Bounded Monotonic Sequence

If a sequence {an} is bounded and monotonic, then it converges.

Convergence of a Geometric Sequence

A geometric series with ratio r diverges if r ≥ 1 . If 0 < r < 1 , then the series converges to the sum
∞
a
∑ ar
n =0
n
=
1− r
, 0 < r <1

nth Term
∞
If ∑a
n =1
n converges, then lim a n = 0 .
n→∞

∞
If lim a n ≠ 0 , then
n→∞
∑a
n =1
n diverges.

Integral Test
If f is positive, continuous, and decreasing for all x ≥ 1 and a n = f (n ) , then
∞ ∞

∑a
n =1
n and ∫ f (x )dx
1
either both converge or both diverge. (Note: These conditions need only be satisfied for all
x ≥ N > 1 .)

p-Series
The p-series
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑
n =1 n
p
= p + p + p + p +
1 2 3 4
1. converges if p > 1 , and
2. diverges if 0 < p ≤ 1 .

Direct Comparison Test

Let 0 < a n ≤ bn for all n.
∞ ∞
1. If ∑ bn converges, then
n =1
∑a
n =1
n converges.
∞ ∞
2. If ∑a
n =1
n diverges, then ∑b
n =1
n diverges.

Limit Comparison Test

Suppose that a n > 0 , bn > 0 , and
a
lim n = L
n →∞ b
n

where L is finite and positive. Then the two series ∑a n and ∑b

n either both converge or both
diverge.

1
Alternating Series Test
Let a n > 0 . The alternating series
∞ ∞

∑ (− 1) an ∑ (− 1)
n n +1
and an
n =1 n =1
converge if the following two conditions are met.
1. lim a n = 0
n→∞

2. a n +1 ≤ a n , for all n*

* This can be modified to require only that a n +1 ≤ a n for all n greater than some integer N.

Alternating Series Remainder

S − S N = R N ≤ a N +1

Absolute Convergence

If the series ∑a n converges, then the series ∑a n also converges.

Ratio Test

Let ∑a n be a series of non-zero terms.

a n +1
1. ∑a n converges absolutely if lim
n →∞ an
< 1.

a n +1 a
2. ∑a n diverges if lim
n →∞ a
> 1 or lim n +1 = ∞ .
n→∞ a
n n

a n +1
3. The Ratio Test is inconclusive if lim = 1.
n →∞ an

Root Test

Let ∑a n be a series.

1. ∑a n converges absolutely if lim n a n < 1 .

n →∞

2. ∑a n diverges if lim n a n > 1 or lim n a n = ∞ .

n→∞ n→∞

3. The Root Test is inconclusive if lim n a n = 1 .

n→∞

2
Taylor Polynomial
If f has n derivatives at c, then the polynomial
f ' ' (c )
(x − c )2 + + f (c ) (x − c )n
(n )
Pn ( x ) = f (c ) + f ' (c )( x − c ) +
2! n!
is called the nth Taylor polynomial for f at c. If c = 0 , then
f ' ' (0) 2 f (n ) (0 ) n
Pn ( x ) = f (0) + f ' (0)( x ) + (x ) + + (x )
2! n!
is also called the nth Maclaurin polynomial for f.

Power Series
If x is a variable, then an infinite series of the form
∞

∑a
n =0
n x n = a 0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + + an x n +

is called a power series. More generally, and infinite series of the form
∞

∑ a (x − c ) = a 0 + a1 ( x − c ) + a 2 ( x − c ) + a3 ( x − c ) + + a n (x − c ) +
n 2 3 n
n
n =0
is called a power series centered at c, where c is a constant.

Convergence of a Power Series

For a power series centered at c, precisely one of the following is true.

1. The series converges only at c.

2. There exists a real number R > 0 such that the series converges absolutely for x − c < R , and
diverges for x − c > R .
3. The series converges absolutely for all x.

The number R is the radius of convergence of the power series. If the series converges only at c,
R = 0 , and if the series converges for all x, R = ∞ . The set of values of x for which the power
series converges is the interval of convergence of the power series.

The Form of a Convergent Power Series

If f is represented by a power series f ( x ) = ∑ a n ( x − c ) for all x in an open interval I containing c,
n

then a n = f (n ) (c ) n! and
f ' ' (c ) f (n ) (c )
f ( x ) = f (c ) + f ' (c )( x − c ) + ( x − c )2 + + ( x − c )n +
2! n!

Taylor Series
If a function f has derivatives of all orders at x = c , then the series
f (n ) (c )
(x − c )n = f (c ) + f ' (c )(x − c ) + f ' ' (c ) (x − c )2 + + f (c ) (x − c )n +
∞ (n )
∑
n =0 n! 2! n!
is called the Taylor series for f ( x ) at c. Moreover, if c = 0 , then the series is the Maclaurin
series for f.

3
Guideline for Finding a Taylor Series
1. Differentiate f ( x ) several times and evaluate each derivative at c.
f (c ), f ' (c ), f ' ' (c ), f ' ' ' (c ), … , f (n ) (c ), …
Try to recognize a pattern in these numbers.

2. Use the sequence developed in the first step to form the Taylor coefficients a n = f (n ) (c ) n! , and
determine the interval of convergence for the resulting power series
f ' ' (c ) f (n ) (c )
f (c ) + f ' (c )( x − c ) + ( x − c )2 + + ( x − c )n +
2! n!
3. Within this interval of convergence, determine whether or not the series converges to f ( x ) .

Power Series for Elementary Functions

Interval of
Function
Convergence

= 1 − (x − 1) + ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) + ( x − 1) − (− 1)n (x − 1)n +
1
0< x<2
2 3 4

+ (− 1) x n +
1
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − −1 < x < 1
n

1+ x

ln x = (x − 1) −
( x − 1)
2
+
( x − 1) ( x − 1)
3
−
4
+ +
(− 1) ( x − 1)
n n
+ 0< x≤2
2 3 4 n
x2 x3 x4 xn
ex = 1+ x + + + + + + −∞ < x < ∞
2! 3! 4! n!

sin x = x −
x3 x5 x7 x9
+ − + − +
(− 1)n x 2n+1 + −∞ < x < ∞
3! 5! 7! 9! (2n + 1)!

cos x = 1 −
x 2 x 4 x6 x8
+ − + − +
(− 1) x 2 n
n
+ −∞ < x < ∞
2! 4! 6! 8! (2n )!

arctan x = x −
x3 x5 x7 x9
+ − + − +
(− 1)n x 2 n+1 + −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
3 5 7 9 2n + 1

arcsin x = x +
x3
+
1 ⋅ 3x 5 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7
− + +
(2n )! x 2 n+1 +
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1
2⋅3 2⋅4⋅5 2⋅4⋅6⋅7 (2 n n!)2 (2n + 1)
k (k − 1)x 2 k (k − 1)(k − 2 )x 3 k (k − 1)(k − 2)(k − 3)x 4
(1 + x )k = 1 + kx + + + + −1 < x < 1*
2! 3! 4!
* The convergence at x = ±1 depends on the value of k.