared 103 of water 198
law of conservation of 76–78 parallelogram method 5, 7 specific latent heat 201
Newton’s laws and 79–80, 81–82 pascals (Pa) 141, 142 of fusion 201, 202, 203–204
liquids 151–152, 187–190 Pascal’s principle 157–158 of vaporisation 201–202
load 47, 117 pendulums 105 speed 17–18
longitudinal waves 211–213, 215 pitch 233 spring balances 49–50, 67

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 spring constant 49 troughs of waves 210 water
springs tsunamis 218, 219 specific heat capacity of 198
deformation of 50–51 thermal expansion of 189–190
effect of forces on 47–49 ultrasound 237 water waves 217–218, 219
elastic potential energy 100 unbalanced forces 55 watts (W) 110
state, changes of 200–204 uniform motion 16–18 wave equation 217, 221–223
static friction 64–65 uniformly accelerated motion 20 wave pulses 209
suction pads 148 displacement-time graphs 22–25 wave speed 214
surface area expansion 181–183, 184 equations 28–33 wavelength 215
SUVAT equations see uniformly accel- free fall 34–36 waves 208–209
erated motion velocity time graphs 25–27 behaviour 223–227
characteristics 214–217
Teflon 67 vacuum, waves in 217, 228 electromagnetic 217
temperature 153, 172–174 vacuum pumps 144 longitudinal 211–213, 215
temperature scales 174–175 vectors 1–3 mechanical 217–220
thermal contact 176 combining 4–7 movement of particles in 208, 211,
thermal equilibrium 176 resolving 7–9 212
thermal expansion 176 velocity 17–18, 20, 23–24 sound 208, 212, 228–237
applications 185–186 direction 32–33 transverse 210–211, 213
of gases 188 power and 113–114 wedges 119, 125–127
of liquids 187–190 relative 37–39 weight 43, 58–59
of solids 179–184, 188 velocity ratio (VR) 120, 121 weightlessness 60–62
thermometers 186 efficiency and 121–123 wheel and axle 119, 132–133
timbre 233 of simple machines 125, 126, wind power 107
time period 216 129–130, 132–133, 135, 137 work-energy theorem 96–100
total mechanical energy 100 velocity-time graphs 25–27, 32, 36
transmission 133 Venus 144
transverse waves 210–211, 213 volume expansion 183–184
triangle of vectors 11 Vomit Comet 62
triangulation 219

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