Appendix A

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Classification of Roads

Appendix A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS

The following are the classified roads in Ethiopia under the five classes. This classification
should always be updated and the information should be used after getting confirmation
from the relevant ERA Division by the designer.

Table A-1: Numbering of Trunk Roads

Number Road Section Length (km)

A1 Addis- Assab 853
A2 Addis- Axum 1071
A3 Addis- Gondar 737
A4 Addis- Gimbi 445
A5 Addis- Metu 510
A6 Jima-Mizan Teferi 554
A7 Mojo- Arba Minch 432
A8 Shashemene- Agere Maryam 214
A9 Nazareth- Asela 77
A10 Awash- Dengego- Degehabur 572
A10a Dengego- Dire Dawa 20

Total 5485

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Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Table A-2: Numbering of Roads

Length
Number Road Section Surfacing Type
(km)
I. Trunk Roads
A1 Addis- Assab 853 Paved
A1-1 Addis – Modjo 71
A1-2 A1-2 Modjo- Nazreth 25
A1-3 Nazreth - Metehara 95
A1-4 Metehara- Awash Junction 46
A1-5 Awash Junction –Gewane 153
A1-6 Gewane – Mille 150
A1-7 Mille - Semera 75
A1-8 Semera – Serdo 30
A1-9 Serdo - Dobi 50
A1-10 Dobi - Burie 130
A1a Dobi - Galafi 28

II. Link Roads

B11 Mille - Kombolcha 130
B11-1 Mille – Bati 88 Unpaved
B11- 2 Bati – Kombolcha 42 Paved

III. Main Access Roads

------------
IV. Collector Roads
D11 Assaita junc. - Assaita 50 Unpaved

V. Feeder Roads
E11 Modjo - Ejere - Arerti 60 Unpaved

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 Appendix A
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Classification of Roads

I. Trunk Roads

A2 Addis- Axum 1071

A2-1 Addis – Debreberehan 130 Paved
A2-2 Debreberehan – Debresina 60 Paved
A2-3 Debresina – Efeson/Ataye 110 Paved
A2-4 Efeson/Ataye-Kemisse-Kombolcha 105 Paved
A2-5 Kombolcha- Dessie 25 Paved
A2-6 Dessie – Woldiya 120 Paved/Unpav.
A2-7 Wodiya – Waja 66 Unpaved
A2-8 Waja - Maichew 80 Unpaved
A2-9 Maichew- Mekele 120 Unpaved
A2-10 Mekele - Adigrat 125 Paved
A2-11 Adigrat - Adiabun 108 Unpaved
A2-12 Adiabun – Axum 22 Unpaved

II. Link Roads 35

B20 Addigrat - Zalanbesa 240 Paved
B21 Dessei - Gundowoin 180 Unpaved
B21-1 Dessei – Mekane Selam 60 Unpaved
B21-2 Mekane Selam - Gundowoin 299 Unpaved
B22 Weldiya -Woreta 120 Unpaved
B22-1 Weldiya- Gashena 22
B22-2 Gashena – Filakit 21
B22-3 Filakit – Debrezebit 96
B22-4 Debrezebit – Debre Tabour 40
B22-5 Debre Tabour - Woreta

III. Main Access Roads 86

C21 D/Berehan – Deneba – Jihur Unpaved

IV. Collector Roads 135

D21 Tarmaber - Mehalemeda 40 Unpaved
D22 Robit - Awash Unpaved

V. Feeder Roads 85
E21 Senbo - Kesem 42 Unpaved
E22 D/Berhan - Ankober 22 Unpaved
E23 Tarmaber - Seladingay Unpaved

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Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual – 2013

I. Trunk Roads
A3 Addis- Gondar 737
A3-1 Addis – Commando 113 Paved
A3-2 Commando – Abay River 95 Paved
A3-3 Abay River – Dejen 22 Paved
A3-4 Dejen – Debre Markos 72 Paved
A3-5 Debre Markos – Bure Junction 110 Unpaved
A3-6 Bure Junction – Dangla 73 Unpaved
A3-7 Dangla – Bahir Dar 80 Unpaved
A3-8 Bahir Dar – Werota 53 Unpaved
A3-9 Werota – Azezo Airport 101 Unpaved
A3-10 Azezo Airport - Gondar 18 Paved
II. Link Roads
B30 Gondar – Axum 356 Unpaved
B30-1 Gondar – Debark 103
B30-2 Debark – Adi Arkay 73
B30-3 Adi Arkay – Boya River 20
B30-4 Boya River – Inda Selassei 97
B30-5 Inda Selassei - Axum 63
B31 Tik – Bahir Dar 259 Unpaved
B31-1 Tik - Mota 139
B31-2 Mota –Bahir Dar 120
B32 Bure Junction – Nekempte 257 Unpaved
B32-1 Bure Junction – Abay River 60
B32-2 Abay River - Gida 89
B32-3 Gida – Ander Guten 46
B32-4 Ander Guten - Nekempte 62
III. Main Access Roads
C31 C32 Mukautre - Alemketema 105 Unpaved
C33 Mankussa - Birsheleko 26 Unpaved
C33-1 Kosober – Bambudi 323 Unpaved
C33-2 Kosober – Chagni 56
C33-3 Chagni - Mambuk 56
C33-4 Mambuk - Guba 131
C34 Guba junc. - Bambudi 80
C35 Azezo - Metema 185 Unpaved
Gondar - Humera 250 Unpaved

D31 IV. Collector Roads 250

D32 Dogolo – Aksta – Tenta – Dawnt-Gashena 53 Unpaved
D33 Dibate junc. - Dibate 22 Unpaved
Tissabay junc. – Tissabay Unpaved
23
E31 V. Feeder Roads 52
E32 Chancho - Deneba Unpaved
Azezo - Gorgora Unpaved

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 Appendix A
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Classification of Roads

I. Trunk Roads
A4 Addis- Gimbi 441
A4-1 Addis- Holeta 40 Paved
A4-2 Holeta - Ambo 85 Paved
A4-3 Ambo – Gedo 65 Paved
A4-4 Gedo - Bako 57 Paved
A4-5 Bako - Nekempte 81 Paved
A4-6 Nekempte - Gimbi 113 Unpaved

II. Link Roads

B40 Gimbi – Assosa 233 Unpaved
B40-1 Gimbi – Nejo 70
B40-2 Nejo – Mendi 70
B40-3 Mendi – Bambasi 51
B40-4 Bambasi - Assosa 42
B41 Ambo – Giyon (Weliso) 60 Unpaved
B42 Nekempte Junction – Bedele 92 Unpaved
B42-1 Nekempte Junction – Dedessa Bridge 62
B42-2 Dedessa Bridge – Bedele 30
B43 Gimbi(Mekenajo) – Dembidolo 197 Unpaved
B43-1 Gimbi(Mekenajo) –Alem Teferi 111
B43-2 Alem Teferi – Dembidolo 86

III. Main Access Roads

C40 Asosa - Kurmuk 96 Unpaved
C41 Holeta - Muger 85 Unpaved
C42 Gedo - Fincha 134 Unpaved
C44 C44 - Bambasi - Gambela Unpaved
1 Bambasi - Begi 70
C44 -2 Begi - Mugi 114
C44 -3 Mugi - Shebel 94
C44-4 Shebel - Gambela
C44a Mugi - Dembidolo 43 Unpaved

IV. Collector Roads 79

D41 Nedjo – Jarso – Shemel Toke Unpaved

V. Feeder Roads 51
E41 Asossa junc. - Dabus Unpaved

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Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual – 2013

I. Trunk Roads
A5 Addis- Metu 580
A5-1 Addis (Alemgena) – Giyon (Weliso) 94 Paved
A5-2 Giyon (Weliso) – Walkite 42 Paved
A5-3 Walkite – Gibe River 33 Paved
A5-4 Gibe River - Saja 65 Paved
A5-5 Saja - Jimma 87 Paved
A5-6 Jimma - Bedele 143 Paved/Unpav.
A5-7 Bedele- Metu 116 Paved/Unpav.

II. Link Roads

B50 Metu – Gambella 164 Unpaved
B50-1 Metu - Gore 18
B50-2 Gore – Gambella 146
B51 Alemgena - Sodo 339 Unpaved
B51-1 Alemgena - Butajira 130
B51-2 Butajira -Hosaina 100
B51-3 Hosaina - Areka 69
B51-4 Areka - Sodo 40
B52 Jima -Sodo 241 Unpaved
B52-1 Jima - Chida 82
B52-2 Chida - Waka 74
B52-3 Waka - Sodo 85
B53 Gore – Mizan Teferi 179 Unpaved
B53-1 Gore – Gecha 73
B53-2 Gecha - Tepi 55
B53-3 Tepi – Mizan Teferi 51

III. Main Access Roads

C50 Gambela - Jikawo 120 Unpaved
C51 Welkite - Hosaina 150 Unpaved
C52 Indibir – Ziway 108 Unpaved
C52-1 Indibir – Butajira 60
C52-2 Butajira - Ziway 48
C53 Bole junc. - Tolay 65 Unpaved
C54 Limmu Junc.- Sintu - Atnago 80 Unpaved

IV. Collector Roads

D51 Gambela - Abobo 45 Unpaved
D52 Metu - Alge 50 Unpaved

V. Feeder Roads
E51 II. Tulubolo - Arbuchulule 27 Unpaved
E52 Atat junc. - Kose 47 Unpaved
E53 Gubre junc.-Bojobar 62 Unpaved
E54 Agaro – Gera Agriculture devt. 72 Unpaved
E55 Metu –Sor Hydro Electric Power 32 Unpaved

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 Appendix A
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Classification of Roads

I. Trunk Roads
A6 Jima- Mizan Teferi 216 Unpaved
A6-1 Jima- Bonga 101
A6-2 Bonga - Mizan Teferi 115

V. Feeder Roads
E61 Bonga – Chida 80 Unpaved
E62 Shishinda - Tepi 74 Unpaved

I. Trunk Roads
A7 Mojo- Arba Minch 446 Paved
A7-1 Mojo- Ziway 87
A7-2 Ziway – Shashemene 89
A7-3 Shashemene - Alaba 70
A7-4 Alaba - Sodo 70
A7-5 Sodo - Arba Minch 130

II. Link Roads

III. Main Access Roads

C70 Arbaminch - Kelem Unpaved
C70-1 Arbaminch - Konso 85
C70-2 Konso - Woito 46
C70-3 Woito - Turmi 130
C70-4 Turmi – Kelem
C71 Sodo –Woito Unpaved
C71-1 Sodo –Sawla 139
C71-2 Sawla – Jinka
C71-3 Jinka –Keyafer – Woito 92
C72 Arbaminc junction – Gerese-Sawla Unpaved
C73 Konso – Yabelo 135 Unpaved

IV. Collector Roads

D70a Meno – Fejej 135 Unpaved

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Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual – 2013

I. Trunk Roads
A8a Shashemene – Wondo Genet 20 Unpaved
A8 Shashemene- Hgere Mariam 120 Paved
A8-1 Shashemene- Awassa 20
A8-2 Awassa - Aposto 35
A8-3 Aposto - Dilla 54
A8-4 Dilla - Hgere Mariam 11

II. Link Roads

B81 Shashemene-Dodola 73 Unpaved
B82 (Aposto) Wendo-Negele 279 Unpaved
B82-1 (Aposto) Wendo-Kebre Mengeste 154
B82-2 Kebre Mengeste – Negele 125

III. Main Access Roads

C80 Hageremariam – Moyale 300 Paved
C80-1 Hageremariam – Yabelo 94
C80-2 Yabelo – Mega 99
C80-3 Mega – Moyale 107
C81 Agere Selam-Daye-Mejo-Soyema 100 Unpaved
C82 Mega – Bulbul 205 Unpaved
C82-1 Mega – Wachile 85
C82-2 Wachile– Bulbul 60
C82-3 III. Bulbul – Negele 60
C83 Goba - Bitat 223 Unpaved
C83-1 Goba - (Delo)Mena 112
C83-2 (Delo)Mena - Bitat 111

IV. Collector Roads

D81 Wondo –Dila 37 Unpaved
D82 Negele –Dolo 314 Unpaved
D82-1 Negele – Filtu 112
D82-2 Filtu - Dolo 202

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 Appendix A
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Classification of Roads

I. Trunk Roads
A9 Nazareth- Asela 77 Paved

II. Link Roads

B90 Asela -Gode 608 Unpaved
B90-1 Asela-Dodola 120
B90-2 Dodola-Robe 113
B90-3 Robe-Ali-Ginir 138
B90-4 Ginir-Imi 180
B90-5 Imi -Gode 57
B90a Robe- Goba 14 Unpaved
B91 Dera- Chole 123 Unpaved
B91-1 Dera- Sire 23
B91-2 Sire-Chole 100
B92 Iteya- Diksis - Robi 76 Unpaved

III. Main Access Roads

C90 Robe - Goro – Ginir 141 Unpaved
C91 Chole -Arberekti 164 Unpaved
C91-1 Chole- Mechara 66
C91-2 Mechara - Gelemso -Arberekti 98
C92 Robe - Shek Husen 1 Unpaved
C92-1 Robe - Seru 55
C92-2 Seru - Shek Husen 90
65
V. Feeder Roads
E91 IV. Sodere – Nura era 60 Unpaved

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Appendix A
Classification of Roads Geometric Design Manual – 2013

I. Trunk Roads
A10 Awash Junction – Degehabur 572
A10-1 Awash Junction – Arbereketi 106 Paved
A10-2 Arbereketi – Kulubi 130 Paved
A10-3 Kulubi - Dengego 31 Paved
A10-4 Dengego - Harar 31 Paved
A10-5 Harar - Jijiga 103 Unpaved
A10-6 Jijiga – Degehabur 171 Unpaved
A10a Dengego – Dire Dawa 20 Paved

II. Link Roads

B100 Degehbur-Gode 398 Unpaved
B100-1 Degehbur-Kebridar 233
B100-2 Kebridar-Gode 165
B101 Metehara- Chole 200 Unpaved
B102 Babile-Imi 365 Unpaved
B102-1 Babile-Fik 160
B102-2 Fik- Hamero 105
B102-3 Hamero- Imi 100

III. Main Access Roads

C100 Diredawa - Dewole 224 Unpaved
C101 Diredawa–Hurso-Erer Kebridar - 54 Unpaved
C102 Warder 120 Unpaved
C103 Gode - Hargele. 205 Unpaved
C104 Gode – Kelafo - Ferfer 135 Unpaved

IV. Collector Roads

D10 1 Kobo - Deder 12 Unpaved
D10 2 Harer - Jarso - Bombas 81 Unpaved

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 Appendix B
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Coefficients of Friction

Appendix B COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION

The coefficients of friction as determined by various authors are shown in Figure B-1.
Longitudinal friction coefficients depend on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture of
roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres. Its value decreases
as speed increases but there is considerable disagreement about representative values,
especially at the lower speeds.

Figure B-1: Longitudinal Friction for Various Tyre and Pavement Conditions

It is therefore difficult to define representative values in a country such as Ethiopia where

the conditions are so variable; worn tyres are common, gravel roads can have particularly
low friction characteristics, and the climate varies from wet to arid.

Side friction coefficients are also dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and texture
of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tyres. Figure B-2
illustrates some values obtained by various researchers.

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Appendix B
Coefficients of Friction Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure B-2: Side Friction Factors for Rural Highways

The values used in this manual (Tables B-1 and B-2) allow a reasonable safety factor to
cater for the wide range of conditions. For unpaved roads a systematic reduction in the
values used for paved roads has been used.

It is reported that drivers in urban environments tolerate a higher degree of ‘discomfort’

than drivers in rural areas, hence it is sometimes advocated that higher coefficients of
friction could be used for calculating minimum radii of curvature at the lower speeds in
urban areas. In view of the general conditions in Ethiopia (see above) it is not considered
prudent to do so.

Table B-1: Friction factors for paved roads

Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Longitudinal Factor 0.42 0.41 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.28
Side Friction Factor 0.23 0.215 0.205 0.185 0.17 0.155 0.145 0.13 0.125 0.105

Table B2 Friction factors for unpaved roads.

Design speed (km/h) 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 100
Longitudinal Factor 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.23
Side Friction Factor 0.185 0.17 0.165 0.15 0.135 0.125 0.12 0.11 0.105 0.10 0.09

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 Appendix C
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Sight Distance at Intersections

Appendix C SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS

C.1 Introduction

The provision of adequate sight distances and appropriate traffic controls is essential for
safe intersection operation. Mathematical models have been developed for carrying out the
required calculations for adequate sight distances at junctions of different types but require
many assumptions and are not reliable. The best information is obtained from empirical
data but this is primarily based on research in western countries. The mix of traffic, its age
spectrum, overloading practices etc. are entirely different in Ethiopia. Furthermore, the
required sight distances also depend strongly on driver behaviour. It is therefore not a
simple task to calculate the optimum or minimum sight distances applicable to different
junction designs, different road classes and different mixes of traffic. A pragmatic
approach is to utilise the available empirical data but to select conservative options for
safety.

Stopping sight distance should be provided continuously on all roadways including at the
approaches to intersections. However, in rural areas or when approach speeds are in excess
of 80 km/h, the decision sight clearance set out in Section 7.5 should be provided on all
approaches to intersections for safe operation, particularly where auxiliary lanes are added
to the intersection layout to accommodate the turning movements. This is the sight distance
required by drivers entering the intersection to enable them to establish that it is safe to do
so and then to carry out the manoeuvres necessary either to join or to cross the opposing
traffic streams. The distances shown in this Appendix are derived from research into gap
acceptance as reported in NCHRP Report 383 Intersection Sight Distance.

C.2 Sight Triangles

Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a clear sight triangle free of obstructions
that may block a driver's view of potentially conflicting vehicles on the opposing
approaches. Two different forms of sight triangle are required, approach sight triangles
and departure sight triangles as shown in Figure C.1.

The approach triangle will have sides with sufficient lengths on both intersecting roadways
such that drivers can see any potentially conflicting vehicle in sufficient time to slow, or to
stop if need be, before entering the intersection.

For the departure sight triangle, the line of sight described by the hypotenuse of the sight
triangle should be such that a vehicle just coming into view on the major road will, at the
design speed of this road, have a travel time to the intersection corresponding to the gap
acceptable to the driver of the vehicle on the minor road.

Both forms of sight triangle are required in each quadrant of the intersection. The line of
sight assumes a driver eye height of 1.05 metres and an object height of 1.3 metres. The
areas shown shaded in Figure C.1 should be kept clear of vegetation or any other obstacle
to provide a clear line of sight. To this end, the road reserve is normally splayed to ensure
that the entire extent of the sight triangle is under the control of the road authority.
Furthermore, the profiles of the intersecting roads should be designed to provide the
required sight distance. Where one or other of the approaches is in cut, the affected sight
triangles may have to be ‘day-lighted’, i.e. the natural material occurring within the sight

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Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

triangles may have to be excavated to ensure inter-visibility between the relevant

approaches.

Minor road

Minor road
Major road b

Major road

b a a

Approach sight Approach sight

triangle for viewing Decision point Decision point triangle for viewing
traffic from the left traffic from the
for a right turn right for a left turn

A Approach Sight Triangles

Minor road

Minor road

Major road b

a a Major road

Departure sight Departure sight

triangle for viewing Decision point Decision point triangle for viewing
traffic from the left traffic from the
for a right turn right for a left turn

B Departure Sight Triangles

Figure C.1 Sight Triangles

Sight distance values are based on the ability of the driver of a passenger car to see an
approaching passenger car. It is also necessary to check whether the sight distance is
adequate for trucks. Because their rate of acceleration is lower than that of passenger cars
and, as the distance that the truck has to travel to clear the intersection is longer, the gap
acceptable to a truck driver is considerably greater than that required by the driver of a
passenger car. For design purposes, the eye height of truck drivers is taken as 1.8 metres
for checking the availability of sight distance for trucks.

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 Appendix C
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Sight Distance at Intersections

C.3 Intersection Control

The recommended dimensions of the clear sight triangles vary with the type of traffic
control used at an intersection because different types of control impose different legal
constraints on drivers resulting in different driver behaviour. Sight distance policies for
intersections with the following types of traffic control are shown below:
A. Intersections with no control;
B. Intersections with ‘Stop’ control on the minor road;
a. Right turn from the minor road (Case B1);
b. Left turn from the minor road (Case B2);
c. Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case B3);
C. Intersections with ‘Yield’ control on the minor road;
a. Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case C1);
b. Left or right turn from the minor road (Case C2);
D. Intersections with traffic signal control;
E. Intersections with all-way Stop control.

C.3.1 Intersections with no control (Case A)

Uncontrolled intersections are not used in conjunction with the main road network but are
common in rural networks and access roads to rural settlements. In these cases, drivers
must be able to see potentially conflicting vehicles on intersecting approaches in sufficient
time to stop safely before reaching the intersection. Thus sight triangles with legs at least
equal to the stopping sight distance at the design speed of the road should be provided on
all the approaches to uncontrolled intersections (Tables 7.2 and 7.3). However, the sudden
appearance at the available sight distance of a vehicle about to cross a junction should not
require an emergency stop by the vehicle on the other road (except in extreme
circumstances) hence sight distances should exceed the stopping sight distance.

However, observations in the NCHRP study indicate that vehicles approaching

uncontrolled intersections typically slow down. This occurs even when no potentially
conflicting vehicles are present. Hence if sight triangles of the ideal size cannot be
provided, approaching vehicles travelling at less than their normal running speed can still
brake to a stop if required in an emergency situation. Table C.1 shows revised sight
distances based on the NCHRP study.

If these sight distances cannot be provided, advisory speed signing to reduce speeds or
installing Stop signs on one or more approaches should be investigated.

Uncontrolled intersections do not normally require departure sight triangles because they
typically have very low traffic volumes. If a driver finds it necessary to stop at an
uncontrolled intersection because of the presence of a conflicting vehicle, it is unlikely that
another potentially conflicting vehicle will be encountered as the first vehicle departs the
intersection.

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Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Table C.1: Recommended Sight Distances for Intersections

with no Traffic Control
Sight Distance (m)
Design
Speed Approach gradient
(km/h)
0 to -3% -4 % -5% -6%
30 25 25 25 30
40 30 35 35 35
50 40 45 45 45
60 50 55 55 55
70 65 70 70 70
80 80 90 90 95
90 95 105 105 115
100 120 130 130 145
110 140 155 170 170
120 165 180 200 200
Note. The stopping sight distances in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 should be used
whenever possible

C.3.2 Intersections with Stop control on the minor road (Case B)

Departure sight triangles for intersections with Stop control on the minor road should be
considered for three situations:
• Left turns from the minor road (Case B1);
• Right turns from the minor road (Case B2); and
• Crossing the major road from the minor road (Case B3).

Approach sight triangles, as shown in Figure C.1.A need not be provided at Stop-
controlled intersections because all minor-road vehicles should stop before entering or
crossing the major road.

Vehicles turning left from the minor road have to cross the stream of traffic approaching
from the left and then merge with the stream approaching from the right. Right-turning
vehicles need only merge with the stream approaching from the left. As the merging
manoeuvre requires that turning vehicles should be able to accelerate approximately to the
speed of the stream with which they are merging, it necessitates a gap longer than that for
the crossing manoeuvre.

C3.2.1 Left turn from the minor road (Case B1)

A departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the right as shown in Figure C.1.B
should be provided for left turns from the minor road onto the major road for all Stop-
controlled approaches. Field observations of the gaps accepted by the drivers of vehicles
turning to the left onto the major road have shown that the values in Table C.2 provide

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 Appendix C
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Sight Distance at Intersections

sufficient time for the minor-road vehicle to accelerate from a stop and merge with the
opposing stream without undue interference. These observations also revealed that major-
road drivers reduce their speed to some extent to accommodate vehicles entering from the
minor road. Where the gap acceptance values in Table C.2 are used to determine the length
of the leg of the departure sight triangle along the major road, most major-road drivers
need not reduce speed to less than 70 percent of their initial speed.

Table C.2 applies to passenger cars. However, for minor-road approaches from which
substantial volumes of heavy vehicles enter the major road, the values for single-unit
trucks or semitrailers should be applied. Table C.2 includes adjustments to the acceptable
gaps for the number of lanes on the major road and for the approach gradient of the minor
road. The adjustment for the gradient of the minor-road approach need be made only if the
rear wheels of the design vehicle would be on an upgrade steeper than 3 per cent when the
vehicle is at the stop line of the minor-road approach.

The length of the sight triangle along the major road (distance b in Figure C.1) is the
product of the design speed of the major road in metres/second and the critical gap in
seconds as listed in Table C.2. If these sight distances along the major road (including the
appropriate adjustments) cannot be provided, consideration should be given to the
installation of advisory speed signs on the major-road approaches.

Dimension a in Figure C.1.B depends on the context within which the intersection is being
designed. In urban areas, drivers tend to stop their vehicles immediately behind the Stop
line, which may be located virtually in line with the edge of the major road. A car driver
would, therefore, be located about 2.4 metres away from the Stop line. In rural areas,
vehicles usually stop at the edge of the shoulder of the major road. In the case of a 3-metre
wide shoulder, for example, the driver would be approximately 5.4 metres away from the
edge of the travelled way.

Table C.2: Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along
the Major Road for Right and Left Turns from Stop-controlled Approaches
Travel Time (seconds) at Design Speed of
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 7.5
Single unit truck 9.5
Semi trailer 11.5
Multi-lane highways.
For left turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed by the turning
vehicle. No adjustment is necessary for right turns.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.1 second per gradient for right
turns and 0.2 seconds per gradient for left turns

Where the major road is a dual carriageway, two departure sight triangles have to be
considered: a sight triangle to the left, as for the crossing movement and one using the
acceptable gap as listed in Table C.2 for vehicles approaching from the right. This

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presupposes that the width of the median is sufficient to provide a refuge for the vehicle
turning from the minor road. If the median width is inadequate, the adjustment in Table
C.2 for multilane major roads should be applied with the median being counted as an
additional lane. The departure sight triangle should be checked for various possible design
vehicles because the width of the median may be adequate for one vehicle type and not for
another so that two different situations have to be evaluated.

C3.2.2 Right turn from the minor road (Case B2)

A departure sight triangle for traffic approaching from the left, as shown in Figure C.1
should be provided for right turns from the minor road. The lengths of the legs of the
departure sight triangle for right turns should generally be the same as those for the left
turns used in Case B1. Specifically, the length of the leg of the departure sight triangle
(dimension b) along the major road should be based on the travel times in Table C.2,
including appropriate adjustment factors.

Dimension a depends on the context of the design and can vary from 2.4 metres to 5.4
metres. Where sight distances along the major road based on the travel times from Table
C.2 cannot be provided, it should be kept in mind that field observations indicate that, in
making right turns, drivers generally accept gaps that are slightly shorter than those
accepted in making left turns. The travel times in Table C.2 can be decreased by 1.0 to 1.5
seconds for right turn manoeuvres, where necessary, without undue interference with
major-road traffic. When the recommended sight distance for a right-turn manoeuvre
cannot be provided, even with this reduction, consideration should be given to the
installation of advisory speed signs and warning devices on the major road approaches.

C3.2.3 Crossing manoeuvre from the minor road (Case B3)

In most cases it can be assumed that the departure sight triangles for right and left turns
onto the major road, as described for Cases B1 and B2, will also provide more than
adequate sight distance for minor-road vehicles crossing the major road. However, it is
advisable to check the availability of sight distance for crossing manoeuvres:
• Where right and/or left turns are not permitted from a particular approach and
crossing is the only legal manoeuvre;
• Where the crossing vehicle has to cross four or more lanes; or
• Where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles cross the highway and where there
are steep gradients on the departure roadway on the far side of the intersection that
might slow the vehicle while its rear is still in the intersection.

Table C.3 presents travel times and appropriate adjustment factors that can be used to
determine the length of the leg of the sight triangle along the major road to accommodate
crossing manoeuvres. At divided highway intersections, depending on the width of the
median and the length of the design vehicle, sight distance may be needed for crossing
both roadways of the divided highway or for crossing the near lanes only and stopping in
the median before proceeding.

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Table C.3: Travel Times Used to Determine the Leg of the Departure Triangle along
the Major Road for Crossing Manoeuvres from Stop-controlled Approaches
Travel Time (seconds) at Design Speed of
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 6.5
Single unit truck 8.5
Semi trailer 10.5
Multi-lane highways.
For left turns onto 2-way highways with more than 2 lanes, add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed. In the case of dual
carriageways with inadequate median width for refuge, count the median as another lane to
be crossed.
Adjustment for gradients.
If the approach gradient on the minor road exceeds 3% add 0.2 second per percent gradient in
excess of 3%.
Notes: 1. For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 per cent, increase by the same factor as in
Table C.1.
2. Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.

C.3.3 Intersections with Yield control on the minor road (Case C)

Vehicles entering a major road at a Yield-controlled intersection may, because of the

presence of opposing vehicles on the major road, be required to stop. Departure sight
triangles as described for Stop control must therefore be provided for the Yield condition.
However, if no conflicting vehicles are present, drivers approaching Yield signs are
permitted to enter or cross the major road without stopping. The sight distances needed by
drivers on Yield-controlled approaches exceed those for Stop-controlled approaches
because of the longer travel time of the vehicle on the minor road.

For four-legged intersections with Yield control on the minor road, two separate sets of
approach sight triangles as shown in Figure C.1.A should be provided; one set of approach
sight triangles to accommodate right and left turns onto the major road and the other for
crossing movements. Both sets of sight triangles should be checked for potential sight
obstructions.

C3.3.1 Crossing manoeuvres (Case C1)

The lengths of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road to accommodate
the crossing manoeuvre from a Yield-controlled approach (distance a in Figure C.1.A) are
given in Table C.4. The distances are based on similar assumptions as those for Case A
control. The distances and times in Table C.4 should be adjusted for the gradient of the
minor road approach, using the same factors as used in Table C.1.

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Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Table C.4: Leg of Approach Sight Triangle Along the Minor Road to Accommodate
Crossing Manoeuvres from Yield-controlled Approaches
Design speed Travel time (ta) from
Distance along minor
(minor road). decision point to
road (m)
(km/h) major road(1)(2)
30 30 3.4
40 40 3.7
50 50 4.1
60 65 4.7
70 85 5.3
80 110 6.1
90 140 6.8
100 165 7.3
110 190 7.8
120 230 8.6
Notes 1 For minor-road approach gradients that exceed +3 per cent, increase by
the same factor as in Table C.1.
2 Travel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the
intersection but does not stop

The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the major road to accommodate
the crossing manoeuvre (distance b in Figure C.1.A) should be calculated using the
following equations:

tc = ta + (w + La)/(0.167.Vminor)

b = 0.278.tc.Vmajor

where:
tc = travel time to reach and clear the major road in a crossing manoeuvre (sec)
b = length of leg of sight triangle along the major road (m)
ta = travel time to reach the major road from the decision point for a vehicle that
does not stop (sec) (use appropriate value for the minor road design speed
from Table C.1, adjusted for approach grade, where appropriate)
w = width of intersection to be crossed (m)
La = length of design vehicle (m)
Vminor = design speed of minor road (km/h)
Vmajor = design speed of major road (km/h)

These equations provide sufficient travel time for the major road vehicle during which the
minor-road vehicle can:
1. Travel from the decision point to the intersection, while decelerating at the rate of
1.5m/s² to 60 per cent of the minor-road design speed; and then
2. Cross and clear the intersection at the same speed.

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Field observations did not provide a clear indication of the size of the gap acceptable to the
driver of a vehicle located at the decision point on the minor road. If the required gap is
longer than that indicated by the above equations, the driver would, in all probability, bring
the vehicle to a stop and then select a gap on the basis of Case B. If the acceptable gap is
shorter than that indicated by the above equations, the sight distance provided would, at
least, provide a margin of safety.

If the major road is a divided highway with a median wide enough to store the design
vehicle for the crossing manoeuvre, then only crossing of the near lanes need be
considered and a departure sight triangle for accelerating from a stopped position in the
median should be provided, based on Case B1.

C3.3.2 Left and right-turn manoeuvres (Case C2)

To accommodate left and right turns without stopping (distance a in Figure C.1.A), the
length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road should be 25 metres.
This distance is based on the assumption that drivers making right or left turns without
stopping will slow to a turning speed of 15 km/h. The length of the leg of the approach
sight triangle along the major road (distance b in Figure C.1.B) is similar to that of the
major-road leg of the departure sight triangle for Stop-controlled intersections in Cases B1
and B2. For a Yield-controlled intersection, the travel times in Table C.2 should be
increased by 0.5 seconds. [The minor-road vehicle requires 3.5 seconds to travel from the
decision point to the intersection. These 3.5 seconds represent additional travel time that is
needed at a Yield-controlled intersection (Case C). However, the acceleration time after
entering the major road is 3.0 seconds less for a Yield sign than for a Stop sign because the
turning vehicle accelerates from 15 km/h rather than from a stop condition. The net 0.5
seconds increase in travel time for a vehicle turning from a Yield-controlled approach is
the difference between the 3.5 second increase in travel time on approach and the 3.0
second reduction in travel time on departure explained above].

Since approach sight triangles for turning manoeuvres at Yield-controlled sites are larger
than the departure sight triangles used at Stop-controlled intersections, no specific check of
departure sight triangles at Yield-controlled intersections should be necessary.

C.3.4 Intersections with traffic signal control (Case D)

In general, approach or departure sight triangles are not needed for signalised intersections.
Indeed, signalisation may be an appropriate accident countermeasure for higher volume
intersections with restricted sight distance and a history of sight-distance related accidents.
However, traffic signals may fail from time to time. Furthermore, traffic signals at an
intersection are sometimes placed on two-way flashing operation under off-peak or night
time conditions. To allow for either of these eventualities, the appropriate departure sight
triangles for Case B, both to the left and to the right, should be provided for the minor-road
approaches.

C.3.5 Intersections with all-way Stop control (Case E)

At intersections with all-way Stop control, the first stopped vehicle on each approach
would be visible to the drivers of the first stopped vehicles on each of the other
approaches. It is thus not necessary to provide sight distance triangles at intersections with

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Appendix C
Sight Distance at Intersections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

All-way Stop control. All-way Stop control may be an option to consider where the sight
distance for other types of control cannot be achieved. This is particularly the case if
signals are not warranted.

C.3.6 Left turns from a major road (Case F)

Left-turning drivers need sufficient sight distance to enable them to decide when it is safe
to turn across the lane(s) used by opposing traffic. At all locations, where left turns across
opposing traffic are possible, there should be sufficient sight distance to accommodate
these manoeuvres. Since a vehicle that turns left without stopping needs a gap shorter than
that required by a stopped vehicle, the need for sight distance design should be based on a
left turn by a stopped vehicle. The sight distance along the major road to accommodate left
turns is the distance that would be traversed at the design speed of the major road in the
travel time for the appropriate design vehicle given in Table C.5. This table also contains
appropriate adjustment factors for the number of major-road lanes to be crossed by the
turning vehicle.

Table C5: Travel Times Used to Determine the Sight Distance Along the Major Road
to Accommodate Right Turns From the Major Road (Case F)
Travel Time (seconds) at Design Speed of
Vehicle
the Major Road
Passenger car 5.5
Single unit truck 6.5
Semi trailer 7.5
Multi-lane highways.
For left turns that have to cross more than one opposing lane add 0.5 seconds for cars and 0.7
seconds for trucks for each additional lane (in excess of one) to be crossed. In the case of dual
carriageways where the median is not sufficiently wide to provide refuge for the turning
vehicle, the median should be regarded as another lane to be crossed.

If stopping sight distance has been provided continuously along the major road and if sight
distance for Case B (Stop control) or Case C (Yield control) has been provided for each
minor-road approach, sight distance should generally be adequate for left turns from the
major road. However, at intersections or driveways located on or near horizontal or vertical
curves on the major road, the availability of adequate sight distance for left turns from the
major road should be checked. In the case of dual carriageways, the presence of sight
obstructions in the median should also be checked.

At four-legged intersections, opposing vehicles turning left can block a driver's view of
oncoming traffic. If left-turn lanes are provided, off-setting them to the right, to be directly
opposite one other will provide left-turning drivers with a better view of oncoming traffic.

C.4 Effect of skew on sight distance

When two highways intersect at an angle outside the range of 75o to 120o and where
realignment to increase the angle of intersection is not justified, some of the factors for
determination of intersection sight distance will need adjustment. Each of the clear sight

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 Appendix C
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Sight Distance at Intersections

triangles described above is applicable to oblique-angle intersections. The legs of the sight
triangle will lie along the intersection approaches and each sight triangle will be larger or
smaller than the corresponding sight triangle would be at a right-angle intersection. The
area within each sight triangle should be clear of sight obstructions, as described above. At
skew intersections, the length of the travel paths for crossing manoeuvres will be
increased. The actual path length for a crossing manoeuvre can be calculated by dividing
the total width of the lanes (plus the median width, where appropriate) to be crossed by the
sine of the intersection angle and adding the length of the design vehicle. The actual path
length divided by the lane width applied to the major road cross-section gives the
equivalent number of lanes to be crossed. This is an indication of the number of additional
lanes to be applied to the adjustment factor shown in Table C3 for Case B3.

The sight distances shown for Case B can, regardless of the form of control, also
accommodate turning movements from the minor road to the major road at skew
intersections. In the obtuse angle, drivers can easily see the full sight triangle and, in
addition, often accelerate from the minor road at a higher rate than when they have to
negotiate a ninety-degree change of direction. In the acute-angle quadrant, drivers are often
required to turn their heads considerably to see across the entire clear sight triangle. For
this reason, it is suggested that Case A should not be applied to oblique-angle intersections.
Stop or Yield control should be applied and the sight distances appropriate to either Case B
or Case C provided. Even in a skew intersection it is usually possible for drivers to position
their vehicles at approximately 90o to the major road at the Stop line, offering added
support for the application of Case B for skew intersections. When driving through a
deflection angle greater than 120o, the right turn to the minor road may be undertaken at
crawl speeds. Allowance could be made for this by adding the time, equivalent to that
required for crossing an additional lane, to the acceptable gap.

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 Appendix D
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Measuring Sight Distance

Appendix D MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS

By determining graphically the sight distances on the plans and recording them at frequent
intervals, the designer can appraise the overall layout and provide a more balanced design
by minor adjustments in the plan of profile. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are
tentatively established, the practical means of examining sight distances along the
proposed highway is by direct scaling on the plans. Methods for scaling sight distances are
demonstrated in Figure D-1. The figure also shows a typical sight distance record that
could be shown on the final plans.

Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is
desirable to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station.
Both horizontal and vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths
recorded. In the case of two-lane highways, passing sight distance in addition to stopping
sight distance should be measured and recorded.

Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as

buildings, hedges, wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These
generally are plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as
indicated at the upper left in Figure D-1. The cut slope obstruction is shown on the
worksheets by a line representing the proposed excavation slope at a point 600 millimeters
(approximate average of 1070 millimeters and 150 millimeters) above the road surface for
stopping sight distance and at a point about 1100 millimeters above the road surface for
passing sight distance. The position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled
from the plotted highway cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be
measured between points on the one traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the
middle of one lane to the middle of the other lane. Such refinement on two-lane highways
generally is not necessary and measurement to the centerline or traveled way edge is
suitable. Where there are changes of grade coincident with horizontal curves that have
sight-limiting cuts slopes on the inside, the line-of-sight intercepts the slope at a level
either lower or higher than the assumed average height. In measuring sight distance the
error in the use of the assumed 600-or 1100-millimeters height usually can be ignored.

Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the
right center of Figure D-1. A transparent strip with parallel edge 1300 millimeters apart
and with scratched lines 150 millimeters and 1070 millimeters from the upper edge, in
accordance with the vertical scale, is a useful tool. The 1070-millimeter line is placed on
the station from which the vertical sight distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about
this point until the upper edge is tangent to the profile. The distance between the initial
station and the station on the profile intersected by the 150 millimeters line is the stopping
sight distance. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile
intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.

A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Figure D-1. Sight distances in
both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile
sheet of the proposed highway. Sight distance less than 500 m may be scaled to the nearest
10 meters and those greater than 500 meters to the nearest 50 meters. Sight distances can
easily be determined also where plans and profiles are drawn using computer-aided design
and drafting systems (CADD), although such programs presently do not automatically
make this determination.

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Appendix D
Measuring Sight Distance Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used to advantage to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones. No-passing zones thus established serve as a
guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zone so determined should be
checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings are placed.

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 Appendix D
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Measuring Sight Distance

Figure D-1: Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans

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 Appendix E
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Utilities

Appendix E UTILITIES

E.1 Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority

The Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority Distribution Manual, dated January
1975, shows the following parameters:

Minimum vertical clearance of wires above roads:

The manual generally gives no guidance on the placement of the utility within the road
reserve. A drawing shows that street lighting is to be placed 1 meter behind a curb on a
main road. The manual does not state placement for un-curbed roads, and such placement
should not be allowed. Similarly, power poles are placed 60 cm behind curbs; in rural
areas, the poles shall be placed at least 15 meters from the center of the road.

For underground cables crossing the road, unprotected cables are placed 80 cm below a
gravel road; or cables encased with concrete pipe are placed 100 cm below an asphalt road
or paved sidewalk. The EELPA shows vertical clearances as per Table E-1.

Table E-1: Minimum Vertical Clearance of Wires above Road Surface in Centimetres

Open-Supply Wires, Voltage to

Guys, Ground
Type of Location Messengers,
Etc. 750 to 15,000 to
0 to 750
15,000 50,000
When crossing above:
Railroads 820 820 850 910
Streets, alleys, and
roadways 550 550 610 670
Private driveways 310 310 610 670
Walkways for pedestrians
only 240 460 460 520
When wires are along:
Streets or alleys 550 550 610 670
Roads in rural districts 430 460 550 610

E.2 Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority

The Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority reports that they generally follow the
proposals indicated in the Master Plan for pipe laying. This consists of laying pipes under
the sidewalks. However, in situations where the sidewalk is narrow or does not exist, pipes
are laid in the median, if there is one, or in the edge of the asphalt road.

For pipes up to 150 millimeters diameter, pipes are laid at a depth as indicated in Table E-
2. For larger pipes, the depth is generally greater than 1.5 meters.

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Appendix E
Utilities Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Table E-2: Trench Dimensions for Water and Sewerage Pipe Culverts

Diameter Depth Width Bedding thickness

(mm) (cm) cm) (cm)
150 85 70 10
125 72.5 70 10
100 70 50 10
75 57.5 40 -
≤50 55 40 -

E.3 Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation

The Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation reports that for directly buried cable
installation, the ETC uses a depth of 1.0-1.2 meters for primary cable and 0.6-0.8 meters
for secondary cable. ETC does not have a standard location plan within the road right-of-
way at the time of the preparation of this manual.

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Appendix F TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS

Standard Cross Sections for road classes from DC1 to DC8 are shown in Figures F-1 to F-8
and typical town sections from F-9 to F-13.

Note that many towns have master plans that will show a slightly different configuration
from the town sections shown. In such cases, our typical section should represent the
minimal requirements.

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-1(a): DC1 Unpaved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Figure F-1(b): DC1 Unpaved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-2(a): DC2 Unpaved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-2(b): DC2 Unpaved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-2(c): DC2 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-2(d): DC2 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-3(a): DC3 Unpaved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
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Figure F-3(b): DC3 Unpaved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-3(c): DC3 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Figure F-3(d): DC3 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-4(a): DC4 Unpaved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-4(b): DC4 Unpaved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-4(c): DC4 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-4(d): DC4 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-5(a): DC5 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-5(b): DC5 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-6(a): DC6 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-6(b): DC6 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-7(a): DC7 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-7(b): DC7 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-8(a): DC8 Paved Flat and Rolling Terrain Typical Cross Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-8(b): DC8 Paved Mountainous and Escarpment Terrain Typical Cross Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-9: Divided Lane (Kebele Seat) Typical Town Section

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 Appendix F
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-10: Divided Two Lane (Wereda Seat) Typical Town Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-11: Divided Two Lane (Zonal Seat) Typical Town Section

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Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Typical Cross Sections

Figure F-12: Divided Two Lane (Regional Seat) Typical Town Section

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Appendix F
Typical Cross Sections Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Figure F-13: Divided Three Lane (Addis Ababa) Typical Town Section

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 Appendix G
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Procedure for Design

Appendix G PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN

G.1 Introduction
This chapter has been prepared as a guide and checklist for personnel engaged in road
design. It is not intended as a textbook nor should the contents be considered mandatory in
the design of all road projects. It is recognized that whilst the design procedure is generally
the same for any project, there are many specific issues, which the designer must consider
in proceeding with the design of each individual project.
Reference is made in this chapter to the procedures to be followed in the preparation of
data for processing by computer-aided methods. However, whether the designer uses
manual or computer methods, he must always be aware that good engineering judgment
must be exercised at all times. A complete review of all field data, project requirements,
economics and applicable specifications must be considered in order to produce the most
technically sound and economic design for each project.
The designer must also be aware of any relevant safety and environmental regulations and
incorporate these features in the design. The chapter ends with the presentation of a
checklist for road link design.

G.2 Review of Field Data

Horizontal Alignment.
In many cases the designer of the final alignment has little control over the location of the
horizontal alignment due to right-of-way restrictions, previous commitments with local
community groups and other factors. The following items should be considered:
1. Review topographical data along with horizontal alignment to ensure that steep
gradients are avoided where possible.
2. Review topography to ensure that alignment does not run parallel to major
drainages, which may result in channel changes, extra culvert lengths due to skews,
etc.
3. Review curve data to ensure that the degree of curvature meets the allowable
maximum for the required design speed. Also avoid broken curves in alignment or
short tangents on switch back curves that make it impossible to design adequate
super- elevation transitions.

Projects to be designed by computer-aided methods should have horizontal alignment data

submitted as follows:
1. If the project has been located on photogrammetric manuscripts, the designer need
only submit beginning station and degree of curvature and coordinates of every
horizontal P.I.
2. If the project has been located by ground surveys, the designer should submit
horizontal alignment data in notebook form.

The designer will furnish ERA with copies of horizontal alignment listing (HAL), which
will list all stations and coordinates of P.C., P.I. and P.T. of each curve, including curve
data.

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Appendix G
Procedure for Design Geometric Design Manual – 2013

Terrain Cross Sections

The terrain cross sections (original cross sections) should be reviewed for accuracy
keeping the following points in mind:
1. Check to see that notes are complete and that cross sections extend sufficient
distances from the centre line to accommodate the template and will permit shifting
of the alignment, if necessary, without re-cross sectioning.
2. Check all benchmarks, turning points, H.I.'s etc., to ensure that cross section
elevations will be reduced correctly.

Check to see that stream profiles have been surveyed and noted in the field notes to
distinguish them from cross sections.
For projects where terrain data are taken directly from aerial photography, the designer
must convert the data for processing. The level of detail from aerial photographs depends
on the flying height, cloud cover and ground vegetation.
Topography Data
Topography data obtained by field ground surveys will generally be collected
electronically for downloading to appropriate computer-aided design software.
Topography data obtained by photogrammetry can be more complete and accurate in that it
will include all planimetric features such as fences, walls, utility poles, and existing
improvements, in addition to elevation contours and spot elevations.
The topography data should be checked for completeness and accuracy against other maps
available to the designer.
Topography data will be of great use to the designer in determining right-of-way
restrictions, swamp or rock locations, and the need for relocating utility lines or other
physical features that affect the design.

G.3 Design criteria

Prior to commencing the design, the designer should tabulate all design criteria to be used
on the particular project so that other personnel working on the project will be aware of it.
This data will be obtained through discussions with the ERA Engineer, commitments to
local governing bodies, or through his own analysis of design requirements.

The following items should be tabulated and included in the design file:

1. Design speed.
2. ADT present and future. The ADT should be noted as actual count, listing the date
of count or estimate.
3. A typical section sketch should be prepared showing the proposed geometric
section, such as finished and subgrade widths, ditch dimensions, crown and super-
elevation, cut and fill slope sections, etc.
4. The files should show design criteria used in determining drainage requirements,
such as 25-year flood frequency, hydrologic chart, etc.

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5. Right-of-way widths should be noted including agreements for construction

easement.
6. If a soils profile has been taken, it should be part of the file with cover thickness
tabulated. In some areas, a chemical analysis at culvert locations may be required to
determine need for protective coating of pipes.
7. The designer should note whether the profile grade should roll with the terrain,
avoiding high fills and cuts, or whether grades should be as smooth as possible.
8. All control profile elevations should be noted such as, existing pavements to be
matched, minimum pipe cover requirements, railroad elevations crossings, bridge
elevations to be matched, as well as any other elevation requirements, which may
have been agreed to with abutting property owners.
9. Locations of possible borrow and aggregate pits should be noted.
10. The designer should note the requirements for earthwork balancing such as
maximum balance distance, whether tight balance or borrow and waste designs
should be followed and whether ditches can be widened or slopes flattened to
achieve better balanced design.
11. Shrinkage and swell factors should be noted, whether calculated or estimated.
12. Location of rock outcrops, swamps, springs should be indicated.
13. The need for fencing, gates, cattle guards, cattle passes, curbing, guard rail, etc.,
should be noted and criteria used for determining these needs.
14. The need for road approaches, and acceleration, deceleration and passing lanes
should be noted.
15. All available information on base course and surfacing should be noted to determine
thickness, asphalt requirements, need for bituminous seal coats, etc.
16. All other items that may have a bearing on the design should be noted such that all
personnel involved in the design will be aware of criteria and design requirements.
The designer should obtain copies of all correspondence on the project and make it
part of the design file.

G.4 Site Trip

It is imperative that the designer makes a field trip to the site and walks the entire
alignment reviewing the topography before start of actual design. At this time he can note
special problems and design considerations, discussing these items with the ERA Engineer
or his staff. The designer should take photographs of special problem areas to enable him
to best solve design problems.

After this field trip and discussions, the designer has a much better overall picture of the
project and its requirements and can best determine the extent of construction details to go
on the plans. Projects to be designed for contract work will require more details and
explanation on pay quantities than force account projects.

G.5 Preliminary Design Drawings

During the early stages of design, preferably prior to the field trip, the following
preliminary design drawings or sketches should be prepared:
1. Typical section of roadway showing geometric (sketch is adequate).

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2. Drainage plan map showing all drainage areas and stationing were they cross the
proposed road. This drawing need not be to scale.
3. Profile plot of existing centre-line ground line. This can be plotted at a scale of
usually 1:1000 vertical and 1:10,000 horizontal.
4. Plan plot of alignment. This shows all planimetric features of the terrain - (scale is
usually 1: 10,000). Right-of-way lines should be superimposed on this drawing to
determine if there will be any restrictions.
5. Soils profile plot and material pit drawings showing type and depth of material.
6. Stream profiles extending a sufficient distance upstream and downstream to
determine pipe grade and skew angles.

G.6 Preliminary Design Procedure

Up to this time the designer has been primarily engaged in reviewing and assembling field
data, setting design criteria and establishing project requirements with very little design
work accomplished. The following guideline will assist the designer in proceeding with
preliminary design:
1. If the Designer is at liberty to change the horizontal alignment he should make the
decision whether the proposed alignment is the most feasible or whether offsetting
the alignment could result in a more economical design. The horizontal alignment
should be coordinated with the profile by studying a continuous stretch of the plan
and profile, visualizing the road in three dimensions to determine if changes are
required.
2. Calculate drainage areas and waterway openings for all pipe culverts, box culverts
and bridges. After determining the waterway openings the pipe sizes should be
calculated to determine control points on the grade line. The Designer need not
make the final decision as to exact pipe size or type of structure (CMP, RCP, or
concrete box culvert) at this time, and an approximation will suffice.
No effort is made in this manual to describe the methods used to determine
drainage structure requirements since these methods are given in the ERA Drainage
and Bridge Design Manuals. It is recommended that the Engineer obtain copies of
these manuals for drainage structure calculations.
3. Spot culvert locations on the profile plot noting flow line elevations and sizes of
pipes. Note control elevations that must be met such as minimum pipe cover,
existing pavement, and bridge elevations.

4. The first trial grade line can now be drawn on the profile plot. The grade can either
be the finished pavement or the subgrade profile.

The following items should be considered in laying the trial grade:

1. Projects starting at a T-intersection should begin with a minimal grade for a
minimum of 20 metres from the intersection before entering steeper grades in order
to provide better sight distance and to allow stopping and starting of vehicles on
near-level grades.
2. Vertical P.I.'s should be placed at even stations or plus 50's for ease in calculating
grades and staking. Where possible, V.P.I.'s should be spaced 300 - 500 metres

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apart and curve lengths should be determined to provide proper site distance for the
design speed. Where possible, minimum curve lengths of 100 metres should be
maintained and extremely long crest vertical curves should be avoided since many
drivers refuse to pass on vertical curves.
3. Avoid placing V.P.I.'s where intersecting side roads will be on crest vertical curves
as this reduces sight distances and creates safety hazards.

G.7 Checklist for Final Road Link Design

A flowchart for the design process is presented in Figure 5-1. Figure G-1 serves as a
checklist for ensuring that all critical elements of the final design have been addressed.

Figure G-1: Checklist for Final Road Link Design

General

1. Has the design standard been selected?

2. Does the selected standard fit into the environment and road hierarchy?

3. Has the design speed been selected?

4. Does the standard selected provide for the design vehicle(s)?

5. Does the standard selected provide for the traffic volume?

6. Does sufficient right-of-way exist, or can it be obtained?

Cross Sections

7. Are the cross-section widths adequate for the levels of traffic flow predicted?

8. Have cross-sections been widened at sharp horizontal curves?

9. Does the design include adequate shoulders?

10. Has the full carriageway cross-section been continued across culverts and minor
bridges up to 30m span?

11. Are side slopes and back slopes adequate?

12. Does the cross section provide for drainage?

13. Have the clear zone requirements been met?
Alignment

14. Are stopping sight distances along the road above the minimum values required
for the design speeds for both horizontal and vertical alignments?

15. Are the radii of horizontal curves, with superelevation where required, above the
minimum values identified for the design speed?

16. Have reverse curves, broken-back curves, and compound curves been avoided?

17. Are isolated curves of sufficient radius?

18. Is superelevation according to standards?

19. Are the vertical curves adequate for the design speeds?

20. Are the gradients below the maximum permissible values?

21. Are the gradients as indicated on cross-sections and longitudinal sections
sufficient to avoid standing water?

22. Does the alignment allow regular overtaking opportunities, including for single
lane standards?

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23. Have climbing lanes been introduced where necessary to provide adequate and
safe overtaking opportunities?

24. Is road access too open or too restricted?

25. Do the combined geometric design elements produce a consistent and safe
alignment?

26. Will the road allow safe driving in darkness?

27. Will the design lead to reduced severity in the event of an accident?

Junctions

28. Does the junction design minimize potential conflicts to the extent
possible/practical?

29. Is the type of junction selected appropriate for the conditions present?

30. Do the junction approaches provide adequate visibility?

31. Does the junction cater to the needs of pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles as
required?

32. Have turning lanes been considered?

33. Has lighting been considered?
Provision for Pedestrians

34. Has pedestrian usage been estimated, and have appropriate facilities been
provided for pedestrian and non-motorized safety both along and across the road?

Miscellaneous

35. Has provision been made for the placement of utilities?

36. Have traffic signs, signals, road markings and guideposts been provided?

37. Have centerline and edge-line markings been designed which give adequate
guidance/control for drivers?

38. Has adequate provision been made for the provision of bus lay-byes, and for
parked and stopped vehicles?

39. Are railway crossings adequately designed?

40. Have guardrails been considered, especially at bridge approaches?

41. Is there any scope for the installation of emergency escape ramps?

42. Have speed limit zones, safety barriers, and emergency escape ramps been
considered?

Departures from Standards

43. Are departures from standards necessary? Have these been documented and has
proper action been taken?

Date: ................................ Designer Date: ................ Responsible Engineer

.........................................................................................................................................

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 Appendix H
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Appendix H PLANS AND DRAFTING

H.1 General

The final plans are the graphic portrayal of the complete highway design. These plans,
together with the specifications, enable the Engineer and the contractor to locate and
construct on the ground the highway facility as visualized by the designer. Plans should be
kept as simple as possible yet be complete enough so that the need not be compelled to try
to guess what the designer intended.

Unique drawing numbers must be included on the drawings. The drawings should not
contain any estimated quantities. The minimum size of lettering chosen must be legible
after plan reduction.

H.2 Completeness of Plans

The completeness of plans and profiles and level of detail adopted for a given project shall
be consistent with the type of road, and the nature of the work to be undertaken.

Plans for tender and construction purposes shall be produced at 1:2000 scale on A1 size
paper, which may be reduced to A3 size for tender purposes. The plans shall include a title
sheet, project location plan, plan and profile drawings, typical cross sections, structural
details, material pits and road furniture details.

1. Title sheet: The title sheet is a standard form and shall show the road functional
classification number, the project number, and project length and location, with arrows
designating the beginning and ending stations on the route map. Design criteria such as
design speed, maximum curvature, gradient, terrain class, etc., will be tabulated. An
index of all drawings will be shown and a title block for signatures by the Consultant
will appear in the lower right hand corner.

2. Typical cross section sheet: This sheet will show the road section or sections with all
dimensions, such as lane, carriageway, and shoulder widths and other details.

3. Plan and Profile sheet: These sheets are standard with the upper half for alignment and
the lower half for profile.

i) The alignment in rural areas is normally plotted at a scale of 1:4000 (A3) and will
show centerline in heavy lines and right-of-way lines in lighter lines. Thick
marks will be shown on the centerline every 100 meters, with a heavier tick
mark every 5 stations. The alignment will be clearly defined with stationing,
bearings, curve data, and north arrow. Alternatively, the setting-out data can be
presented in a computer file.

ii) The location of all land lines, forest boundaries, city limits, railroads, present
roads, existing and proposed fences pole lines, channels, ditch structures,
bridges, culverts, utility lines, large trees, improvements within or adjacent to
right-of-way, approach roads, right-of-way markers, and detour roads shall be
properly shown to scale.

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iii) Notes will accompany the notations clearly stating the work to be
accomplished, such as: to be removed, to remain in place, work by other,
construct, etc.

iv) Description, location and elevation of all benchmarks are generally noted along
the profile portion of the plan and profile sheet.

v) The profile is normally plotted at a scale of 1:200 vertical and 1:2000

horizontal (A1) on the lower half of the plan and profile sheet. The horizontal
scale must be the same as the scale used in the alignment, or plan view.

vi) The elevation of the ground and proposed grade line should be plotted
accurately, noting P.V.I. station, elevation, length of curve, middle ordinate,
beginning and ending of curve and percent gradient. The grade line should be
continuous along parabolic curves and should be the profile grade (top of
finished surface or subgrade) as noted on the typical section.

vii) All cross drainage structures and bridges shall be noted, including graded
ditches, ditch blocks, grade of special ditches and cross section of ditches and
dikes. Existing culverts must be shown with dashed lines, and new structures
must be shown with solid lines.

4. Structure detail sheets. These sheets include bridge details, curb and gutter details,
concrete box culverts, headwalls, drains, underpasses, cattle guards and other special
structures. These drawings should be complete and include location, elevations,
dimensions, estimate of quantities, and applicable specifications, if not covered in the
specifications.

5. Material Pits. This drawing will show the location, shape and size of material pits for
borrow, subbase, base course, mineral aggregate for bituminous material and chips,
and concrete aggregates. In addition to the sketch of the pit, the location of test holes
and the results of sample tests should be tabulated. Existing roads to be used or haul
roads (length and location) should be noted.

6. Detail Drawings: These can include junction and driveway details, bus lay-by details,
climbing lane details, guard rail details, striping details, destination sign details, and
fencing details, as appropriate. Standard details are given in the ERA Standard Detail
Drawings.

7. Mass Haul Diagram: Earthwork quantities are represented graphically and are
tabulated on this sheet.

H.3 Size of Plans

All drawings should be the standard A1 size and printing should be bold and large to
permit legibility when reduced to A3 size.

H.4 Uniformity of Plans

The designer should strive to maintain uniformity in preparation of road plans rather than
giving them "his personal touch". Plans prepared using uniform standards are easier to

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understand by both the engineer and the contractor and will generally result in fewer
disputes or claims.

H.5 Abbreviated Plans

Certain types of construction projects use less intense design than other types. Projects
such as rehabilitation projects usually do not consist of new alignments and may have only
spot geometric improvements. Such projects may require only minor engineering control,
and therefore the plans may be abbreviated. For instance, in the above example, no plan
and profile sheets need be included except in areas requiring relocations or substantial
grade or curve changes. Plans will be similar to complete plans except plan and profile
sheets will be limited to sections affected by such improvements.

However, sufficient information concerning horizontal and vertical alignment must be

shown to enable the contractor to stake the project.

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201 Perspective in Geometric Design

Appendix I PERSPECTIVES IN GEOMETRIC DESIGN

To illustrate the advantages of visualising the alignment in three dimensions and to guide
the design towards good practice, a number of alignment combinations are shown in
Figures I.1 to I.16.

Figure I.1 shows the advantage of maintaining a constant, uniform grade for as long as
possible. Local dips to o minimise earthworks that result in a disjointed alignment will be
there for the life of the road.

Figure I.1: Effect of eliminating a dip on a long grade

Figure I.2: Short sag curve on a long tangent

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Short crests and sags should also be avoided on horizontal curves, as shown in Figure I.3.
Maintaining a constant grade is the preferred option.

Figure I.3: Removal of humps on a horizontal curve

Figure I.4: Short humps on a long horizontal curve

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201 Perspective in Geometric Design

A short discontinuity or dip in the alignment preceding a horizontal curve creates a

particularly discordant view. Eliminating the crest curves in advance and following the sag
curve improves the appearance, as shown in Figure I.5 and I.6.

Figure I.5: Short hump and dip preceding horizontal curve replaced by long sag
curve linking into horizontal curve.

Figure I.6: Short vertical curves preceding a long horizontal curve.

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A common fault in road alignment is illustrated in Figure I.7 and I.8.. The roadway is often
unnaturally curved to cross a small stream or grade separation at right angles. The
advantages in the alignment aesthetics of a skew crossing often far outweigh the savings
deriving from a square crossing.

Figure I.7: Skew crossing improves horizontal alignment

Figure I.8: Distorted alignment at bridge crossing.

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201 Perspective in Geometric Design

Figure I.9(a) illustrates the broken-back

broken back horizontal curve, or two curves in the same
direction separated by a short tangent. The sag curve on the separating tangent intensifies
the broken-back effect.
ect. The advantages of using a single radius curve throughout are
illustrated in Figure I.9(b).

Figure I.9(a) and I.9(b): Replacement of broken-back

broken back curve by single radius long
curve

Figure I.10: Broken-back curve

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Appendix I
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Minor changes in grade or rolling of the vertical alignment as shown in Figure I.11 should
be avoided on long horizontal curves.

Figure I.11: Rolling grade line and its elimination

Figure I.12: The advantages of co-ordinating

co ordinating the horizontal and vertical alignments

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201 Perspective in Geometric Design

Figure I.13 shows the effect when the start of a horizontal curve is hidden by an
intervening crest and the continuation of the curve is visible in the distance. The road
appears disjointed.

Figure I.13: Apparent bbreak in horizontal alignment when start

of horizontal curve is hidden by a crest

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A sag curve at the start of a horizontal curve has the effect of enhancing the sharp angle
appearance as shown in Figure I.14, and should be avoided. Raising the preceding grade
will move the sag curve downstream.
stream. A longer radius on the horizontal curve would cause
it to start earlier. Applying both remedial measures should result in a better phasing of the
horizontal and vertical alignments.

Figure I.14: Out-of

of-phase vertical and horizontal alignments.

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201 Perspective in Geometric Design

Figures I.15 and Figure I.16 illustrate the advantages of co-ordinating

co ordinating the horizontal and
vertical alignment. In each case the vertical curve is contained within the horizon. Figure
I.15 shows a well-coordinated
coordinated crest curve and horizontal curve and Figure
Figure I.16 shows a
well-coordinated
coordinated sag and horizontal curve.

Figure I.15: Well-coordinated

Well crest and horizontal curve.

Figure I.16: Well-coordinated

Well sag and horizontal curves

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