EFFECT OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT ON THE

DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN KADUNA STATE

(A STUDY OF ZANGON KATAF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF KADUNA STATE)

BY

Mohammad Mustapha, UMAR

DEPARTMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

STUDIES, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA,
NIGERIA

AUGUST, 2015.

1
 TITLE PAGE

EFFECT OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT ON THE

DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN KADUNA
STATE
(A STUDY OF ZANGON KATAF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA
OF KADUNA STATE)

BY

Mohammad Mustapha, UMAR Bsc. Political Science (MAIDUGURI)

P13ADLG8001

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE

STUDIES, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF A MASTER DEGREE IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT

DEPARTMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

STUDIES, INSTITUTE OF ADMINISTRATION, AHMADU BELLO
UNIVERSITY, ZARIA, KADUNA STATE

AUGUST, 2015.

2
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare this research work has been conducted by me under the

guidance of Dr. Usman Abubakar and Dr. Bashir Jumare of the Department

of Local and Development Studies, A.B.U. Zaria Researchers or a writer

whose works has been consulted or referred to in this Thesis has been

acknowledging.

Muhammed Mustapha UMAR ____________________

P13ADLG8001 Signature/Date

3
 CERTIFICATION

This thesis entitled EFFECT OF ETHNO RELIGIOUS CONFLICT ON

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN KADUNA
STATE by Muhammad Mustapha UMAR, meets the regulations governing
the award of the Degree of Maser of Public Administration (Local
Government) of Ahmadu Bello University, and is approved for its
contribution to knowledge and literary presentation.

____________________ _____________ __________

Dr. Usman Abubakar Signature Date
Project Supervisor

____________________ _____________ __________

Dr. Omar Massoud Signature Date
Project Supervisor

____________________ _____________ __________

Dr. M.K. Isa Signature Date
Head of Department

____________________ _____________ __________

Prof. A.Z. Hassan Signature Date
Dean, School of Postgraduate
Studies.

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I am most grateful to Almighty Allah (S.W.A) who in

His infinite Mercies and abundant blessing made it possible for me in
undertaking this study.

Secondly my most sincere appreciation goes to my able supervisors; Dr

Usman Abubakar, Dr Omar Moshood. External Supervisors;Dr. Musa Idris
and Dr. Bashir Jumare for their effort, advice, encouragement, corrections
and suggestions which have made this thesis a reality despite their pressing
academic and research engagements.

Special appreciation goes to my institution, Kaduna Polytechnic for

sponsoring me to undertake these studies. I am grateful. Also my
appreciation goes to my parents wife and children for their patience, support
and encouragement while undertaking this study.

I also wish to thank the rest of my lecturer- Professor Adejo Udoh,,

Professor Haladu Abubakar, Dr. Bello Ohiani and my able and distinguish
Head of Department, Dr Mohammed Kabir Isa. Once again we are really
grateful and highly indebted for your concern and care to ensure that we
defended and graduate with honour. May Allah (SWA) continue to guide,
protect and bless you and the entire staff of the Department.

Finally, my appreciation goes to my friends and course mates who helped

me in carrying out my research either directly or indirectly my Allah
(S.W.A) reward you abundantly.

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page - - - - - - - - - i
Declaration - - - - - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - iv
Abstract - - - - - - - - v
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - vi

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem - - - - 5
1.3 Research Question - - - - - - 8
1.4 Aim and objectives of the Study - - - - 8
1.5 Hypotheses - - - - - - - 8
1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study - - - 9
1.7 Scope and limitations of the Research - - - 10
1.8 Definition of Concepts - - - - - - 11

CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 14
2.1 Conflict - - - - - - - - 14
2.2 Ethnic Conflict - - - - - - - 17
2.3 Religious Conflict - - - - - - - 23
2.4 Ethno-Religious Conflict and Development - - 28
2.5 Theoritical Framework - - - - - - 33

6
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology
3.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 36
3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - 36
3.2 Area of Study - - - - - - - 36
3.3 Population and Sample Size - - - - - 37
3.4 Sampling Technique - - - - - - 37
3.5 Instrument of Data Collection - - - - - 38
3.6 Procedure for Data Analysis - - - - 40
3.7 Decision Rule - - - - - - - 40

CHAPTER FOUR
Data presentation and Analysis
4.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - 41
4.2 The Zangon Kataf Ethno-Religious Crisis - - 44

CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
5.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 48
5.1 Data Presentation - - - - - - 48
5.2 Data Analysis - - - - - - - 55
5.3 Hypothesis Testing - - - - - - 62
5.4 Research Findings - - - - - - 68

7
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 Introduction - - - - - - - 70
6.1 Summary - - - - - - - 70
6.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 77
6.3 Recommendation - - - - - - - 79
References
Appendix

8
 ABSTRACT
The series of ethnic and religious conflict in Kaduna State necessitated the
research topic “Effect of ethno-religious conflict on the development of
Local Government in Kaduna State with the aim and objective to examine
the effect of ethnic and religious conflict; and to find out how these conflicts
at the Local Government level can be abated against continuous occurrence.
Both the primary and secondary sources of data collections were used, while
Chi-square and SPSS 13 were instruments of data analysis. The research
found out that ethno-religious conflict is caused by ignorance, poverty and
dearth of infrastructural facilities. Therefore it recommends that government
should ensure peace and security through trainings and retraining of
security personnel giving the traditional rulers and community leaders
functional roles in promoting and ensuring unity and peace among the
citizens. The research will be utmost importance to policy makers,
researchers and students of conflict management especially at the grassroots
level.

9
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Societies accommodate various tendencies, interests and identities

which often result to conflict. Conflict is a global phenomenon which

is not peculiar to Nigeria. The results of violent conflicts in many

parts of Nigeria hitherto known to be peaceful have degenerated to a

worrisome phenomenon. The emergences of ethnic militant group

such as the Odua People Congress (OPC), Arewa Peoples Congress

(APC), the Bakkassi Boys, etc have added a new dimension to the

nature of these conflicts. The Zango Kataf religious riots and those

that occurred in other parts of Kaduna State in March 1992, the

conflicts in the Kaduna metropolis in 2000, etc. have at least left all

well meaning Nigerians restless. The socio-political and economic

problems associated with inter and intra-group conflict is immediately

evident and has far reaching consequences on the security, properties

and social co-existence of the people.

10
A survey by International Institute for Democracy and Election

Assistance (International IDEA, 1999) revealed that there were about

102 simmering conflicts in different parts of the country. These

conflicts are mostly local ones, fueled by disagreement over sharing

of resources. They often have religious or ethnic coloration. The

seasonal clash between farmers and cattle rearers, border skirmishes

over land, protest over Sharia law and perceived marginalization of

some groups in power sharing was obvious. These conflicts resulted

in loss of lives, property and means of livelihood, thus creating

humanitarian emergency situations with the internally displaced

population trooping to rehabilitation centers. The trauma to which

people in conflict prone areas are subjected to, and the huge costs of

post-conflict reconstruction of the society take a heavy toll on the

resources that would otherwise have been invested in development

projects.

Moreover, conflicts have consequential effects especially on local

governments. This is because whenever and wherever there are

violent conflicts there will be senseless destruction of lives and

properties, arson, looting and vandalization of public buildings,

11
structures and properties hence retarding development and other

government programmes.

This perception of ethnic mobilization has further strengthened a

negative force in all efforts at national cohesion. As noted earlier it

has left a trail of destructive violence. International IDEA (2000:94)

identified the following ethnic violence:

 The Jos riots of 1945.

 The Kano riots of 1953.

 The Tiv uprising of 1959-1960 and 1964.

 The violence in Western Nigeria that led to the imposition of a

state of emergency in the region in 1962.

 The ethnic massacres within the army and in the north, which
preceded the civil war in 1967.

 The carnage of the 30 months civil war, 1967-1970.

According to Usman (2000:2), others are;

 The Kasuwar Magani conflict between the Adara and Hausas,

Kaduna State in 1980.

 The Ife-Modakeke conflicts, in April 1981.

12
 The Bachama-Hausa/Fulani conflict in Numan Adamawa State
in 1986-1988.

 The conflict in Kafanchan between the Kataf/Hausa and other

parts of Kaduna State in March 1987.

 The Kuteb-Jukun, Jukun-Tiv, Pansho-Mambilla at Wukari,

Takum, Gembu and other part of Taraba and Benue States, in
1990-1992 and 1999-2002.

 The conflict in Obi and Toto LGA‟s and neighbouring areas of

Nassarawa State in 1995-1999.

 The conflict in the Andoni and Ogoni area of Rivers State in

1993-1994.

 The conflict in Karim Lamido Local Government Area, Taraba

State, in 1996-1997.

 The conflict in the Ogoni and Okrika area of Rivers State in

1994-1996.

 The conflicts in Nembe and Kalabari area of Bayelsa State in

1996-1999.

 The conflict in the Bassambiri and Ogbolombiri of Bayelsa

State in the 1990s.

 The conflict in the Okpona Brass area of Bayelsa State in the

1990s.

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 The conflict in the Sangama, Soku and Oluasiri area of Rivers
and Bayelsa States between 1993 and 2001.

 The conflict in the Burutu Local Government Area of Delta

State in 2000-2001.

 The conflicts in Warri and its environs 1997-2002.

 The conflicts in the Okiti Pupa area of Ondo State in 1998-

2000.

 The conflict in Mushin, Ajegunle, Ketu and Agege and other

parts of Lagos State, 1999-2000.

 The conflict of the Quan-pan Local Government Area of

Plateau State, and the Azara district of the Awe Local
Government Area of Nassarawa State in 2001 and 2006.

 The conflict in Awe Local Government Area and other areas of

Nassarawa State in 2001 and 2002.

 The conflict in Ife and Modakeke areas of Osun State in 2000-

2001.

 The Fulani-Mambilla conflict on the Mambilla Plateau in 2001-

2002.

 The conflict in Shagamu and other part of Ogun State in 1999-

2000.

 The conflict in Aguleri and Omuleri areas of Anambra State in

2002.
14
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

Ethnic conflict are no longer confined to the urban centres which was

earlier identify as the cradle site of the antagonistic ethnicity. Rather

we have the ruralization of ethnic conflict as different ethnic group

that have shared century and decades of more or less peaceful co-

existence have been pitched against one another as mortal enemy from

Zango-Kataf and other places in the southern Kaduna and Manbila

plateau of Taraba state to Tigno-Waduku in Adamawa state and

Wukari (where the Tiv and the Jukuns are locked in the most

protracted conflicts) as well as the Jukuns and Kuteb in Taraba state,

evidences abound that the rural area have been turned into killing

fields.

In seeking to come to terms with the phenomenon of the resurgence of

these identities, it is important to take into cognizance the different

forces at work, at both the domestic and global levels. Some of these

forces, either acting alone or in combination, have been sharpened the

crisis of the nation-state project in post-colonial African. they include

the accelerating process of globalization and democratization, they

deeping economic crisis and social inequality, the resuvergence of

15
liberal ideology seeking to enforce market reforms, and the

consequent whittling down of state legitimacy and capacity, all of

which have led to the emergency of different individual groups

redefining and reinventing their identities.

A major incentive to ethnic and religious conflict is the unevenness

generated by the modernization process. In Nigeria, this becomes a

crucial issue, because of ethnicity and religion, on the politics of

resources allocation.

Two consequences of these for development processes are of

immediate concern. The force has to do with the unevenness it

generated various ethnic home land. and these make meaning in

situation where ethnic and religious boundaries tend to concern. The

significance of the ethnic factor in the distribution of resources and

amenities has created a situation in which certain ethnic groups are

précised to have enjoyed certain advantages. The emergences of new

ethnic /territorial movement, especially among the minority ethnic

nationality, are largely a response to this. The second has to do with

the anarchy associated with the development process. Since ethnic

religious and political consideration, dictate the manner in which

16
resources are allocated, duplication and waste characterize allocation

of resources, with minimal consideration for cost and efficiency in the

operation of the federal system.

The problem of order and stability; are bound to arise where inequality

and inequity resulting from this tend to occur along ethnic and

religious line. In some other societies it has to lead to religious and

ethnic groups, perceiving them as been disadvantage, demanding

political autonomy. The way in which feelings of alienation and

injustice at national, state and local levels enter into discourses has had

a snowballing effect on what has appear as ethnic communal and

religious conflicts in various part of the country.

Over the years, Nigeria has witnessed one form of conflict or another.

Ethnic and religious crises have become more frequent and the

phenomenon that readily come to one‟s mind are; what are the effects

of such conflicts on development at the local government level? and

how can these conflicts be abated against continuous occurrence? This

study was undertaken in order to answer these vital questions as they

affect the development of the local governments in Nigeria and Kaduna

State in particular.

17
1.3 Research Questions

i. What are the consequences of the ethno - religious conflicts at

the local Government level in Kaduna state?

ii. How can ethno - religious conflicts at the local Government

level in Kaduna state be abated against continuous occurrence?

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The aim and objectives of this study are to examine the effect of

ethno-religious conflicts on the development of local governments.

Other specific objectives include the following:-

i. To examine the effect of ethno - religious conflicts at the local

Government level in Kaduna state.

ii. To find out how ethno - religious conflicts at the local

Government level in Kaduna state can be abated against

continuous occurrence.

1.5 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested at 95% confidence level.

18
 Ha. Ethno-Religious conflicts retard the development of socio-

economic development at the Local Government level.

Ho. Ethno-Religious conflict does not retard the development of

socio- economic infrastructures at the Local Government level.

1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is rooted on the fact that similar

researches and studies have been undertaken with different aims and

specialty. However, this is not an exception. It is, but to add more to

the existing researches. Consequently the Zangon Kataf crisis of 1992

was a conflict between two ethnic groups (Atyap and Hausas) that

were hitherto leaving peacefully together. The conflict assumed

ethno-religious dimension because the Atyaps were predominantly

traditionalists and Christians while the Hausas were Muslims. The

conflict witness the destruction of socio-economic infrastructures that

were meant for both sides and as well the lost of lives and valuable

properties. Moreover, the study is set to examine both the negative

and positive aspects of such conflicts as they affect development at

the local government level. For some time, conflicts including ethnic

and religious, conflict have been given considerable attention by the

19
 media, academics and policy makers. In this study, the focus is on

how ethnic and religious conflicts especially in Kaduna state have

some effects on the development of the local governments. This is

because life (both human and livestock) were wasted, properties,

infrastructural facilities like public buildings, markets, schools, motor

parks were attacked and destroyed. Social co-existence and cohesion

is destabilized with resultant consequences of relocation and

resettlement along ethnic and religious divide.

Therefore, it is of utmost significance to further unearth it effects on

the development of local governments Meanwhile, the study will be

of immense importance to the researcher and as well those in charge

of peace, policy-making, security agencies, researchers, and local

government functionaries.

1.7 Scope and limitations of the Research

The scope of this study is on ethnic and religious conflict and how

these conflicts affect the development of local governments in Kaduna

State. The Zango Kataf crisis of 1992 in Kaduna state is the case

study. This is because it was one of the crisis in the state that

20
 witnessed the most tumultuous and volatile ethno-religious conflict

with heavy toll on both human and material resources.

The major limitation and delimitations of this research is that, it does

not cover all aspects of ethno-religious conflict in Nigeria. This is

because the issue of ethno-religious conflicts is very broad to be dealt

with. The focus of this research is on the understanding of the

problems that have impacted negatively and perhaps positively on the

peace and unity of the people of Kaduna State.

However, efforts to have access to some important documents at the

Kaduna State Ministry of Justice and the Kaduna State Police

Headquarters was to no avail as either they are not available from the

source or they are classified as „confidential‟, thus they cannot be

released for whatever purpose. Likewise information that are needed

from some personalities were difficult to come by as they are difficult

to be reached due to their tight schedules or the protocol involved.

1.8 Definition of Concepts

In this research, the following concepts are defined; ethno-religious

conflict and development,

21
Ethno -Religious Conflict:

Ethno-religious conflict is a conflict that is inspired by ethnic and

religious factors. The word ethnic in this research is conceptually

define as those group of people that shares a common and distinctive

features of language, heritage and religion. This include the major

ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Fulani,Yoruba, Igbos etc and also the

minority ethnic groups such as the Atyab,Bajju,Gwari, Jaba,

Kaninkon etc. while religion in this context are the three

constitutionally recognized religion in the country i.e. Islam,

Christianity and the traditional religions. On the other hand, conflict

according to the Heidelberg institute for international conflict research

(HIIK 2005), is the “clashing of interests (positional differences) on

national values of some duration and magnitude between at least two

parties (organized groups, states, groups of states, organization ) that

are determined to pursue their interests and win their cases”.

Therefore, Ethno-Religious Conflict in this study are those ethnic and

religious groups that are found in Kaduna state that co-habits before

and after the colonial era. These include the Hausa/Fulani Muslims

and the Atyap (Kataf), Kaninko, Jaba etc Christians/Traditionalists.

22
From the above observations, we can operationally define ethno-

religious conflict as the violent conflicts that ensured among and

between the various ethnic and religious groups in Kaduna state that

often leads to the destruction of lives (both human and animals),

properties and basic infrastructural facilities and places of worship.

Development: The definition of development will reflect the social

and economic changes as it affects the upliftment of the standard

of living at the local government level. This research addresses the

link between development and conflict as it affects the local

government level in Kaduna state. It can be understood that conflicts

breeds underdevelopment and it impoverishes the society to the extent

that basic existence of food, shelter, clothing, healthcare services and

infrastructural facilities such as roads, water supply, schools, markets

and motor parks etc are threatened and sometimes destroyed.

Operationally, therefore, development means the availability and

existence of basic necessities of life such as food, shelter, security of

life and properties, infrastructural facilities such as roads, water,

markets, motor parks etc.

23
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The research topic is “The Effects of Ethno-Religious Conflict on the

Development of Local Government Areas in Nigeria: A study of

Zangon Kataf Local Government Area conflict of 1992 in Kaduna

State. Accordingly, the review takes the under-listed format, i.e.

discussion or review on (a) conflict (b) ethnic conflict (c) religious

conflicts and its consequences on the social fabric of local

governments in Kaduna state and (d) development and ethno-religious

conflicts. .

24
2.1 Conflict

At the mention of conflict, the picture that appears to most people‟s

mind is that of war, fighting, argument, misunderstanding and the like.

All these are negative tendencies which are undesirable. However,

conflict has positive impact in the society as it can increase clarity

about existing problems, and eventually lead to innovative break-

through or new approaches to solving social problems.

Conflict involves struggle over values and claims, power and

resources in which the aim of the opponents are to neutralize or

engage in outright elimination of rivals. The condition of objective

incompatibility between values or goals as the behaviour of

deliberately interfering with another goals achievement emotionally in

terms of hostility. In this case, conflict is perceived as divergence of

interest or belief that common objective cannot be actualized, hence

clashing of values, views and interest.

Akande (1998) is of the view that “there is no society without conflict;

it is inherent to societal relation and management. The ability to

manage conflict makes a good society or state, because conflict

cannot be eradicated.” It can be noted that conflict varies and is of

25
different dimension. In most cases they are confrontational, violent

and sometimes may lead to a state of anarchy. For instance, it can be

social conflict like the topic under investigation i.e. ethnic and

religious. It can be economic like the struggle on resource control,

establishment of markets and the location of some viable economic

organisations like banks, industries, etc. Likewise conflict can be

political like the aftermath of the January, 1966 military coup d‟etat,

the political impasse after the annulment of the June 12, 1993

presidential election in Nigeria, and of recent the 2011 post election

political violence and killing of innocent people and bombardment of

security outlet by a group allegedly known as Boko Haram.

Consequently, conflicts arise out of mistrust, hostility and polarization

of relations among groups at times in a competitive setting. One fact

is that there are many causes of conflict.

As stated earlier, conflicts know no bound as it happens in most

countries of the world. And such conflicts cut across both developed

and the developing countries. However, the nature and dynamics of

the conflicts depends on the conflict management techniques that are

26
 put in place to take care of the situation. Osaghae (1994) observed

that;

“There is a tendency to assume that these conflicts

are more rampant and devastating in African
countries where alternative action-bases like class,
activity organizations and party identities have not
become deep rooted enough to challenge the
primacy of ethnicity. But they have been no less
destructive in advanced industrialized states where
alternative action-bases and management strategies
are arguably better developed. Examples are
Scottish and Irish separatism in the United
Kingdom, the Flemish and Walloons in Belgium, the
Quebec question in Canada and diverse ethnic
problems in the USA.”

Therefore, conflicts abound in both industrialized and non-

industrialized countries.

2.2 Ethnic Conflict

Nigeria is a pluralist society with multitude of ethnic groups that

abound in the country. According to Elaigwu (2000), „Nigeria has

about 300 ethnic groups and over 400 lingo-cultural groups‟. He

further stressed that, “an ethnic-group is a group of people linked by

common bonds of kinship and communal relationship. In some cases,

it has identifiable language, social, economic and cultural traits as

27
well as a distinct territory”. On the other hand, he observed that,

“ethnicity is ethnic consciousness transformed into a weapon of

offence or defense in a competitive process in relation with other

groups over desired scarce resources. Ethnicity often creates problems

of integration, especially in a multinational state”. Basically, ethnic

conflicts in the modern setting are not unlike pre-colonial struggles

and wars of subordination, rebellion and hegemony. They tend to be

centered in struggle for autonomy and freedom from exploitation by

small groups from larger groups or by large groups under the thumb

of powerful minorities.

Ethnic consciousness is a factor that propels ethnic conflict. Ethnic

consciousness implies the loyalty or attachment to an ethnic group

either as a social, political and economic entity, or a cultural

community. So it is based on the promotion of one‟s ethnic group

interest as opposed to other groups. Although ethnic consciousness

cannot be said to oppose the process of nation building but it is an

instrument through which an individual need for his own identity.

Moreover, ethnic conflict and ethnic consciousness existed in both the

pre-colonial era and the colonial period, though the colonialist

28
promotes it to suit their interest. For instance, in northern Nigeria, the

colonialist pursued an active policy of segregating northerners from

southerners. Initially, the indigenous residents of a town in the North

got along very well with migrants from the other parts of the North

and also from the south. This was an embarrassment to the colonialist

who later invented the policy of „Sabongari‟. Migrants were forced to

live apart from the indigenous populations in areas designated as

sabon-gari or “strangers‟ quarters”. It is in this regard that Nnoli

(1978) observed that, “contrary to Euro-American propaganda,

contemporary ethnicity in Nigeria is not the result of some primitive

mystique of the African causing one linguistic group to fight another,

but the result of the need for the local population to adapt to the

colonial and neo-colonial society”.

Ethnic conflict is a conflict that is inspired by ethnic factors. Onigu

and Isaac (1999) have identified seven main factors as sources of

conflict. These are:

a. The land space and the resources available which consequently

degenerate into the question of “settlers” and “indigenes”.

29
b. Secondly, is the jurisdiction of certain traditional rulers and

chiefs. E.g. when a king of one ethnic group or sub-ethnic

group claims ruler ship over people belonging to another ethnic

group, his action often generates conflict.

c. The creation of local government councils and the location of

their headquarters is the third factor generating conflicts.

d. The fourth factor is the competition over access to scarce

political and economic resources for instance. The creation of

states and local government councils means the availability of

more political and administrative positions in the localities.

Contestants mobilize members of their ethnic and religious

group for support in the competition to hold such positions.

e. The fifth factor derives from the micro and macro-social

structures in Nigeria as can be seen in the conflicting cultural

interest, values and preferences. So, the exploited coexistence

of cultural, ethnic, and religious differences amongst people in

the same polity is itself inherently conflictual.

f. The sixth factor is the population growth and expansion

tendencies to sustain ethnic bound occupations. This occupation

30
 has to do with land and other available resources. A resource in

this sense may be seen as an opportunity in the environment

that has been identified and appraised by a population of

potential users.

g. The seventh sphere of conflict is the perception of disregard for

cultural symbols and the “pollution” of cultural practices which

if goes unchecked will lead to violent conflict. It is noteworthy

that, Nigeria is a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country.

Fundamentally, the colonial economic policies led to the formation of

ethnic associations while the period of depression of 1928-1934

corresponding to the period of the government‟s most extensive

withdrawal from social welfare services, witnessed the unrivaled

growth in the number and membership of these associations. In order

to emancipate their members from this socio-economic and the

adverse effects of the system of inequality imposed by the colonial

order, the various ethnic groups engaged in vicious competition with

one another which severely strained the social fabric of the nation.

Consequently, the inter-ethnic suspicion and subsequent feud that

accompanied the formation and activities of the political class resulted

31
in various crises such as the Kano riot of 1953 which was ethnic

conflict in nature between the Hausas and the Igbos, Census crises of

1962/63, the Action group crises in the West in 1962, the 1964

Federal election crisis and the Western Nigerian election crisis of

1965. All these prompted the military intervention into the nation‟s

body politics.

The military coup of January 1966 had ethnic colouration as majority

of those that were killed were the leaders of the Northern and Western

regions. Based on this, Nnoli (1978) observed that, the coup was:

“an attempt to limit ethnic competition through the

use of pre-emptive violence. Six of the seven majors
and eighteen out of the other twenty-three who
actively participated in plotting and executing the
coup came from the same ethnic group.”

Consequently, Usman (2002:3) further observed that, “there were of

course, many other cases of violent communal conflicts which did not

get prominent treatment in the media or, by the government and

opinion leaders and politicians”. In this regard one can observe that

ethnic conflicts are no longer confined to urban centers, which was

earlier identified as the cradle site of antagonistic ethnicity, where

prompt attention is given to any violent eruption by both the press and

the government. Thus, we have the ruralization of ethnic conflicts as

32
different ethnic groups that have shared centuries and decades of more

or less peaceful co-existence have been pitched against one another as

mortal enemies. In essence, this means that ethnic conflict not only

take place in urban centers but also in rural areas. Also, from the

various expositions made, it is understood that, ethnic conflicts does

not only happen between the major ethnic groups in the country, i.e.

Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo but also in-between them, e.g. between

the Hausas and Fulani over farm and grazing land, between the

Yorubas like the Ife and Modakeke conflicts, etc. likewise there is

intra-minority ethnic conflict like the Tiv-Jukun, Jukun-Kuteb, Bajju-

Ikulu, etc.

Consequently, violent conflicts lead to lost of lives, properties and

distrust among the conflicting group. It is in this view that Usman

(2002:) observed that,

“One of the widespread attitudes towards these

violent communal conflicts especially in the
immediate aftermath of blooshed, the arson and
other devastations, is that they are just the result of
madness by those involved. The perpetrators of
this violence, on both sides and even the actual
planners do not appear to gain anything tangible
beyond the satisfaction of eliminating an Enemy.”

33
 Meanwhile, it is due to the persistent ethnic conflicts which in most

cases are violent in nature that the principle of Federal Character and

other national policies such as the National Youth Service Corp

Scheme, unity schools, intermarriages, etc. were introduced in order

to allay the fear of minorities, promotes unity in diversity and as well

enhances even development. Also the Federal Character principle that

is enshrined as part of our national laws was meant to ensure the

adoption of the quota system and equity in appointments, provision of

social amenities and infrastructures, etc. across all ethnic groups in the

country. Despite this, ethnic groups are alleging bias in favour of the

other making allegations and counter allegations against each other.

Meanwhile, Sako (1998) concludes that “at this age, ethnic conflict

should not be a factor that would take us back into the dark ages”.

2.3 Religious Conflict

A large number of religious belief systems and practices thrive in

Nigeria. They include ancient eastern religions such as Buddhism and

newer philosophical beliefs such as the Grail Movement. Most

religious space is however, covered by numerous Islamic and

Christian sects and movements. The fact that the two main religions

34
have sacred texts that are accepted by virtually all sects and groups

has not prevented the growth of serious conflicts caused by different

theological interpretations. Nonetheless, factional and sectarian

differences and struggles linked to ideological, political and

leadership variables seem to play a more important role than

theological differences.

Gofwen (2000) observed that religious intolerance has been identified

as the major source of religious conflict in all societies existing as

long as the history of mankind, and permeating all forms of human

civilizations with attendance destructive tendencies. He further

stressed that no system could be found to be impervious to it wherever

it existed, because deeper cleavages are created in society by it more

than any other factors. Meanwhile, Balogun (1998) defines religious

intolerance as “hostility towards other religious as well as the inability

of religious adherents, to harmonize between the theories and the

practical aspect of religion”.

From this definition, one can understand that religious conflict is not

only common between different religions but as well between and

among the same religious. It is in this regard that Yau (1998)

35
classified religious conflict into three categories. These are “intra-

religious conflicts, inter-religious and state versus religious groups

conflicts”. One thing to note here is that, a particular conflict could

degenerate to another conflict or from one type to another. An

example is, a state versus religious groups conflict can degenerate into

an inter-religious conflict or vice versa.

Inter-religious conflicts: The inter-religious conflict began as socio-

ethnic conflicts, but articulated and fought out under the idiom of

inter-religious conflicts. Examples are the Bauchi riots of 1991 and

the Zangon Kataf riots of May 1992 (Metuh, 1994). While offering

explanation of this spate of religious conflict in Nigeria, Usman

(1987) established that religious and ethnic conflicts are part of the

inevitable competition for scarce resources by modernizing ethnic

elites. He further stated that the real basis of the manipulation of

religion in Nigeria today is the need to observe from the people of

Nigeria a fundamental aspect of our reality. that is the domination of

our political economy by a class of intermediaries who are being

increasingly exposed. And this is to enable this class to cover

themselves with religious and ethnic disguise in order to further

36
entrench division among people, slow down their awakening, (Usman,

1987).

Also commenting on the influence of the political economy on

religious conflicts in Nigeria, Yau (1998:18) opined that;

With the collapse of the living conditions of the

majority of the citizens due to worsening economic
crises engendered by the Structural Adjustment
Programmed (SAP), living became a precarious
endeavour for the majority… this created
communal tension across neighbouring
communities, which exploded in religious conflicts
where the communities were divided both
ethnically and religiously. This was the case with
the Kafanchan, Zangon-Kataf and Tafawa-Balewa
conflicts which although were sparked-off by
religious misunderstanding, they centered on the
questions of land ownership, means of the
economic sustenance and local traditional
institution. In these cases, the “indigenous”
Christian people believed that the Hausa/Fulani
Muslims “Settlers” have usurped their land in
addition, to a deep-seated resentment against
the Hausa/Fulani traditional rule in their domains.

The state-versus religious group conflicts is when security forces

and law enforcement agencies are pitted against religious groups,

which seem to either reject the authority of the state or contest it

legitimacy. For example, the Kaduna 1996 conflict was because of the

demonstration staged by the Shites demanding the release of their

leaders inspite of the banned on demonstrations as imposed by the

37
State Governor. This resulted in confrontation, which spread to Zaria

town where the Shites beat a retreat.

Other issues that prompt religious conflict were perceived hidden

agenda between the adherents of both Islam and Christianity. For

instance, Muslim activists continuously express concern and fears

over what they consider to be the dominance of Christians in Nigeria

such as having Saturday and Sunday as work-free days while the

Islamic holy day, Friday is a normal working day, the use of the

Gregorian Christian calendar for official business, Christian melody in

the national anthem, the curriculum in most of Nigeria‟s educational

institutions which they claim reflect and/or draw inspiration from

Christian belief and the Christian cross as the symbol for health

institution. On the other hand, Christian activists are concerned

mainly with what they regard as the threat of the Islamization of the

country and the imposition of the Sharia on Non-Muslims. The use of

state resources to subsidize Islamic activities, in particular the annual

pilgrimage to Mecca and the government take-over of missionary

schools. Linked to these concerns is the tradition of Muslim political

hegemony in the country and in the army. Christians worry that most

regimes in the country‟s post-independence history have been

38
 dominated and led by northern Muslim politicians or military officers,

(International IDEA, 2000). Also Elaigwu (1999) have outlined the

series of violent religious incidents in the country. (see appendix ii)

The aforementioned chain of violent religious events in the country

have much hampered social integration, economic and political

development and above all nation building. Moreover, the local

governments which is basically the grassroot level and where most of

these violent crises do emanate and then transcend to the urban

centers are mostly affected devastatingly as all ingredients needed for

socio-economic and political development are dampened and

vandalized, while confidence and mutual trust among people is

eroded.

2.4 Ethno-Religious Conflict and Development

Development is a socio-economic process that was adopted after 1945

by developing countries in order to overcome their economic and

institutional backwardness. A key component of development is the

improvement of the material condition of the populace and equitable

distribution of resources and the elimination of poverty.

Consequently, development is a multi-faceted phenomenon

39
encompassing economic, social and political dimensions. Thus, in

order to achieve meaningful development, it is pertinent to integrate

the local government areas where majority of the population lives.

This is important because the existence of high Gross National

Product (GNP) where majority of the populace remain unemployed

and or poor, is not a reflection of development, even though it is one

of the indicators. Hence, there is the need to have strong local

government development programmes as bedrock of integrated

development that will enhance ethno-religious harmony at the local

level where the beneficiaries live.

According to Olympio (2004) the concept of development cuts across

many levels. It refers to macro issues (such as patterns of a nation‟s

growth), as much as it refers to macro problems (such as river-basin

problems) or to micro problems (such as local community

development). All three levels-macro, meso, and micro are

interwoven. And at all levels, many different diversion - economic,

cultural, religious and gender affect and are affected by development.

Development should be understood as a process as societies are

always changing. Some improve, while others fail. Development

practice intends to provide fools that can be applied to entire societies

40
or specific communities. Such interventions are intended to more

communities or societies from a situation in which they are believed

to be worse off to a in which they are assumed to be better off.

Current links between development and conflict theory stress the

provision of aid in cases of violent conflict. Peace building

interventions after violent conflicts address the same concerns as

development interventions. Clearly, development is at the physical

and social landscape has been damaged.

The million development goals (MDGs) illustrate how development is

an interdisciplinary field, which implements programs in various areas

and deals with innumerable variables such as economic, social,

political, gender, cultural, religious and environmental issues. Societal

change most often requires structural change. Most development

intervention is locally targeted and short term. While much of

development thinking and practice has changed, the moral and

political dimensions still remain. Crisis of current development theory

such as Gonathan crush (1995) and Arturo Escobar (1995) see

development as a set of rational managerial prescriptions through

which industrialized nations have largely imposed their views and

41
models onto the beneficiaries of their aid, forcing, to some extent a

change in the identities of those who have been benefited. As noted

earlier, development interventions are intended to more societies from

a situation in which they are believed to be worse off, to situations in

which they are assumed to be better off.

While one may agree that the concept of development is a normative

concept in the sense that it implies progress from a less desirable state

to a more desired one. Hence, the emphasis today in the development

literature is on meeting basic needs and redistributing the benefits of

growth.

Basically, local government development implies improvement of the

standard of living of the people so that most of the people can satisfy

not only their economic and social needs adequately, but also save for

future investment. The process of development is only tedious, but has

socio-economic and political relevance. Thus, it is important to

mobilize communities at various levels. This can be achieved by

increasing the skills of people through education and mass

mobilization. Development then, is the process of harnessing the

human resources in order to conquer the environment for the

42
betterment of the people in line with its values, customs and

traditions. Local government development encompasses all the indices

found in development but specifically targeted towards rural dwellers.

For instance, according to Olympio (2004), the concept of

“development” cuts across many levels. It refers to macro issues (such

as patterns of a nation‟s growth), as much as it refers to meso problem

(such as river-basin plans), or to micro problems (such as local

community development). All three levels-macro, meso, and micro

are interwoven. And at all levels, many different dimensions-

economic, cultural, religious and gender affect and are affected by

development. In this regard development should be understood as a

process not a product. Societies are always changing. Some improve,

while others fail. According to Dennis Goulet (1971), there are three

core values that constitute development and represents “good life.”

These core values are: sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom. They all

relate to fundamental human needs that find their expression in almost

all societies and cultures at all times, They can be examine as follows:

i. Life-Sustenance: this refers to the ability to provide basic

necessities; all people have certain basic needs without which

life would be impossible. These include; food, shelter, health

43
 and protection. When any of these is absent or in critical short

supply, it may be stated that a condition of absolute

underdevelopment exist. However, rising per capita income, the

elimination of absolute poverty, greater employment

opportunities, and lessening income inequalities therefore

constitute the necessary but not sufficient conditions for

development.

ii. Self Esteem: to be a person, is another component of good life.

It constitutes a sense of worth and self respect of not being used

as a tool by others for their own ends. All people and societies

seek some form of self esteem, although, they may call it

authenticity, identity, respect, honour or recognition. The nature

and form of this self esteem may vary from society to society

and from one culture to another.

iii. Freedom from servitude and to be able to choose: this is the

final universal core value. Freedom here is to be understood in

the more fundamental sense of freedom or emancipation from

alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude

to nature, other people, misery, oppressive institutions, and of

dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination,

44
 From the above three core values, it can be concluded that

development is both a physical reality and the state of the mind

in which society has through some combinations of social,

economic and institutional processes, secured the means of this

better life. Whatever the specific component of this better life,

development in all societies must have at least the following

three components; to increase the availability and widen the

distribution of (a) basic life, (b) sustaining goods such as food,

shelter, health and (c) protection to all members of the society.

Moreover, this research addresses the link between development and

conflict as it affects the local government level in Kaduna state. It can

be understood that conflicts breeds underdevelopment and it

impoverishes the society to the extent that basic existence of food,

shelter, clothing, healthcare services and infrastructural facilities such

as roads, water supply, schools, markets and motor parks etc are

threatened and sometimes destroyed.

2.5 Theoretical Framework

There are many of theories that have been put forward by scholars in

the study of conflict. Hadjipavlou (2000) write that among this large

45
volume of theories in conflict literature, two broad schools of thought

regarding the nature and roots of conflict are identifiable. The first

school of thought view social conflict as something “rational,

constructive, socially functional” (Simmel,1955, Coser 1968). The

second school of thought views it from the perspective of being

“irrational, pathological and socially dysfunctional” (Dougherty &

Pfalzgraft, 1981). Three major theoretical approaches emerge from

each school of thought; the “classical”,the “behaviourist” and the

“Linkage” (Hadjipavlou, 2002).

The classical approach takes as it unit of analysis, the macro level

(nation, institutions, ethnic, religion, class, etc), the behaviourist

approach on the other hand, regard the micro level, i.e. the individual

as its unit of analysis. However, in both approaches, both the

conscious and the unconscious are examined in order to understand

hidden motivational factors for the conflict. The Linkage adopting an

inter-disciplinary approach, views social conflict as an interactive

process, involving a variety of subsystems and factors. Both macro

and micro levels as well as rational and irrational processes constitute

the level of analysis thus the relationship of the individual to the

nation-state is considered (Hadjipavlou, 2002). The conflict identity

46
theory (Tajfel, 1981) is based on normal psychological processes in

the course of developing our social identities whereby we affiliate

with our own group (family, ethnicity, community, nation) and this

reinforces our human need for self esteem, self worth which we

receive from belonging to our group. Several conflicts in Kaduna state

can be located in the context of these theories, including the Zangon

Kataf crisis. The concepts of in group and outgroup are important here

in that we compare ourselves, our group, our community to other

groups who we perceived as “inferior”. In times of conflict we tend to

demonize the other and thus try to project on to them all the “badness”

of ourselves which we tend to deny or consciously ignore

(Hadjipavlou, 2002, 2004). A study of most conflicts in Nigeria will

revealed that the various groups involved in such conflicts were very

active, utilizing the concepts of ingroup and outgroup, which

accounted for large scale carnage, especially conflicts that were

ethnic, religious, or ethno-religious in nature.

The macro theories of conflict focus on the interactions of groups

especially at the conscious level and the objective dynamics and

conditions that are involved. Some focus on the historical evolution of

conflicts such as C. Marx, R. Dahrendorf and more recently J.

47
 Galtung. Marx sees conflict as a product of the capitalist social and

economic structure. Dahrendorf sees authority and not class as the

prime source of conflict. Another major concept here is the use of

power which manifests itself in economic, political, military, and

cultural realms of life. Thus emphasis is given on competition over

scarce resources such as territory, power, status, etc). the many

conflicts across Kaduna state that have arisen as a result of conflicts

between different ethno-religious groups on farmlands and issues

bordering on markets, infrastructural facilities, political power

(elections ) fall within this ambit.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This is the procedure that is used in carrying out the study. The

following sub-headings are examined: research design, population of

the study, sampling techniques, instruments and method of data

analysis.

3.1 Research Design

48
 The design for this research is both the primary and the secondary

sources of data collection are used. Questionnaires were administered

to obtain the desired information on the effects of ethno-religious

conflict on the development of local governments in Kaduna State.

Also, other sources like textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers,

editorials, and articles are used in order to arrive at the acceptable and

cohesive research result.

3.2 Area of Study

The study is designed to examine the effects of ethno-religious

conflict on the development of local governments in Kaduna state

with Zangon Kataf conflict of 1992 as the case study. Zangon Kataf

witnessed a horrendous waste of life and properties with spill over in

Kaduna metropolis, Zaria and other local government areas in the

state and beyond (Religion and Society, Vol. 4, January-April, 2002).

3.3 Population and Sample Size

The population of the study is the inhabitants of Zangon kataf local

government area of Kaduna sate. This is because the inhabitants were

severely affected with the ethno-religious crisis that took place in

May,1992.
49
3.4 Sampling Technique

Purposive or judgmental sampling technique is used. This has given

the researcher the privilege to hand pick certain groups of people that

are considered knowledgeable and important in the conduct of this

research. Questionnaires are administered on the following categories

of people, namely; local government functionaries, politicians,

traders, traditional rulers, community and religious leaders, and youth

leaders. The questionnaire is drawn in a Likert form and is divided

into six sections of A, B, C, D, E, F, and G.

In all one hundred and fifty (150) people constitute the respondents

from the local government area. For Instance, twenty five (25)

people each from the local government functionaries, politicians,

traders, traditional rulers, community and religious leaders, and youth

leaders were given the questionnaire to respond.

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for the collection of data for this study is

questionnaire; Questionnaires are administered on the following

categories of people, namely; local government functionaries,

politicians, traditional rulers, community and religious leaders, traders

50
and youth leaders. The questionnaire is drawn in a Likert form and is

divided into six sections of A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Available

literatures like books, journals, government publications, white

papers, newspapers and magazines were also used to strengthened the

data obtained from primary sources. The questionnaire is formed in

Likert format and are divided into sections A, B, and C, Section A

contains issues on general information of respondents, such as; sex,

age, level of education background, and employment status, . Section

B is on the effects of Ethno-Religious conflict in Kaduna State.

Section C is on conflict management of ethno-religious conflicts.

Questions on general information are drawn in such a way that the

respondents answered by ticking the appropriate column and filling

the gap. The remaining questions in the questionnaire were structured

on a modified Likert rating scale format of Undecided (U), Strongly

Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Agree (A) and Strongly Agree (SA).

The respondents do respond to the questions by putting a tick ()

under the alternative columns provided.

The modified Likert rating scale format is as follows:

Undecided (U) = 1 point

51
 Strongly Disagree (SD) = 2 point

Disagree (D) = 3 points

Agree (A) = 4 points

Strongly Agree (SA) = 5 points

According to Nworgu (1991), “this modification is based on the fact

that the point “Undecided” (uncertain or neutral) is not located in the

middle of the opinion/attitude continuum. Rather, it represents a

situation or condition of the mind prior to the formation of any

opinion/attitude. It is not a transition stage from one type of

opinion/attitude (say, negative) to another (say, positive) as has been

misconstrued.

3.6 Procedure for Data Analysis

Tables and simple frequency counts were used in the presentation of

data. In the test of hypothesis and data analysis, the statistical tool

employed was the chi-square ( ) test of independence. The formular

for the chi – square test is given below:

52
 2 ( fe fo )
f0
All analysis for the hypotheses testing was done at the 0.05 level of

significance with the aid of the current version of windows Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, 13).

3.7 Decision Rule

The decision rule that was used to adjudge whether to accept or reject

any of the hypothesis tested is as follows:

i. If test value < critical value, retain Ho. This implies rejection of Ha

ii. If test value > critical value, reject Ho. This implies retention of Ha

OR

i. If p-value obtained < set alpha Value, reject Ho. This implies

retention of Ha

ii. If p-value obtained > set alpha Value, retain Ho. This implies

rejection of Ha.

CHAPTER FOUR

OVERVIEW OF ETHNO-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN KADUNA

STATE

53
4.1 Introduction
The city of Kaduna, the capital city of Kaduna state, is one of the

largest in northern Nigeria and is viewed by some as the symbolic

capital of the north. Kaduna has a significant population of Christians,

from around thirty ethnic groups based mostly in the south of the

state, sometimes referred to as the South Kaduna minority tribes. The

majority of the population in the northern part of Kaduna state are

Muslims from the Hausa/Fulani ethnic groups. Kaduna differs from

other northern states in that although some areas are dominated by

particular ethnic groups, these different groups have also lived side by

side in the same areas for many years, especially in Kaduna town.

Kaduna has a different mix of populations from other northern states

as its capital is one of the more developed cities in the north, it has

become host to people from many ethnic groups from different parts

of the country.

Over several decades, Kaduna, like other states of Nigeria, has

experience outbreaks of violence and fighting between different

groups. Most often, this has pitted Muslims against Christians,

although the fundamental causes can be traced to political and

economic rivalries, rather than religious differences. Some of the most

54
serious outbreaks of violent conflicts in Kaduna state occurred in 1987,

1992, 2000 and 2011. A dispute erupted between students from

different ethnic and religious groups in Kafanchan, and the violence

spread to several other towns and areas. In February and May 1992, in

what became known as the Zangon-Kataf crisis, there were clashes in

Zangon-Kataf between the Hausa and the Kataf, initially sparked off by

a dispute over the relocation of a market. Killing of Hausa by Kataf

were followed by reprisal killings of Christians by Muslims, including

in several other parts of the state. Shehu Sani (2007) have outlined the

sequence of ethno-religious conflict in Kaduna state as follows:-

1. Kasuwan Magani in Kajuru Local Government Area, 1980,

when Hausa traders tried to take over Adara land, claiming that

the land belonged to them.

2. Yarkasuwa, then in Lere District in1986, During the contest for

the district headship of Lere, when the Kurama were blamed

for the crisis who were opposed to the candidature of a Bakurmi

Muslim who “dared” to contest for the District Head‟s office

reserved for the Hausa-Fulani of Lere town.

55
3. Kafanchan in 1987, violent conflict between the muslim

students and Christian students of the College of Education.

This spread to Zaria, Kaduna, Katsina etc, where places of

worship, lives and properties were destroyed.

4. ABU, Zaria in 1988, violent conflict between muslim and

Christian students over students‟ union elections. About 107

students were injured, some seriously with some killed at

Gwargwaji.

5. Zangon kataf in 1992, clash between the Hausa community and

the Atyaps of Zangon Kataf over the control of the market in

the area.

6. 1999, ethno-religious attacks against Southern Kaduna in

Kaduna North Local Government Area, and reverberations in

Kafanchan and environs

7. 2000, violent sharia riot, when the Kaduna state House of

Assembly proceeded to debate on the implementation of Sharia

laws in Kaduna state. The riots were in Kaduna, Zaria, Kano ,

Katsina etc

56
8. 2001, Sanga –Gwantu, ethno-religious conflict which was on

whether 1the Sharia or the customary court should be located in

Gwantu. The new legal system, therefore, only served as the

immediate cause of the crisis to settle deep-rooted resentment.

9. 2001, Bajju- Ikulu ethno-religious conflict broke out over the

change of nomenclature of the town from Kamuru station to

Kamuru Ikulu.

10. 2002, Miss world conflict. This was as the result over a

THISDAY newspaper blasphemous article on prophet

Muhammad (SAW) and a protest against the Miss World

pageant. At the end of the protest that assumed a violent

dimension, a number of vehicles, 16 churches, 11 hotels, 8

mosques, 189 houses and 3 schools were burnt. Before the

conflict was brought under control, about 220 people were

killed, 1,500 wounded and over 30,000 displaced.

11. 2011, post election violence. The April presidential election

was adjudged to have been rigged in favour of the ruling party

which led to a massive protest in most Northern states.

Consequently it turned violent especially in Kaduna state

57
 whereby churches, mosques and houses were burnt in Zaria and

Kaduna, the Kafanchan market was burnt, lives and properties

were lost and wasted.

4.2 The Zangon Kataf Ethno-Religious Crisis

Zagon kataf ethno-religious identity based contestations and conflict

were dominant features, the ethnic groups in the area are the Angan

(Kamantan), Atyap(Kataf), Bajju (Kaje), Ikulu, fulbe (Fulani), Hausa

and Tacherak (Kachecere). According to Toure Kazah Toure(2003),

the ethno-religious diversity in the area can be described as a

rainbow, with it share of conflict. Until the 1960s the population of

the local majorities were largely „animist‟, but later converted and is

presently predominantly Christians. For the Hausa and Fulbe, who are

the local minorities, they have been predominantly Muslims for

hundred of years.

For decades, in the 20th century, there were complaints, protests, and

revolts- by the communities that perceived themselves as been

dominated. Central issues included aristocratic oppression, political

exclusion and economic marginalization. Political and other complex

conflict, some of which got violent, kept on exploding. Perceived

political dominance and the control of economic power by the Hausa

58
gave rise to the expression of struggles largely in ethno-religious

terms. The inter-ethnic rivalry can be better appreciated in the contest

of the struggle by the Atyap business interests to break the monopoly

of the market by Hausa merchants (Mustapha 1997:212-217). Thus,

politics by various dominant ethnic circles was linked to intra-class

tussles in terms of commercial and economic interests. That, to an

extent, explains why immediately the new council chairman was

sworn in, the local government Council moved fast to relocate the

market, even without providing necessary facilities. A fast move came

from the opposing side, as there was counter-move to stop the

realization. A prominent Hausa businessman secured a court

injunction restraining the council from going ahead with the

relocation (Citizen 1992:11).

The Zango area exploded in a violent ethno-religious conflict. On

February 6, 1992, a violent inter-ethnic clash started between the

Atyap and the Hausa, even as the authorities had information in

relation to the tension surrounding the movement of the market to a

new site and the counter action to block it. The first casualties were

some people at the new market. There was a swift counter-attack as

59
Zango town was encircled and attacked by the Atyap militants. Which

led to lost of many lives.

In their separate submissions to the Committee for Reconciliation, the

representatives of the Hausa community maintained that the Atyap

had for a long time nursed a sort of jealousy and hatred towards them,

because of their economic prosperity. For their part, the Atyap raised

issues of alleged Hausa contempt towards them, exclusion from the

market and the neglect of their economic interest.( Report of the

committee for reconciliation 1995: 10 & 92). The second violent

conflict erupted after accusations and counter accusations were level

among the two contending ethnic groups. On May 15, 1992, a vicious

and violent armed conflict erupted again between the Hausa and

Atyap. For two days the two communities carried some kind of ethnic

cleansing. A total of 1,528 people were officially counted dead, in the

Hausa community ( Report of Zangon kataf Market Riots…1992).

Figures for the Atyap casualties have been difficult to come by,

because they were instantly picking their and burying. By May

18,1992, the conflict had spread and engulfed Kaduna, Zaria and

Ikara. Once it went beyond the area and other parts or Kaduna state, it

assumed a religious dimension of Muslims versus Christians and the

60
 meaning of the conflict changed concretely. Thus it became „ethno-

religious conflict‟.

These conflicts in Zangon kataf is very significant in the sense that it

has woken up the consciousness of economic, social and political

rights of „minority‟ ethnic groups not only in Southern Kaduna and

Kaduna state but Nigeria as whole. This is because it was a local

conflict that went beyond the boundaries of the state.

CHAPTER FIVE

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

5.0 Introduction

61
 In this chapter, data obtained and used for analysis is presented. In the

presentation, frequency tables and percentages were used to further

display vividly the data collected. The analysis of the data was done

with the aid of SPSS while the main statistical tools employed were

the mean and chi-square. The next two sections give details. The

chapter ends with a section on summary of research findings which

emanates from the data analyses, focused group discussion and the

research hypotheses testing.

5.1 Data Presentation

In this section, the data gathered is presented under two main

subsections, viz: demographic data and research question/hypotheses

data. This presentation will form the basis for answering the research

questions and testing of the research hypotheses in the next section.

5.1.1 Demographic Data

The data employed for this study was obtained via the administration

of a researcher – designed questionnaire. A total of 150 questionnaires

were administered but 125 were returned. This implies that the

response rate is approximately 83%. According to Nworgu (1991)

“where all the questionnaires returned are less than 70%, the result
62
could differ considerably”. Therefore a response rate of 83% can be

considered adequate for valid statistical analysis. Table 5.1.1 below

depicts the percentage response

Table 5.1.1: Response rate of questionnaire administered

No. Administered 150

No. Returned 125

% Response 83

Out of the 125 questionnaires returned, 75 were from male and 50

from female respondents. This means that 60% of the respondents are

male while the remaining 40% are female. Table 5.1.2 below shows

the distribution of the respondents by gender.

Table 5.1.2: Distribution of the respondents by gender

Respondents Gender Frequency Percent
Male 75 60.0

Female 50 40.0

Total 125 100.0

Data analysis of the marital status of the respondents shows that 67 of

them are married, which constitutes 53.6% while 55 of them are

singles, representing 44% of the respondents with the remaining 3

63
 being widows i.e. 2.4% of the respondents. Table 5.1.3 below displays

the distribution of the respondents in terms of marital status.

Table 5.1.3: Marital Status Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Marital Status Frequency Percent
Married 67 53.6

Single 55 44.0

Widow 3 2.4

Total 125 100.00

Further data analysis of the age distribution of the respondents

revealed that majority of them i.e. 37 are between the ages of 36 years

and above, representing (29.6%) of the total. The next are those within

the age range of 26 – 30 years old which are 30 in number (24%) of

the total. The number within the age group 21 – 25 years old which

are 27 (21.6%) of the total; 31 – 35 years old are 25 (20.8%) of the

total and 5 of the respondents are between the age of 15-20 years

64
 which is 4% of the respondents. Table 5.1.4 below displays the age

group distribution of the respondents.

Table 5.1.4: Age Group Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Age Group Frequency Percent
15-20yrs 5 4.0
21-25yrs 27 21.6
26-30yrs 30 24.0
31-35yrs 26 20.8
36yrs & above 37 29.6
Total 125 100.00

In terms of educational qualification of the respondents, 61 of them

constituting 48.8% of the total are either HND or first degree holders,

42 (33.6%) are Diploma/NCE holders. Those with Post Graduate

Qualification are 16 (12.8%) of the respondents while those with

either professional qualification or other qualifications not mentioned

above are 3 each, representing 2.4% of the respondents respectively.

Table 5.1.5 below shows educational qualification distribution of the

respondents.

Table 5.1.5: Educational Qualification Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Qualification Frequency Percent
Dip NCE 42 33.6

65
 HND 1st Degree 61 48.8
Postgraduate degree 16 12.8
Professional 3 2.4
Others 3 2.4
Total 125 100.0

Analysis of the respondents‟ occupational distribution was done. It

was thus discovered that the number of respondents that are local

government functionaries/public servants are 45 (36%) of the total.

Other respondents fall under the following occupation or categories:

Politicians, 19 (15.2%), traditional rulers, 5 (4.0%);

community/religious leaders, 10 (8.0%); retired military personnel, 5

(4.0%); youth organization members, 25 (20%); unemployed, 16

(12.8%). Table 4.1.7 below depicts this detail.

Table 5.1.7: Occupational Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Occupation Frequency Percent
LG functionary public servant 45 36.0
Politician 19 15.2
Traditional ruler 5 4.0
Community/religious leader 10 8.0
Retired military personnel 5 4.0
Youth org. member 25 20.0
Unemployed 16 12.8

66
 Total 125 100.0

5.1.8 Research Questions/Hypotheses Data

Data relating to the first research question and hypotheses was

obtained from respondents responses to section B of the questionnaire.

Thus Research Question one and the Hypothesis data shown in Table

5.1.8 below depicts the response pattern to items in this section of the

questionnaire which solicit for information on the effects of ethno-

religious conflicts at the local government level in Kaduna state.

Table 5.1.8: Research Question one and Hypothesis data

S/N Items U SD D A SA
The series of ethno-religious
conflicts in Kaduna state has
1 retarded educational 1 5 19 76 24
development at the Local
Government level in the State.
The series of ethno-religious
2 6 6 17 63 33
conflicts in Kaduna state has

67
 retarded infrastructural
development in the State.
The series of ethno-religious
conflicts in Kaduna State has
3 negatively affected investment 2 7 21 68 27
profile at the Local Government
level in the State.
The polarization of the State into
ethnic and religious divide
undermines the much needed
4 2 3 16 84 20
unity, peace and progress at the
Local Government level in the
State.
The series of ethno-religious
conflicts at the Local
Government level in Kaduna
5 3 2 19 86 15
State has heightened tension,
suspicion and marginalization
among the people of the State.
The tension, suspicion and
marginalization at the Local
Government level in Kaduna
6 State has undermine the 8 16 21 28 52
peaceful and social co –
existence among the people of
the State.

Data relating to the second research question and hypotheses was

obtained from respondents responses to section C of the questionnaire.

Thus Research Question two and Hypothesis data shown in Table

5.1.10 below depicts the response pattern to items in this section of

the questionnaire which solicit for information on Conflict

68
 Management Mechanisms at the Local Government Level in Kaduna

State.

Table 5.1.9: Research Question three and Hypothesis data

S/N Items U SD D A SA
Political leaders, traditional rulers,
community and religious leaders,
youth organizations and non-
governmental organizations should be
1 0 2 7 98 18
united with the aspiration of
promoting peace and development
among the various ethno-religious
groups in Kaduna State.
There should be fairness and equity in
the establishment and distribution of
2 social amenities and infrastructural 1 3 4 94 23
development in the Local
Governments in Kaduna State.
Security agencies and apparatus
should be equipped, trained and
retrained in order to enhance their
3 ability in discharging their duties and 0 1 1 53 70
responsibilities of promoting peace
and security in the Local
Governments of Kaduna State.
Recruitment and appointment into
government offices and parastatals at
4 all levels should reflect the 6 3 4 89 23
geographical spread of the Local
Governments in the State.

5.2 Data Analysis

In this section, analysis of the data gathered is presented. This analysis

forms the basis for answering the research questions and testing of the

69
 research hypotheses. Therefore, the next two subsections will be

focused on answering the research questions and hypotheses testing.

5.2.1 Research Questions

As stated in section 3.5, the main instrument used to gather data for

answering the research questions was a questionnaire structured in

line with the Likert rating scale format of Undecided (U), Strongly

Disagree (SD), Disagree (D), Agree (A) and Strongly Agree (SA).

The analysis criteria used was such that Undecided (U) was awarded 1

point, Strongly Disagree (SD), 2 points; Disagree (D), 3 points, Agree

(A), 4 points and Strongly Agree (SA), 5 points. For each item, the

Mean Score from all the responses was calculated based on the above

point – allocation criteria.

Decision Rule for Research Question Answering

In line with the above point – allocation criteria, the decision rule

employed was that a Mean Score of:

1. implies that the respondents were undecided about the item

2. implies that the respondents have Strongly Disagreed with the

item

3. implies that the respondents Disagreed with the item

4. implies that the respondents Agreed with the item

70
 5. implies that the respondents Strongly Agreed with the item.

As stated in section 1.3, this study sought answers to the following

research questions:

1. What are the effects/consequences of the ethno - religious

conflicts at the local Government level in Kaduna state?

2. How can the ethno - religious conflicts at the local Government

level in Kaduna state be abated against continuous occurrence?

Research question one focuses on the effects of ethno - religious

conflicts at the local Government level in Kaduna state. Six items were

used to solicit information from respondents and they were analysed

item by item. The following are the respondents‟ reactions to each of

these six items.

S/N Items N SS MS Decision

The series of ethno-religious 125 492 3.936
conflicts in Kaduna state has
1 retarded educational development Agreed
at the Local Government level in
the State.
The series of ethno-religious 125 486 3.888
conflicts in Kaduna state has
2 Agreed
retarded infrastructural
development in the State.
The series of ethno-religious 125 486 3.888
conflicts in Kaduna State has
3 negatively affected investment Agreed
profile at the Local Government
level in the State.

71
 The polarization of the State into 125 492 3.936
ethnic and religious divide
undermines the much needed
4 Agreed
unity, peace and progress at the
Local Government level in the
State.
The series of ethno-religious 125 483 3.864
conflicts at the Local Government
level in Kaduna State has
5 Agreed
heightened tension, suspicion and
marginalization among the people
of the State.
The tension, suspicion and 125 475 3.8
marginalization at the Local
Government level in Kaduna
6 Agreed
State has undermine the peaceful
and social co –existence among
the people of the State.
Key: N = Number of Respondents
SS = Sum of Scores
MS = Mean Score

The first item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether the series of ethno-

religious conflicts in Kaduna state has retarded educational

development at the Local Government level in the State. For this item,

a Mean Score of 3.936, which is approximately 4, was obtained. This

implies that the respondents‟ agreed that one of the effects of ethno-

religious conflicts in Kaduna state is the retardation of educational

development at the Local Government level in the State.

72
The second item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether the series of

ethno-religious conflicts in Kaduna state has retarded infrastructural

development in the Local Governments. For this item, a Mean Score

of 3.888, which is approximately 4, was obtained. This implies that

the respondents‟ agreed that the series of ethno-religious conflicts in

the Local Governments in Kaduna state has retarded infrastructural

development in the State.

The third item seek respondents‟ opinion whether the series of ethno-

religious conflicts has negatively affected investment profile in the

Local Governments in Kaduna State. For this item, a Mean Score of

3.888, which is approximately 4, was obtained. This implies that the

respondents‟ agreed that the series of ethno-religious conflicts in the

Local Governments of Kaduna State has negatively affected

investment profile in the State.

The fourth item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether the polarization

of the State into ethnic and religious divide undermines the much

needed unity, peace and progress at the Local Government level. For

this item, a Mean Score of 3.936, which is approximately 4, was

obtained. This implies that the respondents‟ agreed that the

polarization of the State into ethnic and religious divide have

73
undermined the much needed unity, peace and progress at the Local

Government level in the State.

The fifth item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether the series of ethno-

religious conflicts at the Local Government level in Kaduna State has

heightened tension, suspicion and marginalization among the people

of the State. For this item, a Mean Score of 3.864, which is

approximately 4, was obtained. This implies that the respondents‟

agreed that the series of ethno-religious conflicts at the Local

Government level in Kaduna State has heightened tension, suspicion

and marginalization among the people of the State.

The sixth item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether the tension,

suspicion and marginalization at the Local Government level in

Kaduna State has undermined the peaceful and social co –existence

among the people of the State. For this item, a Mean Score of 3.8,

which is approximately 4, was obtained. This implies that the

respondents‟ agreed that the tension, suspicion and marginalization at

the Local Government level in Kaduna State has undermined the

peaceful and social co –existence among the people of the State.

In order to analyse data addressing research question four, each of the

four items that solicits information on mechanisms for managing

74
ethno - religious conflicts at the local Government level in Kaduna

state were analysed item by item. The following are the respondents‟

reactions to each of these four items.

S/N Items N SS MS Decision

Political leaders, traditional rulers,
community and religious leaders,
youth organizations and non-
governmental organizations should
1 125 507 4.056 Agreed
be united with the aspiration of
promoting peace and development
among the various ethno-religious
groups in Kaduna State.
There should be fairness and equity
in the establishment and
distribution of social amenities and
2 125 510 4.08 Agreed
infrastructural development in the
Local Governments in Kaduna
State.
Security agencies and apparatus
should be equipped, trained and
retrained in order to enhance their
3 ability in discharging their duties 125 567 4.536 Agreed
and responsibilities of promoting
peace and security in the Local
Governments of Kaduna State.
Recruitment and appointment into
government offices and parastatals
at all levels should reflect the 125 495 3.96 Agreed
4
geographical spread of the Local
Governments in the State.
Key: N = Number of Respondents

75
 SS = Sum of Scores

MS = Mean Score

The first item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether political leaders,

traditional rulers, community and religious leaders, youth

organizations and non-governmental organizations should be united

with the aspiration of promoting peace and development among the

various ethnic and religious groups in Kaduna State. For this item, a

Mean Score of 4.056, which is approximately 4, was obtained. This

implies that the respondents‟ agreed political leaders, traditional

rulers, community and religious leaders, youth organizations and non-

governmental organizations should be united with the aspiration of

promoting peace and development among the various ethnic and

religious groups in Kaduna State.

The second item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether there should be

fairness and equity in the establishment and distribution of social

amenities as well as infrastructural development in the Local

Governments in Kaduna State. For this item, a Mean Score of 4.08,

which is approximately 4, was obtained. This implies that the

respondents‟ agreed that there should be fairness and equity in the

76
establishment and distribution of social amenities as well as

infrastructural development in the Local Governments in Kaduna

State.

The third item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether security agencies

and apparatus should be equipped, trained and retrained in order to

enhance their ability in discharging their duties and responsibilities of

promoting peace and security in the Local Governments of Kaduna

State. For this item, a Mean Score of 4.536, which is approximately 4,

was obtained. This implies that the respondents‟ strongly agreed that

security agencies and apparatus should be equipped, trained and

retrained in order to enhance their ability in discharging their duties

and responsibilities of promoting peace and security in the Local

Governments of Kaduna State.

The fourth item seeks respondents‟ opinion whether recruitment and

appointment into government offices and parastatals at all levels

should reflect the geographical spread of the Local Governments in

the State. For this item, a Mean Score of 3.96, which is approximately

4, was obtained. This implies that the respondents‟ agreed that

recruitment and appointment into government offices and parastatals

77
 at all levels should reflect the geographical spread of the Local

Governments in the State.

5.3 Hypotheses Testing

In this section, an attempt will be made to test the hypotheses raised in

section 1.4. The data gathered will form the basis for the testing of the

research hypotheses. As stated earlier, the hypotheses testing will be

done at the 95% confidence level. The decision rule given below will

be used to adjudge whether to retain or reject the hypothesis being

tested.

Decision Rule

1. If test value < critical value, retain Ho. This implies rejection of Ha

2. If test value > critical value, reject Ho. This implies retention of Ha

OR

1. If p-value obtained < set alpha Value, reject Ho. This implies
retention of Ha

2. If p-value obtained > set alpha Value, retain Ho. This implies
rejection of Ha.

5.3.1 Hypothesis

Ha. Ethno-Religious conflict retards the development of socio-

economic development at the Local Government level.

78
 Ho. Ethno-Religious conflict does not retard the development of

socio-economic infrastructures at the Local Government level.

The data for testing this hypothesis, which was obtained from table

4.1.8, is presented in table 4.3.1 below.

5.3.2 Hypothesis

Ha. Ethno-Religious conflict retards the development of socio-

economic development at the Local Government level.

The data for testing this hypothesis, which was obtained from table

4.1.9, is presented in table 4.3.4 below.

Table 5.3.2: Data for Testing this Hypothesis and research question
one – Effects of Ethno - Religious Conflict
Responses Observed N Expected N Residual
Strongly
4 31.3 -27.3
Disagree
Disagree 19 31.3 -12.3
Agree 70 31.3 38.8
Strongly Agree 32 31.3 .8
Total 125

79
The chi-square statistics obtained for the data in table 4.3.4 above is as

presented in table 5.3.2 below.

Table 5.3.3: Chi-square Statistics for Data on Effects of Ethno

Religious Conflict

Effects of Ethno-
ReligiousConflict
Chi-Square(a) 76.632
Df 3
Asymp. Sig. .000
Monte Carlo Sig.
.000(b)
Sig.
95% Lower
Confidence Bound .000
Interval
Upper
.024
Bound

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The

minimum expected cell frequency is 31.3.
b. Based on 125 sampled tables with starting seed 299883525.

An extract of the relevant information regarding the Chi-square

Statistics for data on the identified Effects of Ethno - Religious

Conflict in table 4.3.5 above is presented summarily in table

5.3.4below.

Table 5.3.4: Summary of Chi-square Statistics for effects of

Ethno-Religious Crisis
Variable N Df 2
cal
2
tab Value Value

80
 Effects of Ethno- 125 3 76.632 0.352 0.00 0.05
ReligiousConflict

From the table above, it can be seen that the calculated Chi – Square

value (i.e. 76.632) is greater than the tabulated Chi – Square Value

0.352 at df = 3. Also it can be seen that the obtained p – value (0.00)

is less than the adopted alpha level of 0.05. Relating this to the above

decision rule, it follows that the null hypothesis has to be rejected.

This implies that the corresponding alternative hypothesis is retained.

In other words, the rejection of the null hypothesis implies that the

agreement amongst the respondents on the identified effects of ethno-

religious conflicts at the local government level in Kaduna state is

statistically significant. This goes further to imply that those identified

effects of ethno-religious conflicts for which the respondents agree

can be upheld while those they disagree with should be discarded.

Table 5.3.5: Data for Testing Hypothesis Three – Conflict

Management Mechanism
Observed Expected
Residual
N N
Disagree 7 41.7 -34.7
Agree 37 41.7 -4.7
Strongly Agree 81 41.7 39.3

81
 Total 125

The chi-square statistics obtained for the data in table 5.3.5 above is as

presented in table 5.3.6 below.

Table 5.3.6: Chi-square Statistics for Data on Conflict

Management Mechanism

Conflict Management
Mechanism
Chi-Square(a) 66.496
Df 2
Asymp. Sig. .000
Monte Carlo Sig. Sig. .000(b)
95% Lower
Confidence Bound .000
Interval
Upper
.024
Bound

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum

expected cell frequency is 41.7.
b. Based on 125 sampled tables with starting seed 926214481.

An extract of the relevant information regarding the Chi-square

Statistics for data on the identified Conflict Management Mechanism

in table 4.3.8 above is presented summarily in table 5.3.7 below.

Table 5.3.7: Summary of Chi-square Statistics for effects of

Ethno-Religious Crisis
Variable N Df 2
cal
2
tab Value Value

82
 Conflict 125 2 66.496 0.103 0.00 0.05
Management
Mechanism

From the table above, it can be seen that the calculated Chi – Square

value (i.e. 66.496) is greater than the tabulated Chi – Square Value

0.103 at df = 2. Also it can be seen that the obtained p – value (0.00)

is less than the adopted alpha level of 0.05. Relating this to the above

decision rule, it follows that the null hypothesis has to be rejected.

This implies that the corresponding alternative hypothesis is retained.

In other words, the rejection of the null hypothesis implies that the

respondents on the identified conflict management mechanisms at the

local government level in Kaduna state is statistically significant. This

goes further to imply that those identified conflict management

mechanisms for which the respondents agree can be upheld while

those they disagree with should be discarded.

5.4 Research Findings

From the analyses of the research questions data and hypotheses

testing, the following are the major findings of this study:

5.4.1 Effects of Ethno – Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State Local

Governments

83
 The following have been identified as the major effects of ethno –

religious conflicts in Kaduna State Local Governments

i. Retardation of educational development at the Local Government

level.

ii. Retardation of infrastructural development at the Local

Governments level.

iii. Negative impact on the investment profile of the State.

iv. Polarization of the State into ethnic and religious divide.

v. Absence of unity, peace and progress at the Local Government

level.

vi. Prevalence of heightened tension, suspicion and marginalization

among the people of the State.

vii Absence of genuine peaceful and social co-existence among the

people of the State.

5.4.3 Strategies for the Management of Ethno – Religious Conflicts in

Kaduna State Local Governments
The following have been identified as the major strategies for the

management of ethno – religious conflicts in Kaduna State Local

Governments

i. Political leaders, traditional rulers, community and religious

leaders, youth organizations and non-governmental

84
 organizations should be united with the aspiration of promoting

peace and development among the various ethnic and religious

groups in Kaduna State.

ii. There should be fairness and equity in the establishment and

distribution of social amenities as well as infrastructural

development in the Local Governments in Kaduna State.

iii. Security agencies and apparatus should be equipped, trained

and retrained in order to enhance their ability in discharging

their duties and responsibilities of promoting peace and security

in the Local Governments of Kaduna State.

iv Recruitment and appointment into government offices and

parastatals at all levels should reflect the geographical spread of

the Local Governments in the State.

V The rule of law should be uphold and applied on every citizen

irrespective of individual prominence or position in the society.

CHAPTER SIX

85
 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0 Introduction

In this chapter, which is the concluding chapter of the thesis, the

summary of the entire work is presented. Also presented are the

conclusions for the study which was derived from the research

findings that was arrived at through empirically obtained data. Finally,

recommendations on how to manage such conflicts and possibly avoid

them are proffered.

6.1 Summary

In this study, an attempt has been made to conduct an empirical

research on the effects of ethno – religious conflicts on the

development of local governments in Nigeria. Zangon kataf local

government area of Kaduna state has been specifically focused on.

These local government area was the flash point of these types of

conflicts . It was observed in the study that the effects of these

conflicts in many parts of Nigeria hitherto known to be peaceful have

degenerated to a worrisome phenomenon. The socio-political and

economic problems associated with inter and intra-group conflict is

immediately evident and has far reaching consequence. The trauma to

86
which people in conflict prone areas are subjected and the huge costs

of post-conflict reconstruction of the society take a heavy toll on the

resources that would otherwise have been invested in development

projects. In particular, it has been observed that these conflicts have

consequential effects especially on local governments. This is because

whenever and wherever there are violent conflicts; there will be

senseless destruction of lives and properties, arson, looting and

vandalization of public buildings, structures and properties. Hence,

retarding developments and other government programmes.

Since 1992, these ethnic and religious conflicts have become more

frequent, more widespread and more violently destructive. For,

whenever it occurred, thousands of lives and properties are lost. The

questions that will readily come to one‟s mind are; what are the causes

of such conflicts?, what are its consequences on the local

governments? And how can these conflicts be abated against

continuous occurrence?

In line with these questions, the study sought to achieve the following

objectives:

87
i. To determine the consequences of the ethno - religious conflicts

at the local Government level in Kaduna state.

ii. To find out how can the ethno - religious conflicts at the local

Government level in Kaduna state be abated against continuous

occurrence

Two related research questions and same number of hypotheses were

raised and formulated respectively to guide the conduct of the study

so as to achieve the above objectives.

In the course of literature review for this study, it was realized that

related previous studies have not been directed towards a particular

environment i.e they were not environment or area – specific.

Therefore, recommendations from such research tend to take a more

general approach. This study addresses this shortcoming. Herein lies

one of its significance. Also, this study will add more to the existing

researches and as well strengthen facts and records as to the reasons

that often ignite ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria and Kaduna State

in particular. Moreover, the study examined both the negative and

positive aspects of such conflicts as they affect local governments.

This is because most write-ups and researches have not dealt with the

88
impact of ethnic and religious conflicts on the socio-economic and

political development of local governments in Nigeria. The findings

from this study is of immense importance to the researcher, those in

charge of peace, policy-making, security agencies, researchers, local

government functionaries and both the leaders and the led.

The design for this research is analytical. Both the primary and the

secondary sources of data collection are used. Questionnaires and

focus group discussion were administered and conducted to obtained

the desired information on the effects of ethno-religious conflict on

the development of local governments in Kaduna State. Also, other

sources like textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, editorials,

and articles are critically analyzed in order to arrive at the acceptable

and cohesive research result.

The population of the study is the inhabitants of the twenty-three local

governments of Kaduna State. For the purpose of the study, Zangon

Kataf local government was picked as the study area. The local

government was the „flash points‟ during ethno-religious conflicts in

the state because records have shown that it was a place where

violent conflicts takes its toll on people‟s life and property. For

89
instance, the 1992 conflict in the Local government witnessed a

horrendous waste of life and properties with spill over in Kaduna

metropolis, Zaria and other local government areas in the state and

beyond (Religion and Society, Vol. 4, January-April, 2002).

Purposive or judgmental sampling techniques were used. This gave

the researcher the privilege to hand pick certain groups of people that

are considered knowledgeable and important in the conduct of the

research. A Questionnaire of the Likert scale form was designed and

administered on the following categories of people, namely; local

government functionaries, politicians, traditional rulers, community

and religious leaders, and youth leaders. The questionnaire has three

sections with section A addressing issues on general information of

respondents, such as; sex, age, level of education background,

employment status, and residential area. Section B is on is on effects

of ethno-religious conflicts. Section C is on conflict management.

In all, 150 questionnaires were administered but 125 were returned

thereby making this number to constitute the respondents from the

local government of the study area. The data obtained and used for

analysis was presented with the aid of frequency tables, percentages,

90
mean and the chi-square statistics. The analysis of the data was done

with the aid of SPSS13. In the data presentation section, Response

rate of questionnaire administered, Distribution of the respondents by

gender, Marital Status, Age Group, Educational Qualification and

Occupation were addressed by means of the frequency tables and

percentages.

Analyses of the data gathered were the basis for answering the

research questions and testing of the research hypotheses. While the

mean was used for the analysis which made possible the answering of

the research questions, the chi – square statistics was deployed to test

the research hypotheses. Consequent upon these analyses, the

following answers were obtained to the research questions:

1. The major effects of ethno – religious conflicts in Kaduna State

Local Governments

Retardation of educational development at the Local

Government level.

Retardation of infrastructural development at the Local

Governments level.

91
 Negatively impact on the investment profile of the State.

Polarization of the State into ethnic and religious divide.

Absence of unity, peace and progress at the Local Government

level.

Prevalence of heightened tension, suspicion and

marginalization among the people of the State.

Absence of genuine peaceful and social co –existence among

the people of the State

2. The major strategies for the management of ethno – religious

conflicts in Kaduna State Local Governments

Political leaders, traditional rulers, community and religious

leaders, youth organizations and non-governmental

organizations should be united with the aspiration of promoting

peace and development among the various ethnic and religious

groups in Kaduna State.

There should be fairness and equity in the establishment and

distribution of social amenities as well as infrastructural

development in the Local Governments in Kaduna State.

92
 Security agencies and apparatus should be well equipped with

modern warfare techniques and gadgets, trained and retrained in

order to enhance their ability in discharging their duties and

responsibilities of promoting peace and security in the Local

Governments of Kaduna State.

Recruitment and appointment into government offices and

parastatals at all levels should reflect the geographical spread of

the Local Governments in the State.

As for the research hypotheses, it was discovered that:

Ethno-Religious conflicts retard the development of socio-

economic development at the Local Government level.

There is significant difference in the effects of ethno – religious

conflicts and development at the local Government level in Kaduna

State

There is significant difference in the mechanisms for managing ethno –

religious conflicts and development at the local Government level in

Kaduna State.

6.2 Conclusion

93
The local government level as an institution of state in Kaduna state

has witness tremendous setback arising from the incessant ethnic and

religious conflict across the length and breadth of the state. Ethnicity

and religion has often been used as a negative force in Kaduna state

local governments aimed at gaining power through the manipulation

of sectarian sentiments, poverty and ignorance of the down trodden

masses at the grassroots level who hitherto were leaving in peace and

harmony with each other irrespective of their ethnic and religious

divide or differences.

The huge cost of settling the internally displace persons arising from

such conflicts on the local governments, the rebuilding and the

reconstruction of destroyed public properties, the set back on

educational development of the pupils, the lost of investments

opportunities due to insecurity and anarchy, the polarization of urban

local governments like Kaduna North and Kaduna South local

governments into ethnic and religious divide impacts negatively on

the much desired peace, unity and progress at the local government

level and the state at large.

94
In view of the above and arising from the findings of this study, it

becomes imperative that some incidental beneficiaries of these

conflicts like the political elites that are either in or out of power as

well as those amongst these elites who are indigenes of the state

residing within or outside the state, should guard against negative

tendencies that creates divisions among people for their selfish and

unpatriotic interests. Also, the economic elites that gain from the

patronage of contracts and profits from supplies of goods and

services, which have been found to constitute major problem to the

peaceful co – existence of the people at the grassroots level should

guard against negative tendencies. The religious/community leaders

who always clamour for recognition by the government at all levels

are part of the major problem in ethnic and religious conflict at the

local government level as they are always requested to come out and

quell tension and the breakdown of the law and order. The

unemployed youths are yet another army that inflamed the embers of

violent conflicts across the state. This is because they derive benefit

through looting, arson and stealing of individual and public properties.

On the basis of the findings from this study, it becomes imperative

that some durable solutions should be recommended on how to foster

95
 a peaceful and harmonious co-existence among the people of Kaduna

state in order to promote and bring about the much needed human and

infrastructural development at the local government level in the state

in particular and Nigeria in general. Consequently, the following

recommendations are geared towards this direction.

6.3 Recommendations

Ethno – religious conflict, undoubtedly, constitutes a great

impediment to the peace, stability and development of a nation. At the

local government level, it brought about underdevelopment and

retrogression in human, financial and infrastructural development.

Therefore, to manage and prevent the incessant violent ethno –

religious conflict at the local government level in Nigeria and Kaduna

state in particular, the following suggestions are recommended:

Political leaders, traditional rulers, community and religious leaders,

youth organizations and non – governmental organization should be

united with the aspirations of promoting peace and development

among the various ethnic and religious groups in Kaduna state.

96
There should be fairness and equity in the establishment and

distribution of social amenities as well as infrastructural development

in the local governments in Kaduna state.

Security agencies and apparatus should be well equipped with

modern warfare gadgets, techniques and be given up to date training

on how to quell and manage social conflicts of such magnitude and as

well to enhance their ability in discharging their duties and

responsibility of promoting peace and security in the local

governments of Kaduna state.

Recruitments and appointments into government offices and

parastatals at all levels should reflect the geographical spread of the

local governments in the state.

The local governments should build a culture of tolerance, trust and

love among it citizens through dialogue, workshops, and conferences

in inter – ethnic and inter – religious relations.

Poverty and ignorance should be tackled head on through the creation

of job opportunities for the unemployed youths. There should be

intense enlightenment campaign on the need to live and let live

through tolerance and harmonious co – existence.

97
 The rule of law should be upheld by ensuring that all the perpetrators

and those that are adjudge to have flame the embers of violent

conflicts are punish accordingly;

Finally, it is also recommended that further studies should be made

on the advent and activities of groups like boko haram, Movement for

the Actualization of Biafra (MASSOB), Odudua Peoples Congress

(OPC) etc

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102
 APPENDIX

Dear Sir/Madam,

QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a Postgraduate Student in the Department of Local Government

Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria currently working on a research
entitled “ Effect of Ethno-Religious Conflict on the Development of
Local Governments : a study of Zangon Kataf local governments in
Kaduna State”. Kindly tick the appropriate space representing the answers
to each of the items in the questions below you think best describe your idea
on ethnic and religious conflict and its effects the development of Local
Governments in Kaduna State.

I wish to assure you that all information provided will be treated with utmost
confidentiality and will only be used for the purpose of the research.

Thank you.

UMAR MOHAMMAD MUSTAPHA

P13ADLG8001

103
Note: Please tick or fill as appropriate

SECTION A: Personal Date

1. Sex
a. Male [ ]
b. Female [ ]

2. Marital Status
a. Married [ ]
b. Single [ ]
c. Divorce [ ]
d. Widow [ ]
e. Separated [ ]

3. Age Distribution
a. 15 – 20 years [ ]
b. 20 – 25 years [ ]
c. 25 – 30 year [ ]
d. 30 – 35 years [ ]
e. 35 years and above[ ]

4. Educational Qualification
a. Diploma/NCE [ ]
b. HND/First Degree [ ]
c. Postgraduate Degree [ ]
d. Professional [ ]
e. Others [ ]

5. Occupation
a. Local Government Functionary/Public Servant [
]
b. Politician [
]
c. Traditional Ruler [
]
d. Community/Religious Leader [
]
104
 e. Retired Military Personnel [
]
f. member of a youth organization [
]
g. Unemployed [
]

6. LGA
a. Kaduna North [ ]
b. Zaria [ ]
c. Jamma‟a [ ]
Instruction:Kindly tick ( ) in the appropriate space your response to each
question.

Key to questions:

U - Undecided
SD - Strongly Disagree
D - Disagree
A - Agree
SA - Strongly Agree

105
SECTION B: Effects of Ethno-Religious Conflicts at the Local
Government Level in Kaduna State

S/N U SD D A SA
1. The series of ethno-religious conflicts in Kaduna state
has retarded educational development at the Local
Government level in the State.
2. The series of ethno-religious conflicts in Kaduna state
has retarded infrastructural development in the state.
3. The series of ethno-religious conflicts in Kaduna state
has negatively affected investment profile at the
Local Government level in the state.
4. The polarization of the state into ethnic and religious
divide undermines the much needed unity, peace and
progress at the Local Government at the Local
Government level in the state.
5. The series of ethno-religious conflicts at the Local
Government Level in Kaduna state has heightened
tension, suspicion and marginalization among the
people of the state.
6. The tension, suspicion and marginalization at the
Local Government level in Kaduna State has
undermine the peaceful and social co-existence
among the people of the state.

106
SECTION D: Conflict Management Mechanisms at the Local
Government Level in Kaduna State

S/N U SD D A SA
1. Political leaders, traditional rulers, community and
religious leaders, youth organizations and non-
governmental organizations should be united with the
aspiration of promoting peace and development
among the various ethno-religious groups in Kaduna
State.
2. There should be fairness and equity in the
establishment and distribution of social amenities and
infrastructural development in the Local
Governments in Kaduna State.
3. Security agencies and apparatus should be equipped,
trained and retrained in order to enhance their ability
in discharging their duties and responsibilities of
promoting peace and security in the Local
Governments of Kaduna State.
4. Recruitment and appointment into government
offices and parastatals at all levels should reflect the
geographical spread of the Local Governments in the
State.

107
APPENDIX II: SERIES OF ETHNO RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN
NIGERIA
Location Principal Actors
Date
May, 1980 Zaria (Kaduna State) Disturbances in Zaria during which
property belonging to mainly
Christians were destroyed.
Dec. 18-19, Yan-Awaki in Kano Riots by Maitatsine sect, 4,177 people
1980 (Kano State) died, extensive destructive of
properties.
Oct. 30, 1987 Bullumkutu Maiduguri KalaKato and Maitatsine sects. 118
(Borno State) people died, extensive damage to
property.
Feb. 27-Mar. 5, Dobeli ward, Jimeta- Maitatsine sect, 586 died, extensive
1984. Yola (Gongola State) destruction of property.
April 26-28, Pantami ward, Gombe Maitatsine sect, 105 died, extensive
1985. (Bauchi State) destruction of property.
March, 1986 Ilorin (Kwara State) Muslim and Christian clashed during a
procession at Easter.
May, 1986 Ibadan, University of Demonstration by Muslims in which
Ibadan (Oyo State) they burnt the figure of the Risen
Christ in the Chapel of Resurrection,
University of Ibadan.
March, 1987 (a) Kafanchan (Kaduna Clashes between Muslims and
State) Christians at the College of Education,
Kafanchan… Loss of some lives and
the burning of some Mosques by
Christian and Natives Kajes.
(b) Katsina, Funtua, Wave of religious riots in which

108
 Zaria and Kaduna Muslims burnt down numerous Church
(Kaduna State) buildings, and damaged property
belong to Christians. Many lives were
lost.
Feb., 1988 Kaduna, Kaduna Religious riots, ostensibly among
Polytechnic, Kaduna students, destroyed the foundation
walls of Christian chapel.
April, 1991 (a) Katsina (Katsina Religious violence spearheaded by
State) Mallam Yahaya Yakubu leader of the
fundamentalist Shiites sect in Katsina.
It was to protest over a blasphemous
publication in Fun Times. Several lives
were lost and property destroyed.
(b) Tafawa Balewa Started as a quarrel between a Fulani
(Bauchi State) man and a Sayawa meat seller in
Tafawa Balewa. Escalated into a full
blown violence and later took the
colouring of religious war in Bauchi.
Several lives were lost and property
valued over hundreds of millions of
Naira was destroyed.

Oct., 1991 Kano (Kano State) A peaceful procession initiated by the

Izala sect to halt Rev. Reirihard Bonke
from having a crusade in Kano, later
degenerated into very bloody religious
violence. Thousand of lives were lost
and property valued at millions of
Naira was destroyed.
May, 1992 Zangon Kataf, Zaria, A communal feud between the Katafs
Kaduna, Ikara (Kaduna and the Hausas later took the
State) dimension of inter-religious war in
cities of Kaduna State. Several lives
and property were destroyed.
Jan., 1993 Funtua (Katsina State) The Kalakato religious sect
assassination of the village head and
burnt down a police vehicle, lives and
properties were also lost.
Feb., 2000 Kaduna Conflict engulfed the city between

109
 Christians and Muslims over the
implementation of Sharia Law.
Thousands of lives and properties
worth millions were destroyed.
Source: Elaigwu, J.I. (1993). The Shadow of Religion on Nigerian Federalism:
1960-93 (NCIR Monograph Series No. 2, 1993). In Gofwan, R.I. Religious
Conflicts in Northern Nigeria and Nation Building. The Throes of Two Decades,
1980-2000.

110