Topic

PRESENTATION
2 OF DATA
INTRODUCTION:
Before applying any statistical technique on the raw data, we must arrange and classify the data
in the systematic form. So that the statistical work become simple and easy. This is called presentation
of data.
Usually following four methods are used for the presentation of data.
(i) Classification (ii) Tabulation (iii) Diagrammatical (iv) Graphical

CLASSIFICATION:
The process of arranging data into classes or categories according to some common
characteristics present in the data is called as classification.
The Basis of Classification:
There are four important bases for classification of data.
(i) Qualitative base (ii) Quantitative base
(iii) Geographical base (iv) Chronological base
(i) Qualitative Base:
The classification is called Qualitative when the data are classified by qualities or attributes such as
gender, marital status, employment status, religion, beauty etc.
(ii) Quantitative Base:
The classification is called Quantitative when the data are classified by quantitative characteristics such
as heights, age, weight, distance, length, income etc.
(iii) Geographical Base:
The classification is called Geographical when the data are classified by geographical regions or
locations. For example, the population of country may be classified by provinces, division, districts, tehsils or
towns etc.
(iv) Chronological Base:
The classification is called Chronological when the data are arranged by successive time periods. For
example, the monthly sale of a departmental store, yearly enrollment of students in M.A.O. College, hourly
temperature recorded by weather bureau etc.
Types of Classification:
Some important types of classification are;
(i) One way classification. (ii) Two way classification.
(iii) Three way classification. (iv) Many way classification.
(i) One Way Classification:
When the data are classified by one characteristic, then the classification is said to be one way.
For example, the population of country may be classified by religions as Muslims, Christians and Sikhs.
(ii) Two Way Classification:
When the data are classified by two characteristics simultaneously (at a time), then classification is said
to be two way. For example, the students of Punjab University, Lahore may be classified by Age and Height.
(iii) Three Way Classification:
When the data are classified by three characteristics simultaneously, then classification is said to be
three way. For example, the population of city Lahore may be classified by Religion, Sex and Literacy rate.
(iii) Many Way Classification:
When the data are classified by many characteristics simultaneously, then the classification is said to
be many way. For example, the population of city Lahore may be classified by Religion, Sex, age, height,
Literacy rate etc.
TABULATION:
The process of systematic arrangement of data into rows and columns is called tabulation.
Classification is first step of tabulation. Tabulation may be single, double or manifold depending on the type of
classification.
Main Parts of Table and its Construction:
A statistical table has at least four major parts as;
(i) The title (ii) The box head
(iii) The stub (iv) The body of table
In addition some tables have some other minor parts as;
(v) Prefatory Note or Head Note (vi) Foot Note
(vii) Source Note
 …………………………….TITLE…………………………...
(Prefatory Notes)
Column Captions
BOX HEAD

Row Captions
STUB
......... …….. ...B O D Y… …….. ……..

Foot note………..
Source note……..
Example 2.1
Represent the data given in the following paragraph in the form of a table, so as to bring out clearly all
the facts, including the source and bearing suitable title;
“According to the census of Manufactures Report 1945, the John Smith Manufacturing Company
employed 400 non-union and 1250 union employees in 1941. Of these 220 were females of which 140 were
non-union. In 1942, the number of union employees increased to 1475 of which 1300 were males. Of the 250
non-union employees 200 were males. In 1943, 1700 employees were union members and 50 were non-union.
Of all the employees in 1943, 250 were females of which 240 were union members. In 1944, the total number
of employees was 2000 of which one percent was non-union. Of all the employees in 1944, 300 were females
of which only 5 were non-union.”
Solution:
Title  DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES OF THE JOHN SMITH MANUFACTURING COMPANY
BY SEX AND MEMBERSHIP DURING 1941 TO 1944
BOX HEAD
Captions
All Union Non-union
Year Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female

1941 1650 1430

BODY
220 1250 1170 80 400 260 140
STUB

1942 1725 1500 225 1475 1300 175 250 200 50

1943 1750 1500 250 1700 1460 240 50 40 10
1944 2000 1700 300 1980 1685 295 20 15 5

Source note: Census of Manufacturers Report, 1945.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
A tabular arrangement of data into classes with corresponding class frequencies is called as
frequency distribution.
Data which has classified in various categories or groups is called as Grouped data while Data which have not
been arranged in a systematic order are called Raw data or Ungrouped data.
DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
When an observation is repeated, it is Discrete or counted. If the repeated observations are written
once with the number of times it occurs in a tabular form in ascending order, is known as discrete frequency
distribution. The number of observations is denoted by “X” and the number of times it occurs i.e. frequency is
denoted by “ f ”.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
Relative frequency of a class is obtained through dividing the frequency of that class by the sum of
frequencies of all the classes. It is generally expressed as a percentage so obviously the sum of the relative
frequencies of all the classes is equal to 1 or 100. If all the frequencies in a frequency distribution are changed
into relative frequencies, the resulting distribution is called as “Relative frequency distribution or Percentage
distribution.”
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
The total frequency of all values less than the upper class boundary of a given class is called
Cumulative frequency up to and including that class. Cumulative frequency distribution is obtaining by adding
the frequency of each class to frequencies of preceding classes and denoted by “c. f” or “F”.
Types of Cumulative frequency distribution:
There are two types of Cumulative frequency distribution;
(i) Less than Cumulative frequency distribution
(ii) More than Cumulative frequency distribution
(i) Less than Cumulative frequency distribution:
 When the frequencies are cumulated from the lowest value to the highest value, it is referred to as “less
than” type cumulative frequency distribution.
It should be noted that a “less than” type cumulative frequency distribution starts with the lower class
boundary of the first group indicating that there is no frequency below it.
Example
Construct a less than type cumulative frequency distribution from the following data.
Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54
f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution:
LESS THAN TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQUNCY DISTRIBUTION
Age Less than Class
f C–B c.f
C–I Boundaries
- - - Less than 19.5 0
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 Less than 24.5 1
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 Less than 29.5 3
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 Less than 34.5 29
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 Less than 39.5 51
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 Less than 44.5 71
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 Less than 49.5 86
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 Less than 54.5 100
TOTAL 100 - - -
(ii) More than Cumulative frequency distribution:
When the frequencies are cumulated from the highest value to the lowest value, it is referred to as
“more than” type cumulative frequency distribution.
Example Construct a more than type cumulative frequency distribution from the following data.
Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54
f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution:
MORE THAN TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQUNCY DISTRIBUTION
Age More than Class
f C–B c.f
C–I Boundaries
- - - More than 19.5 100
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 More than 24.5 100-1=99
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 More than 29.5 99-2=97
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 More than 34.5 97-26=71
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 More than 39.5 71-22=49
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 More than 44.5 49-20=29
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 More than 49.5 29-15=14
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 More than 54.5 14-14=0
TOTAL 100 - - -

DIAGRAMS OR CHARTS:
A diagram is any one, two or three-dimensional form of graphical representation. The commonly used
diagrams or charts are as;
(i) Simple Bar Chart (ii) Multiple Bar Chart (iii) Component Bar Chart or Sub-divided Bar Chart
(iv) Percentage Component Bar Chart (v) Rectangular Bar Chart (vi) Pie chart
Simple Bar Chart or Diagram:
Simple Bar Chart is used to represent the data having a single variable. The vertical or horizontal bars
are made to represent the data when the difference between different quantities is usually small. The width of
the bars always uniform and has no significance. The length of the bars is proportional to the size of quantities.
The space between the bars should not be more than the width of bars and should not be less than half of its
width. The vertical bars are used to represent time series or quantitative data while horizontal bars are used to
represent qualitative or geographical data. A data which do not belong to time should be arranged in ascending
or descending order before drawing chart.
Example 2.10
The following table shows the production of wheat in Pakistan during the year 2001 to 2006. Represent
the data by a Simple Bar Chart
Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Production(Lakh tons) 64 68 73 75 71 81
Solution:

SIMPLE BAR CHART SHOWING PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN PAKISTAN FOR

THE YEARS 2001 TO 2006

100

80
Production

60

40

20

0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Years

Pie Chart:
Pie Chart has the same function as sub-divided rectangular chart. The only difference between them is
that “in Pie Chart the circles are used instead of rectangles”. A Pie Chart is consisting of a circle divided into
different sectors or pie shaped pieces whose areas are proportional to the various parts into which whole
quantity is divided. The sectors are shaded differently to show the relationship of parts with the whole. A pie
Chart is also known as Sector Diagram.
To construct the Pie Chart, draw a circle of any convenient radius. The whole quantity to be displayed
is equal to 360 because a total angle of circle is 3600. So the angles for each component are calculated and
these angles are used to show different components. The angles are calculated by the following formula;
Component part
Angle =  3600
WholeQuantity
Then divide the circles into different sectors by constructing angles at the center with the help of a
protractor.
Example 2.11
The following table gives expenditures in rupees of a Family on different commodities or items.
Represent the data by a Pie Chart.
Items Expenditure in Rs.
Food 190
Clothing 64
Rent 100
Medical Care 46
Other items 80
Solution:
Expenditure
Items Angles of the Sectors
in Rs.
190
Food 190  360  142.50
480
64
Clothing 64  360  480
480
100
Rent 100  360  750
480
46
Medical Care 46  360  34.50
480
80
Other items 80  360  600
480
TOTAL 480 3600
 PIE CHART SHOWING EXPENDITURES IN RUPEES OF DIFFERENT COMMODITIES OF A
FAMILY

GRAPHS:
Diagrams fail to represent a statistical series spread over a time, or a frequency distribution, or two
related variables in visual form. So Graphs are used for such representations.
A Graph consists of a straight line or a curve and presents the data in a simple and effective manner.
Graphs are used to make comparison between two or more than two statistical series. Sometime Graphs may
also be used to make predication and forecasts.
Types of Graphs:
Graphs can be divided into two main categories as;
(a) Graph of time series (Historigram) (b) Graph of frequency distribution
Here we will only discuss the graph of frequency distribution.
GRAPHS OF FREQUNCY DISTRIBUTION:
The important graphs of frequency distributions are;
(i) Histogram (ii) Frequency Polygon (iii) Frequency Curve (iv) Cumulative frequency Curve or Ogive.
Histogram:
A Histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles in which class boundaries are marked along X-axis
and frequencies are taken on Y-axis. When the class intervals are equal then the rectangles all have the same
width and the heights of rectangles are directly proportional to the respective class frequencies. If the class
intervals are not equal, then the heights of the rectangles have to be adjusted accordingly. To adjust the
heights of the rectangles in frequency distributions, each class frequency is divided by its class interval size.
Example 2.12
Construct Histogram for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44
f 4 12 25 30 25 15 6
Solution:

C–B 9.5-14.5 14.5-19.5 19.5-24.5 24.5-29.5 29.5-34.5 34.5-39.5 39.5-44.5

f 4 12 25 30 25 15 6
HISTOGRAM
Example 2.13
Construct Histogram for the following frequency distribution.

Classes 10-11 12-14 15-19 20-29 30-34 35-39 40-42

f 4 12 25 60 25 15 6

Solution:
Class Interval Adjusted
C–I frequency C–B
Size frequency
4
10 – 11 4 9.5 – 11.5 2 2
2
12
12 – 14 12 11.5 – 14.5 3 4
3
25
15 – 19 25 14.5 – 19.5 5 5
5
60
20 – 29 60 19.5 – 29.5 10 6
10
25
30 – 34 25 29.5 – 34.5 5 5
5
15
35 – 39 15 34.5 – 39.5 5 3
5
6
40 – 42 6 39.5 – 42.5 3 2
3

HISTOGRAM FOR UN-EQUAL CLASS INTERVALS

Frequency Polygon:
A second useful way of presenting a frequency distribution in graphic form is frequency polygon. A
frequency polygon is a line graph obtained by plotting class frequencies against class marks and then joining
the consecutive points by a straight line. A frequency polygon can also be obtained by joining the mid points of
the tops of the rectangles in the Histogram. The ends of the graphs do not meet the X-axis. Because a polygon
is a many sided closed figure, we, therefore, add extra classes on both ends of the frequency distribution with
zero frequencies. In this way we get the frequency polygon.
We used frequency polygon instead of Histogram, when two frequency distributions are to be
compared.
A frequency polygon gives rough idea about the mode, skewness and kurtosis of the curve.
Example 2.14
Draw a frequency polygon for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
 f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
Solution:
C–B 59.5-62.5 62.5-65.5 65.5-68.5 68.5-71.5 71.5-74.5 74.5-77.5 77.5-80.5
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
X 61 64 67 70 73 76 79
FREQUENCY POLYGON

Alternative Method
FREQUENCY POLYGON

Frequency Curve:
If the curve of the frequency polygon is smoothed, it is called as frequency curve or if in the frequency
polygon, the plotted points are joined by a freehand drawing method instead of joined by a straight line, we get
the frequency curve. A frequency curve should not touch the X-axis.
Example 2.15
Draw a frequency polygon for the following frequency distribution.
Classes 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
Solution:
C–I 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74 75-77 78-80
f 4 9 14 18 12 7 3
X 61 64 67 70 73 76 79
 FREQUENCY CURVE

Cumulative frequency polygon or Ogive:

A cumulative frequency polygon also known as Ogive is a graph obtained by plotting the cumulated
frequencies of a distribution against the upper or lower class boundaries and then the points are joined by
straight line segments.
The graph corresponding to a “less than” and or “more than” cumulative frequency distribution are
called “less than” and or “more than” Ogives respectively. A smoothed Ogive is called an Ogive Curve, which is
often used to locate the values of median, quartiles, deciles, percentiles etc. of a frequency distribution.
Example 2.16
Draw a “less than” cumulative frequency polygon from the following data.

Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54

f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution:

Age Less than Class

f C–B c.f
C–B Boundaries
- - - Less than 19.5 0
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 Less than 24.5 1
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 Less than 29.5 3
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 Less than 34.5 29
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 Less than 39.5 51
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 Less than 44.5 71
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 Less than 49.5 86
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 Less than 54.5 100
TOTAL 100 - - -

“LESS THAN” TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQNEUCY POLYGON

Example 2.23
Draw a “more than” cumulative frequency polygon from the following data.
Age 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54
f 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution:
Age More than Class
f C–B c.f
C–B Boundaries
- - - More than 19.5 100
20 – 24 1 19.5 – 24.5 More than 24.5 100-1=99
25 – 29 2 24.5 – 29.5 More than 29.5 99-2=97
30 – 34 26 29.5 – 34.5 More than 34.5 97-26=71
35 – 39 22 34.5 – 39.5 More than 39.5 71-22=49
40 – 44 20 39.5 – 44.5 More than 44.5 49-20=29
45 – 49 15 44.5 – 49.5 More than 49.5 29-15=14
50 – 54 14 49.5 – 54.5 More than 54.5 14-14=0
TOTAL 100 - - -

“MORE THAN” TYPE CUMULATIVE FREQNEUCY POLYGON