Chapter 14

Operational Amplifiers
1. List the characteristics of ideal op amps.
2. Identify negative feedback in op-amp circuits.
3. Analyze ideal op-amp circuits that have negative
feedback using the summing-point constraint.

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 4. Select op-amp circuit configurations suitable for
various applications.
5. Design useful circuits using op amps.
6. Identify practical op-amp limitations and recognize
potential inaccuracies in instrumentation applications.
7. Work with instrumentation amplifiers.
8. Apply active filters.

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 IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

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 The input signal of a differential amplifier
consists of a differential component and a
common-mode component.
vid = v1 − v 2
1
vicm = (v1 + v2 )
2
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 Characteristics of Ideal Op
Amps
ƒ Infinite gain for the differential input signal
ƒ Zero gain for the common-mode input signal
ƒ Infinite input impedance
ƒ Zero output impedance
ƒ Infinite bandwidth
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 SUMMING-POINT
CONSTRAINT
Operational amplifiers are almost always used
with negative feedback, in which part of the
output signal is returned to the input in opposition
to the source signal.

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 In a negative feedback system, the ideal op-amp
output voltage attains the value needed to force
the differential input voltage and input current to
zero. We call this fact the summing-point
constraint.

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 Ideal op-amp circuits are
analyzed by the following steps:
1. Verify that negative feedback is present.

2. Assume that the differential input voltage and

the input current of the op amp are forced to
zero. (This is the summing-point constraint.)

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 3. Apply standard circuit-analysis principles, such
as Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law, to solve
for the quantities of interest.

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 INVERTING AMPLIFIERS

vo R2
Av= =−
ELECTRICAL
vin R1
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 Positive Feedback

With positive feedback, the

op amp’s input and output
voltages increase in
magnitude until the output
voltage reaches one of its
extremes.

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 NONINVERTING
AMPLIFIERS
Under the ideal-op-amp
assumption, the non-
inverting amplifier is an
ideal voltage amplifier
having infinite input
resistance and zero
output resistance. vo R2
Av= = 1+
ELECTRICAL
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vin R1
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 Voltage Follower

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 DESIGN OF SIMPLE
AMPLIFIERS
Amplifier design using op amps mainly
consists of selecting a suitable circuit
configuration and values for the feedback
resistors.

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 If the resistances are too small, an impractical
amount of current and power will be needed to
operate the amplifier.

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 Very large resistance may be unstable in value
and lead to stray coupling of undesired signals.

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 OP-AMP IMPERFECTIONS
IN THE LINEAR RANGE
OF OPERATION
Real op amps have several categories of
imperfections compared to ideal op amps.

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 Real op amps have finite input impedance!
10 6 to 10 12 Ohms

Real op Amps have nonzero output

impedance!
1 – 100 Ohms

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 Gain and Bandwidth
Limitations

A 0OL
A OL ( f ) =
1 + j ( f f BOL )

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 Closed-Loop Bandwidth
R1
β= f BCL = f BOL (1 + βA0OL )
R 1 + R2

A 0OL A0CL
A 0CL = ACL ( f ) =
1 + βA 0OL 1 + j ( f f BCL )
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 Gain–Bandwidth Product

f t = A0CL f BCL = A0OL f BOL

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 NONLINEAR LIMITATIONS

The output voltage of a real op amp is limited

to the range between certain limits that depend
on the internal design of the op amp. When the
output voltage tries to exceed these limits,
clipping occurs.

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 The output current range of a real op amp is
limited. If an input signal is sufficiently large
that the output current would be driven beyond
these limits, clipping occurs.

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 Slew-Rate Limitation

Another nonlinear limitation of actual op

amps is that the magnitude of the rate of
change of the output voltage is limited.

dvo
≤ SR
dt
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 Full-Power Bandwidth
The full-power bandwidth of an op amp is the
range of frequencies for which the op amp can
produce an undistorted sinusoidal output with
peak amplitude equal to the guaranteed
maximum output voltage.

SR
f FP =
ELECTRICAL
2πVom
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 DC IMPERFECTIONS

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 The three dc imperfections (bias current, offset
current, and offset voltage) can be modeled by
placing dc sources at the input of the op amp as
shown in Figure 14.29.

The effect of bias current, offset current, and

offset voltage on inverting or noninverting
amplifiers is to add a (usually undesirable) dc
voltage to the intended output signal.

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 DIFFERENTIAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIERS
Differential
amplifiers are
widely used in
engineering
instrumentation.
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 Instrumentation-Quality
Differential Amplifier

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 INTEGRATORS AND
DIFFERENTIATORS

Integrators produce output voltages that are

proportional to the running time integral of
the input voltages. In a running time integral,
the upper limit of integration is t .

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 t
1
vo (t ) = − ∫ vin (t )dt
ELECTRICAL
RC 0
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 Differentiator Circuit

dvin
vo (t ) = − RC
ELECTRICAL
dt
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 ACTIVE FILTERS

Filters can be very useful in separating desired

signals from noise.

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 Ideally, an active filter circuit should:

1. Contain few components

2. Have a transfer function that is insensitive to

component tolerances

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 3. Place modest demands on the op amp’s gain–
bandwidth product, output impedance, slew rate,
and other specifications

4. Be easily adjusted

5. Require a small spread of component values

6. Allow a wide range of useful transfer functions

to be realized
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 Butterworth Transfer Function

H0
H(f ) =
1 + ( f fB )
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ELECTRICAL
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 Sallen–Key Circuits

1
fB =
2πRC

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 Active lowpass filters such as this are useful as
antialias filters in computer-based instrumentation
systems as discussed in Section 9.3.

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ELECTRICAL
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