Integral calculus: solved exercises

Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals:

1 + cos x
Z
 
(a) dx log |x + sin x| + c, c∈R
x + sin x

 
3x + 2 3
Z
(b) dx log (x2 + 1) + 2 arctan x + c, c∈R
x2 + 1 2

Z
dx  
(c) 2 . tan x − cot x + c, c∈R
sin x cos2 x

Solution

(a) Let us consider the indefinite integral

1 + cos x
Z
dx.
x + sin x
Since 1 + cos x is the derivative of x + sin x, we have that
1 + cos x
Z
dx = log |x + sin x| + c , c ∈ R.
x + sin x

(b) Let us consider the indefinite integral

3x + 2
Z
dx.
x2 + 1
We have that
Z  
3x + 2 3x 2 3 2x 1
Z Z Z
dx = + 2 dx = dx + 2 dx =
x2 + 1 2
x +1 x +1 2 2
x +1 x2 +1

3
= log (x2 + 1) + 2 arctan x + c, c ∈ R.
2

(c) Let us consider the indefinite integral

dx
Z
.
sin2 x cos2 x
Since sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, we have that

1 sin2 x + cos2 x 1 1
Z Z Z Z
2 dx = 2 dx = dx + dx =
2
sin x cos x 2
sin x cos x 2
cos x sin2 x
= tan x − cot x + c, c ∈ R.

1. Integrating by parts
Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals, using integration by parts:

1
 Z h p i
(a) arcsin x dx x arcsin x + 1 − x2 + c, c∈R

   
1 3 2 2
Z
2 2 2
(b) x log x dx x log x − log x + + c, c∈R
3 3 9

 
1 2
Z p 3 5
(c) x3 2 − x2 dx. − x2 (2 − x2 ) 2 − (2 − x2 ) 2 + c, c∈R
3 15

Solution

(a) Let us consider the indefinite integral Z

arcsin x dx.

Integrating by parts we have that

Z Z
x p
arcsin x dx = x arcsin x − √ dx = x arcsin x + 1 − x2 + c, c ∈ R.
1 − x2

(b) Let us consider the indefinite integral

Z Z
(x log x)2 dx = x2 log2 x dx.

Integrating twice by parts we have that

1 2
Z Z
x2 log2 x dx = x3 log2 x − x2 log x dx =
3 3

1 3 2 3 2
Z
2
= x log x − x log x + x2 dx =
3 9 9

1 3 2 2
= x log2 x − x3 log x + x3 + c =
3 9 27
 
1 2 2
= x3 log2 x − log x + + c, c ∈ R.
3 3 9

(c) Let us consider the indefinite integral

Z p Z  p 
x3 2 − x2 dx = x2 x 2 − x2 dx .

Integrating by parts we have that

1 2
Z  p  Z
3 3
x2 x 2 − x2 dx = − x2 (2 − x2 ) 2 + x (2 − x2 ) 2 dx =
3 3

1 3 2 5
= − x2 (2 − x2 ) 2 − (2 − x2 ) 2 + c, c ∈ R.
3 15

2
1. Integrating by substitution
Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals by substitution:
 
1
Z
dx
(a) − + c, c∈R
x log3 x 2 log2 x

sin 2x
Z
log (1 + sin2 x) + c,
 
(b) dx c∈R
1 + sin2 x

Z
dx h √ √ √ √
i
(c) √ √ . 2 x − 3 3 x + 6 6 x − 6 log 6 x + 1 + c, c∈R
x+ 3x

Solution

(a) Let us consider the indefinite integral Z

dx
.
x log3 x
Setting t = log x we have that dt = x1 dx. Hence
1 1 1
Z Z
dx
= dt = − 2 + c = − + c, c ∈ R.
x log3 x t3 2t 2 log2 x

(b) Let us consider the indefinite integral

sin 2x 2 sin x cos x
Z Z
dx = dx.
1 + sin2 x 1 + sin2 x
Setting t = sin x we have that dt = cos x dx . Hence
2 sin x cos x 2t
Z Z
2 dx = dt = log (1 + t2 ) + c = log (1 + sin2 x) + c, c ∈ R.
1 + sin x 1 + t2

(c) Let us consider the indefinite integral Z

dx
√ √ .
x+ 3x
Setting x = t6 , we have that dx = 6t5 dt. Hence
t3
Z  
dx 1
Z Z
2
√ √ = 6 dt = 6 t − t + 1 − dt =
x+ 3x t+1 t+1
√ √ √ √
= 2t3 − 3t2 + 6t − 6 log |t + 1| + c = 2 x − 3 3 x + 6 6 x − 6 log 6 x + 1 + c,


c ∈ R.

1. Integrating rational maps

Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals of rational maps:

3
  
x+1 |x|
Z
(a) dx log √ + arctan x + c, c∈R
x (1 + x2 ) 1 + x2

" √ #
1 1 + x2 1
Z
(b) dx log − 2 + c, c∈R
x (1 + x2 )
3 |x| 2x

x3 + x2 − x
 
1 2
Z
(c) dx x + 2 log |x − 2| + 3 log |x + 3| + c, c∈R
x2 + x − 6 2

" r √ #
x2 2 x+1
Z
dx 6
(d) 2
log 2
− arctan √ + c, c∈R
x(x + 2x + 3) x + 2x + 3 6 2

x2 − 10x + 10 x2
 
13 x+1
Z
(e) dx. log √ − arctan + c, c∈R
x3 + 2x2 + 5x 2
x + 2x + 5 2 2

Solution

(a) Let us consider the indefinite integral

x+1
Z
dx.
x (1 + x2 )
We have that
(A + B)x2 + Cx + A A=C =1

x+1 A Bx + C
2
= + 2
= =⇒
x (1 + x ) x 1+x x(1 + x2 ) B = −1.
Hence Z  
x+1 1 1−x
Z
dx = + dx =
x (1 + x2 ) x 1 + x2

1 1
Z Z Z
x
= dx + 2
dx − dx =
x 1+x 1 + x2

1 2x
Z
= log |x| + arctan x − dx =
2 1 + x2

1
= log |x| + arctan x − log (1 + x2 ) + c =
2
|x|
= log √ + arctan x + c, c ∈ R.
1 + x2

(b) Let us consider the indefinite integral

1
Z
dx.
x3 (1 + x2 )
We have that
 
1 A Bx + C d Dx + E A Bx + C Dx + 2E
= + + = + − =
x3 (1 + x2 ) x 1 + x2 dx x2 x 1 + x2 x3

4
  A = −1



B = 1

(A + B)x4 + (C − D)x3 + (A − 2E)x2 − Dx − 2E

= =⇒
x3 (1 + x2 ) 
 C =D=0
 E = −1.



2
Hence Z   
1 1 1
Z
x d
dx = − + + − dx =
x3 (1 + x2 ) x 1 + x2 dx 2x2
 
1 1 2x 1
Z Z Z
d
=− dx + dx + − 2 dx =
x 2 1 + x2 dx 2x

1 1
= − log |x| + log (1 + x2 ) − 2 + c =
2 2x
√
1 + x2 1
= log − 2 + c, c ∈ R.
|x| 2x

(c) Let us consider the indefinite integral

x3 + x2 − x
Z
dx.
x2 + x − 6
Dividing x3 + x2 − x by x2 + x − 6, we have that

x3 + x2 − x 5x
2
= x+ 2 .
x +x−6 x +x−6
Hence
x3 + x2 − x
Z  
5x 1 2 5x
Z Z
dx = x+ dx = x + dx.
x2 + x − 6 2
x +x−6 2 (x − 2)(x + 3)
We have that
A=2

5x A B (A + B)x + 3A − 2B
= + = =⇒
(x − 2)(x + 3) x−2 x+3 (x − 2)(x + 3) B = 3.
Hence
x3 + x2 − x 1 2 5x
Z Z
dx = x + dx =
x2 + x − 6 2 (x − 2)(x + 3)
Z  
1 2 3
= x2 + + dx =
2 x−2 x+3

1 1 1
Z Z
= x2 + 2 dx + 3 dx =
2 x−2 x+3

1 2
= x + 2 log |x − 2| + 3 log |x + 3| + c, c ∈ R.
2

(d) Let us consider the indefinite integral Z

dx
.
x(x2 + 2x + 3)

5
 We have that
1 A Bx + C
= + 2 =
x(x2 + 2x + 3) x x + 2x + 3

1

 A=
3




(A + B)x2 + (2A + C)x + 3A

1

= =⇒ B=−
x(x2 + 2x + 3) 
 3

 C = −2.



3
Hanec we have that
Z  
1 1 x+2
Z
dx
= − dx =
x(x2 + 2x + 3) 3x 3 x2 + 2x + 3

1 1 2x + 2 1 1
Z Z
= log |x| − dx − dx =
3 6 x2 + 2x + 3 3 x2 + 2x + 3

1 1 1 1
Z
= log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 3) − 2
dx =
3 6 3 x + 2x + 3
" 2 #
2 2 x+1
being x + 2x + 3 = (x + 1) + 2 = 2 √ + 1 , we have that
2

1 1 1 1
Z
= log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 3) −  2  dx =
3 6 6 x+1
√
2
+1

x+1 1
posto t = √ , we have that dt = √ dx , hence
2 2
√ Z
1 1 2 2 1
= log |x| − log (x + 2x + 3) − dt =
3 6 6 t2 + 1
√
1 1 2 2
= log |x| − log (x + 2x + 3) − arctan t + c =
3 6 6
√
1 1 2 x+1
= log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 3) − arctan √ + c =
3 6 6 2
r √
6 x2 2 x+1
= log 2
− arctan √ + c , c ∈ R.
x + 2x + 3 6 2

(e) Let us consider the indefinite integral

Z 2 Z 2
x − 10x + 10 x − 10x + 10
3 2
dx = dx .
x + 2x + 5x x(x2 + 2x + 5)

6
 We have that
x2 − 10x + 10 A Bx + C
= + 2 =
x(x2 + 2x + 5) x x + 2x + 5

A=2

(A + B)x2 + (2A + C)x + 5A


= =⇒ B = −1
x(x2 + 2x + 5) 

C = −14.
Hence
x2 − 10x + 10
Z  
2 x + 14
Z
dx = − 2 dx =
x(x2 + 2x + 5) x x + 2x + 5
Z  
2 x+1 13
= − 2 − 2 dx =
x x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5

1 2x + 2 1
Z Z
= 2 log |x| − 2
dx − 13 2
dx =
2 x + 2x + 5 x + 2x + 5

1 1
Z
= 2 log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 5) − 13 dx .
2 x2 + 2x + 5
Since " 2 #
2 2 x+1
x + 2x + 5 = (x + 1) + 4 = 4 +1 ,
2
we have that
1
1 1 1
Z Z Z
2
dx = i dx = dx
x2 + 2x + 5 x+1 2
h
x+1 2 2



4 2 +1 2 +1

1 x+1
= arctan + c, c ∈ R.
2 2
Hence
x2 − 10x + 10 1 1
Z Z
dx = 2 log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 5) − 13 dx =
x(x2 + 2x + 5) 2 x2 + 2x + 5

1 13 x+1
= 2 log |x| − log (x2 + 2x + 5) − arctan +c=
2 2 2

x2 13 x+1
= log √ − arctan + c, c ∈ R.
2
x + 2x + 5 2 2

Substitutions of special type

Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals by substitutions:

1
Z h  x  i
(a) dx log tan  + c, c∈R

sin x 2

 
1
Z
dx
(b) √ − √ + c, c∈R
x 4 + x2
2 x + x x2 + 4
2

7
  
x−1
Z
dx
(c) √ . arcsin √ + c, c∈R
1 + 2x − x2 2

Solution

(a) Let us consider the indefinite integral

1
Z
dx.
sin x
2 2t
Setting t = tan x2 we have that dx = 1+t2 dt. Since sin x = 1+t2 , we have that

1 1
Z Z  x 
dx = dt = log |t| + c = log tan  + c, c ∈ R.

sin x t 2

(b) Let us consider the indefinite integral Z

dx
√ .
x2 4 + x2
√
Setting x = 2 sinh t, i.e. t = settsinh x2 = log x
+ 12 x2 + 4 , from which it follows dx = 2 cosh t dt, hence


2

1 1 e2t
Z Z Z
dx
√ = 2 dt = dt.
x2 4 + x2 4 sinh t (e − 1)2
2t

√
Setting z = et , cioè z = x
2 + 12 x2 + 4, from which it follows dz = et dt, we have that

dx e2t z 1 1
Z Z Z
√ = dt = dz = − 2 +c=
x 4 + x2
2 (e − 1)2
2t (z 2 − 1)2 2z −1
1
=− √ + c, c ∈ R.
x2 + x x2 + 4

(c) Let us consider the indefinite integral

Z Z
dx dx
√ = p .
1 + 2x − x2 2 − (x − 1)2
√ p
Setting x − 1 = 2 sin t, for all t ∈ − π2 , π2 , we have that t = arcsin x−1 1 − sin2 t e dx =
 
√ , cos t =
√ 2
2 cos t dt. Hence
dx x−1
Z Z
p = dt = t + c = arcsin √ + c, c ∈ R.
2 − (x − 1) 2 2

Integrating piecewise defined functions

Exercise. Compute the following indefinite integrals of piecewise defined functions:

8
  x 
xex if x ≤ 0  e (x − 1) + c if x ≤ 0
(
(a) f (x) =  c ∈ R
sin x if x > 0 − cos x + c if x > 0,


−x3 sin (π + πx2 ) if x ≤ 1

(
(b) f (x) =
x2 − 8x + 7 if x > 1.
1 2 1
 
2 2
 − x cos (πx ) + 2 sin (πx ) + c if x ≤ 1


 2π 2π 
c ∈ R
 

 1 1 10 
 x3 − 4x2 + 7x + c +

 − if x > 1,
3 2π 3

Solution

(a) Let us consider the function

xex if x ≤ 0
(
f (x) =
sin x if x > 0.
Let us find an arbitrary primitive function F of f on R. We have that
Z Z
xex dx = xex − ex dx = xex − ex + c1 = ex (x − 1) + c1 , c1 ∈ R ,

Z
sin x dx = − cos x + c2 , c2 ∈ R .

Hence 
 ex (x − 1) + c1 if x ≤ 0
F (x) =
− cos x + c2 if x > 0,


where c1 , c2 ∈ R are such that the primitive function F is continuous at 0 . Hence

F (0) = lim+ F (x).

x→0

Since
F (0) = c1 − 1 , lim F (x) = c2 − 1,
x→0+

we have that c1 = c2 . So, setting c = c1 , we have that any primitive function of f is of the form

 ex (x − 1) + c if x ≤ 0
F (x) = c ∈ R.
− cos x + c if x > 0,


(b) Let us consider the function

−x3 sin (π + πx2 ) if x ≤ 1
(
f (x) =
x2 − 8x + 7 if x > 1.
Let us find an arbitrary primitive function F of f on R. We have that
Z Z Z
− x3 sin (π + πx2 ) dx = x3 sin (πx2 ) dx = x x2 sin (πx2 ) dx =

9
 integrating by parts we have
1 2 1
Z
=− x cos (πx2 ) + x cos (πx2 ) dx =
2π π

1 2 1
=− x cos (πx2 ) + 2 sin (πx2 ) + c1 , c1 ∈ R ,
2π 2π
1 3
Z
(x2 − 8x + 7) dx = x − 4x2 + 7x + c2 , c2 ∈ R .
3
Hence
1 2 1

2 2
 − 2π x cos (πx ) + 2π 2 sin (πx ) + c1 if x ≤ 1



F (x) = ,
 1
 x3 − 4x2 + 7x + c2

 if x > 1
3
where c1 , c2 ∈ R are such that the arbitrary primitive function F is continuous at 1. Hence

F (1) = lim F (x).

x→1+

Since
1 10
F (1) = c1 + , lim F (x) = c2 + ,
2π x→1+ 3
we have that
1 10
c2 = c1 +
− .
2π 3
Hence, setting c = c1 , we have that any primitive function of f is of the form
1 2 1

2 2
 − 2π x cos (πx ) + 2π 2 sin (πx ) + c if x ≤ 1



F (x) = c ∈ R.
 1 1 10
 x3 − 4x2 + 7x + c +

 − if x > 1,
3 2π 3

Definite integrals

Exercise. Compute the following definite integrals:

Z π
(a) |6x − π| sin x dx [6π − 6]
0

"√ #
0
2 sin2 x + 3 sin x + 3 3
Z
(b) cos x dx π − 2 log 2
−π
2
(sin x − 1)(sin2 x + 3) 6

3 " √ !#
Z e2
1 √ 2
(c) √
dx. − 2 − 2 log 1 −
e x 1 − log x − 1 2

Solution

10
(a) Let us consider the definite integral Z π
|6x − π| sin x dx.
0
We have that
Z π Z π
6
Z π
|6x − π| sin x dx = − (6x − π) sin x dx + (6x − π) sin x dx =
0 0 π
6

integrating by parts
h i π6 Z π
6 h iπ Z π
= (6x − π) cos x − 6 cos x dx + −(6x − π) cos x π + 6 cos x dx =
0 0 6
π
6

h i π6 h iπ
= π − 6 sin x + 5π + 6 sin x π = 6π − 6.
0 6

(b) Let us consider the definite integral

0
2 sin2 x + 3 sin x + 3
Z
cos x dx.
−π
2
(sin x − 1)(sin2 x + 3)

Setting t = sin x, from which it follows dt = cos x dx, we have that

0 0
2 sin2 x + 3 sin x + 3 2t2 + 3t + 3
Z Z
cos x dx = dt.
−π
2
(sin x − 1)(sin2 x + 3) −1 (t − 1)(t2 + 3)

We have that
2t2 + 3t + 3 A Bt + C (A + B)t2 + (−B + C)t + 3A − C
= + =
(t − 1)(t2 + 3) t−1 t2 + 3 (t − 1)(t2 + 3)

A=2



=⇒ B=0


C = 3.
Hence we have that Z 0 Z 0
2t2 + 3t + 3

2 3
2
dt = + dt =
−1 (t − 1)(t + 3) −1 t − 1 t2 + 3
h i0 √ Z 0 √1
3
= 2 log |t − 1| + 3  2 dt =
−1 −1 √t + 1
3
0 √
√

t 3
= −2 log 2 + 3 arctan √ = π − 2 log 2.
3 −1 6

(c) Let us consider the definite integral

3
e2
1
Z
√
dx.
e x 1 − log x − 1

11
 Setting t = log x , da cui dt = x1 dx, we have that
3
3
e2
1 1
Z Z 2
√
dx = √ dt .
e x 1 − log x − 1 1 1− t−1
√
Setting y = t − 1, da cui t = y 2 + 1 and hence dt = 2ydy, we have that
√ √
3 2 2 
1 1
Z Z Z
2 2 y 2
√ dt = 2 dy = 2 1− dy =
1 1− t−1 0 1−y 0 1−y
i √22 √ !
h √ 2
= 2 − y − log |1 − y| = − 2 − 2 log 1 − .
0 2

Other exercises

Exercise 1. Write the McLaurin expansion of order 6 of the function

Z x
2
f (x) = arctan x · e−t dt.
0

Solution
It is known that if g is a continuous function defined in a neighbourhood of 0 and if α > 0, then
Z x
α
g(t) dt = o |x|α+1 , x → 0.


g(x) = o (|x| ) , x → 0 =⇒
0

Hence, using the McLaurin expansions of functions arctan x and es we get

Z x
2
f (x) = arctan x · e−t dt =
0
  Z x 
1 3 1 5 5

2 1 4 4


= x− x + x +o x · 1−t + t +o t dt =
3 5 0 2
   x 
1 3 1 5 5

1 3 1 5 5


= x− x + x +o x · t− t + t +o x =
3 5 3 10 0
   
1 3 1 5 5

1 3 1 5 5


= x− x + x +o x · x− x + x +o x =
3 5 3 10
2 37
= x2 − x4 + x6 + o x6 , x → 0.


3 90
It follows that the McLaurin expansion of order 6 of f is
2 37
f (x) = x2 − x4 + x6 + o x6 ,


x → 0.
3 90

12
Exercise 2. Write the McLaurin expansion of order 9 of the primitive function of
f (x) = cos 2x2
which takes the value 0 at x = 0.

Solution
Z x Z x
Since f is continuous, By the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus, the function F (x) = f (t) dt = cos 2t2 dt
0 0
is the primitive function of f which takes the value 0 at x = 0. Moreover, it is well-known that if g is a continuous
function defined in a neighbourhood of 0 and if α > 0, then
Z x
g(x) = o (|x|α ) , x → 0 =⇒ g(t) dt = o |x|α+1 , x → 0.


0

Hence, using the McLaurin expansion of cos s we get

Z x Z x 
2
cos 2t2 dt = 1 − 2t4 + t8 + o t8


F (x) = dt =
0 0 3
 x 
2 2 2 2
t − t5 + t9 + o x9 = x − x5 + x9 + o x9 , x → 0.



=
5 27 0 5 27
It follows that the McLaurin expansion of order 6 of F is
2 2
F (x) = x − x5 + x9 + o x9 ,


x → 0.
5 27

Exercise 3. Compute the area of the following subsets of the plane:

( )   
2 1 1 1 + log 2
(a) A = (x, y) ∈ R : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ log
x 1 − log2 x


2 1 − log 2

√
   
2 x 2
(b) B = (x, y) ∈ R : − 5 ≤ x ≤ −1, √ ≤y≤0 log 3 −
x + 2 x2 − 1
2 3
( )
√ 
  
2 log x 2 1 3
(c) C= (x, y) ∈ R : 1 ≤ x ≤ e, p ≤y≤x . e +1− 7
x 4 + 3 log2 x 3

Solution
1
(a) Setting f (x) = x(1−log2 x)
, let us note that as 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 we have that f (x) ≥ 0. Hence the area of A is
given by
2 2
1
Z Z
AreaA = f (x) dx =
dx.
1 1 x 1 − log2 x
Setting t = log x, so that dt = x1 dx, we have that
Z 2 Z log 2
1 log 2
 
1 1 1 1
Z
2 dx = dt = + dt =
1 − t2


1 x 1 − log x 0 2 0 1−t 1+t
ilog 2   log 2  
1h 1 1+t 1 1 + log 2
= − log |1 − t| + log |1 + t| = log = log .
2 0 2 1−t 0 2 1 − log 2
 
1+log 2
Hence the area of A is AreaA = 21 log 1−log 2 .

13
 x
√
(b) Setting f (x) = √
x2 +2 x2 −1
, let us note that per − 5 ≤ x ≤ −1 we have that f (x) ≤ 0. Hence the area of
B is given by Z −1 Z −1
x
AreaB = − f (x) dx = − √ dx =
− 5
√ √
− 5 x2 + 2 x2 − 1
√
setting t = x2 − 1, and hence x2 = t2 + 1 and xdx = t dt,
0 0  
−1
1 1
Z Z Z
x t
=− √ dx = − dt = − − dt =
√
− 5 x + 2 x2 − 1
2
2 (t + 1)2 2 t + 1 (t + 1)2
 0
1 2
= − log |t + 1| + = log 3 − .
(t + 1) 2 3
2
Hence the area of B is AreaB = log 3 − 3.
log x
(c) Setting f (x) = √ , let us note that, as 1 ≤ x ≤ e, we have that f (x) ≤ x2 . In fact,
x 4+3 log2 x

log x log x
p ≤ x2 ⇐⇒ p ≤ x3
x 4 + 3 log2 x 4 + 3 log2 x
log x √1 ,
and the functions g(x) = √ e h(x) = x3 are increasing in the interval [1, e] with 0 ≤ g(x) ≤ 7
4+3 log2 x
1 ≤ h(x) ≤ e3 for all x ∈ [1, e]. It follows that g(x) ≤ h(x) for all x ∈ [1, e], i.e. f (x) ≤ x2 for all x ∈ [1, e].
So the are of C is given by
Z e !  e Z e
2 log x 1 3 log x
AreaC = x − p dx = x − dx =
3
p
2 2
1 x 4 + 3 log x 1 1 x 4 + 3 log x

setting t = log x and dt = x1 dx,

1 Z 1
1 3 1 3
Z
t 1
t(4 + 3t2 )− 2 dt =



= e −1 −√ dt = e −1 −
3 0 4 + 3t 2 3 0
1
√ 
 p
1 3
1 1 3
= e −1 − 4 + 3t2 = e +1− 7 .
3 3 0 3
√
Hence, the area of C is AreaC = 31 e3 + 1 − 7 .

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