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Photo credits:
French. Picture credits: Fotolia.com: DragonImages 11 (8L), Hurricane 11 (8R); Pearson Education Ltd: Jules Selmes 11 (8C);
Shutterstock.com: CREATISTA 11t. Cover images: Front: Alamy / kevers C746WN (RF)
V056
Preparing for your exams
Contents
Timeline 6

Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War, Chapter 3 The end of the Cold War,
1941-58 8 1970-91 64

1.1 Early tensions between East and West 9 3.1 Attempts to reduce tension between East
1.2 The development of the Cold War 19 and West 65

1.3 The Cold War intensifies 27 3.2 Flashpoints 73

Recap page 33 3.3 The collapse of Soviet control of Eastern

l
Europe 81
Writing Historically 34

a
Recap page 89

i
Writing Historically 90

r
Chapter 2 Cold War crises, 1958-70 36

e
2.1 Increased tension between East

t
and West, 1958-61 37 Structured narrative 92
Superpower relations and the Cold War, 1941-

a
2.2 Cold War crises, 1961-70 45
91: Preparing for your exam 96
2.3 Reaction to crisis, 1961-70 53
Answers 103

m
Recap page 61
Index 104

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Writing Historically 62

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D r

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Timeline: Superpower relations and the Cold War, 1941–91
World Wars Modern Era

West 1959
1945 1947 Socialist revolution 1979 1983
First successful US Truman doctrine in Cuba overthrows Carter Ronald Reagan makes
atomic bomb test President Batista doctrine ‘Evil Empire’ speech
1947

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Marshall plan 1961
1945 announced

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Bay of Pigs
USA detonates atomic

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incident
bombs over Japan 1946

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Churchill makes ‘iron curtain’
speech at Fulton, Missouri 1963

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President Kennedy
1946 1949

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visits Berlin
Kennan’s ‘long’ telegram Formation of Federal
Republic of Germany

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1949 1963
Limited Test
NATO set up

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Ban treaty
1939
1943 1945 1948 1959 1961 1967 1972 1980 1984

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Second
World War Tehran Yalta Berlin Geneva Vienna Outer Space SALT 1 Moscow Los Angeles 1987

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conference conference Blockade summit summit treaty agreement Olympics Olympics INF treaty
begins

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1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

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1941 1945 1959 1962 1968 1975 1979 1985 1986 1989

D D
Grand Alliance Potsdam conference Camp Cuban Nuclear Non- Helsinki SALT 2 Geneva Reykjavik Fall of
between Britain, USA David missile proliferation agreements agreement summit summit Berlin Wall
and Soviet Union summit crisis treaty
1945
End of Second World War
1979 1985
1941 1946 1955 1968 Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev
Germany invades Novikov telegram Formation of Brezhnev invades becomes leader
Soviet Union Warsaw Pact 1961 doctrine Afghanistan of Soviet Union
1948 Berlin Wall
Communist built 1991
government in 1968 Warsaw Pact
1947 Czechoslovakia 1986
Formation of Prague dissolved
1956 Spring Chernobyl nuclear
Cominform
Hungarian power plant
1949 disaster 1991
1947 Uprising
Formation of German Gorbachev
Communist government Democratic Republic removed
in Poland from power
1949
Comecon set up

East

2 3
 1.1  Early tensions between East and West
Learning outcomes
•• Learn about the political outlooks of the communist Soviet Union and capitalist USA.
•• Learn how, as allies during the Second World War, the Soviet Union, the USA and Britain formed plans for the
future government of Europe.
•• Find out how the alliance turned to rivalry and distrust when the Second World War was over.

When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union* in

Key term
1941, both the USA and Britain sent aid to the Soviets.
01 The origins of the Cold War, Roosevelt (USA), Churchill (Britain) and Stalin (Soviet Communism*

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Union) then joined in an informal agreement, which Communists believe that all property, including
1941–58 Winston Churchill later named the Grand Alliance. homes and businesses, should belong to the state, to

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ensure that every member of society has a fair share.

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Key term Communism is based on the writings of Karl Marx and

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The Soviet Union and the USA were allies in the fight against Hitler’s Soviet Union* was the political ideology of the Soviet Union.
Germany, but once the Second World War was over and there was no common

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Short for Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also
enemy, the different political systems in the two countries made co-operation

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shortened to USSR). The republics were Russia, Timeline
almost impossible. The communist Soviet Union and capitalist USA simply
Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and
distrusted each other too much to remain on good terms. Instead they drifted East–West relations, 1941–49

a a
several smaller countries. In theory, all republics were
into a ‘cold’ war.
partners in the Union but, in practice, it was ruled from June 1941 Hitler attacks
The Cold War was not an open military conflict, but it did have many of the Moscow, the capital of Russia. USSR, USSR allies with November 1943

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characteristics of traditional war. Military alliances were formed and huge Britain and USA Tehran Conference: the
arsenals of conventional and nuclear weapons were developed. Fortunately, Big Three meet to plan
However, the three countries really had only one thing February 1945

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those weapons were never used in any direct fighting. So the Cold War was war strategy
in common – a desire to defeat Nazi Germany. There Yalta Conference: the

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limited to a war of words, fought through diplomacy, propaganda and spying. was much more over which they disagreed. The most Big Three discuss
In the closing stages of the Second World War, the USA, Britain and other May 1945 VE Day
important disagreement was over how countries should arrangements for the

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allies had freed Western Europe from German occupation. The Soviet Red (Victory in Europe):
be run. The USA and Britain followed an ideology* called post-war world

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allies defeat Hitler’s
Army had taken control of most of Eastern Europe. This led to Europe being capitalism*, whilst the Soviet Union followed a different Germany
split in two, with a capitalist, democratic West and communist East. ideology – communism*. These opposing ideologies July 1945 Potsdam

D D
In the years that followed, Stalin tried to win security for the Soviet Union meant there was tension between the member Conference: the Big
by consolidating his control over Eastern Europe and, if possible, extending countries from the beginning of the Grand Alliance. Three agree to split
August 1945 USA
communism into Western Europe. At the same time, the USA gave support When it became clear that Nazi Germany (and its ally, Germany
drops atom bombs
to Western Europe and worked to undermine communism in Eastern Europe. Japan) would be defeated, the tension increased as the on Hiroshima and
But the USA did not offer military support. When the Hungarians rebelled different ideologies led to conflict over how Europe February 1946
Nagasaki in Japan
against communist rule in 1956, they received no support from Western should be governed after the war. American diplomat
Kennan sends Long
nations who dared not risk attacking the Soviet Union.
Telegram about Soviet March 1946 Churchill’s
Key terms threat Iron Curtain speech in
Ideology* Fulton, Missouri
Learning outcomes September 1946
A set of shared beliefs. In 1941, the USA and the Soviet diplomat
In this chapter you will find out:
Soviet Union had different ideologies concerning how Novikov sends telegram
•• how ideological differences helped bring about the Cold War and how they a country should be governed and how its society describing USA’s desire January 1947
affected attempts to reach agreement on how Europe should be governed should work. for world domination Communist government
•• how US / Soviet rivalry in the years 1947–49 led to the division of Europe elected in Poland
Capitalism* February 1948
into ‘two camps’
Capitalists believe everyone should be free to own Communists seize May 1949 Communist
•• how the development of the atomic bomb led to an arms race power in Czechoslovakia
property and businesses and make money. The USA’s government elected in
•• how opposition to Soviet control led to an unsuccessful uprising in Hungary. economic ideology was capitalist. Hungary

9
1.1  Early tensions between East and West 1.1  Early tensions between East and West

Ideological differences between Defeating fascist Germany in the

Second World War was a victory
Victory over Germany was a victory
for communism. Our people made
East and West
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945)
President of the USA: 1933-45 for our capitalist political system. enormous sacrifices in the war and
He believed strongly in democracy To keep the peace in future we that gives us the right to introduce
but compromised and formed an need to support capitalism and communism in Eastern Europe,
Differences between leaders alliance with Stalin. After Japan democracy* and prevent and eventually throughout the
bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941, communism from spreading. world. We will make them into
Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin (the leaders of the Roosevelt thought he would need People in European countries Soviet satellite states*, under our
USA, Britain and the Soviet Union in 1941) are often Soviet support against Japan. should have the same rights and control. They will provide us with
His desire for Soviet support freedoms as Americans do. That useful raw materials and help
referred to as ‘the Big Three’, since it was their beliefs explains why he was not always as way they will be more likely to protect us from possible future
and ambitions that dominated world politics from 1941 tough in negotiations with Stalin support us and be our allies. attacks from the West.
as Churchill would have liked. USA Soviet Union
until Roosevelt’s death in 1945. The suspicions that Roosevelt believed any long-term

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Churchill and Roosevelt had about Stalin (and indeed the settlement after would only be Figure 1.2 A summary of US and Soviet attitudes after the Second World War.
possible if the Soviet Union was
suspicions Stalin had about what Roosevelt and Churchill accepted as a superpower and

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The leaders of the Grand Alliance nations met three
were trying to achieve) played a major role in shaping
partner in peace.
Key terms

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times during the war: at Tehran (1943), Yalta (February
relations from 1941. The differences in the leaders’ Democracy*

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1945) and Potsdam (July 1945).
personal political beliefs reinforced these suspicions and
A political system in which a nation’s leaders are
were a significant factor in the breakdown of relations as

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chosen in free elections. Both the USA and the USSR
the Second World War drew to a close. Winston Churchill (1874-1965) The significance of the Tehran,

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Prime minister of Britain: said they believed in democracy, but Stalin believed
Differences between nations
1940-45, 1951-55
As a Conservative from an
elections had to lead to a communist government, Yalta and Potsdam conferences

a a
aristocratic family, Churchill as only the Communist Party represented the working
USSR USA & Britain
had very traditional values. He
believed strongly in the British people. Tehran, November 1943
Empire at a time when many The Grand Alliance first met in Tehran to plan a winning

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Politics Single-party rule Free elections with others – including Franklin Satellite state*
strategy to end the war. The following was agreed.
a choice of parties Roosevelt – thought colonies
A nation that was once independent but is now under
should be allowed freedom to

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Social Classless society, Some people have rule themselves. His political the control of another. In the Cold War, ‘satellite •• The USA and Britain would open a ‘second front’ by
attitudes made him deeply

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structure everyone is equal more power than suspicious of Stalin. Throughout states’ usually describes nations under the political, launching an attack on Germany in Western Europe.
others (because of the time of the Grand Alliance economic and military control of the USSR. This would ease pressure on the Eastern Front, where

a a
he saw his role as trying to
family background, stop Soviet expansion. the Soviets were suffering heavy losses. The Germans

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wealth, education would then have to withdraw troops from the Soviet
Two new ‘superpowers’, the Soviet Union and the USA
or achievements) Union to fight in the West.
had emerged. Their military and economic strength had

D D
Economy All property owned Private ownership been responsible for the defeat of Germany but also •• Stalin would declare war against Japan and supply
by the state, not and a competitive created a situation that would make future relations Soviet troops to help the USA with the war against
Joseph Stalin (1878-1953)
individuals workplace Ruler of the Soviet Union: very difficult. Japan – but only once the war in Europe was over.
1920s-1953
Rights Rights of all Individual Stalin introduced a one-party
•• The Big Three also discussed what would happen to
workers more freedoms valued political system to the Soviet The Grand Alliance Germany and the countries east of Germany after
Union and cut back on people’s
important than but limited by individual rights. He was The Grand Alliance was formed between the USA, the the war. There was no formal agreement, but it was
individual rights majority opinion convinced that the West wanted
Soviet Union and Britain to mastermind the defeat agreed in principle that the aim of the war was to
to destroy communism, so the
Soviet Union had to stand firm in of Germany and Japan in the Second World War. The bring about the unconditional surrender of Germany
During the 1930s, both the USA and Britain had any negotiations with the
alliance was formed when a force of four million German and that it should remain weak after the war. It was
Western ‘superpower’, the USA,
been very critical of the methods used by Stalin to and its close ally, Britain. troops invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 – despite also agreed that Poland should receive land from
industrialise the Soviet Union and the terrible cost in a non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Germany, but the Soviet Union could keep land it had
human lives that the reforms brought about. But Stalin Union. It is important to remember that, although seized from Poland in 1939. This was very important
was a strong opponent of German fascism and so it the three countries had formed an alliance, there was to Stalin, whose ultimate aim was to secure his
Figure 1.1 Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt.
suited the USA and Britain to work with the Soviet Union no real change in how they viewed each other. The western border after the war.
to defeat Hitler. Once the war came to an end, however, it USA and Britain, in particular, remained suspicious of •• There was general agreement that an international body
was clear that relations between the three countries were A new world order
communism, and Stalin realised that the West would should be set up to settle disputes through discussion
likely to become strained. The ideological differences The Second World War brought about a significant not want to take any actions that made the Soviet Union and negotiation, rather than war. This laid the ground for
between them meant it was almost impossible to agree shift in world politics. The ‘old powers’, like Britain and stronger in the long run. the future formation of the United Nations.
on how post-war Europe should be governed. France, were now less important than they had been.

10 11
1.1  Early tensions between East and West 1.1  Early tensions between East and West

The Tehran conference had an important impact on

Source A Potsdam, July–August 1945 •• Germany would be divided into four zones,
international relations. Stalin had arrived in Tehran Although the conference at Potsdam, near Berlin, took place administered by the Soviet Union, the USA, Britain
concerned that the USA and Britain were deliberately A photograph showing the Big Three – Winston Churchill, only a few months after Yalta, a number of crucial events and France, but the German economy would be run as
delaying a ‘second front’ against Germany so that the Franklin Roosevelt and Josef Stalin – at the Yalta a whole.
during that time influenced the mood of the conference.
conference in February 1945.
Soviet Union could be further weakened by having •• Berlin would also be divided into four zones,
to fight a fierce defensive war in the East. So he was •• There was a change of personnel. Roosevelt died
controlled by different countries, even though it was
pleased with the agreement to open a ‘second front’ in April 1945 and was replaced by Harry S. Truman.
based well inside Soviet-controlled Germany.
in the West. Churchill was less pleased because he had Winston Churchill and the Conservative Party lost the
1945 general election. The new Labour prime minister The Soviet Union wanted Germany to pay heavy
wanted to open the ‘second front’ in the Balkans, not in
was Clement Attlee. reparations, but Truman was concerned that this would
the West. However, Roosevelt sided with Stalin on this.
make it harder for the German economy to recover. It

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•• Germany had surrendered in May 1945.
So there was some tension between the USA and Britain was agreed that each administering country should
•• Scientists in the USA had developed an atomic bomb

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– especially as Roosevelt seemed at times to view British take reparations from its own zone. As the Soviet Union

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(which they tested successfully the day after the controlled the poorest zone, it was allowed to take a
colonialism* as more of a threat to world peace than the
conference began).

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Soviet Union. It seemed that good relations between quarter of the industrial equipment from the other
Roosevelt and Stalin might create a position where the Big •• The United Nations had been created in the Treaty of zones.

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Three was becoming the Big Two and, after 1945, the USA San Francisco in June 1945. Eventually, 51 members
•• Agreement was not reached over the government

t t
and the Soviet Union would be the only global superpowers. signed the treaty. The USA, the Soviet Union, France,
Britain and China were made permanent members of of Eastern Europe. Truman objected to the control

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Key term the United Nations Security Council, with the power that the Soviet Union had over the countries it had
given individual membership. Instead, Russia, the to veto* resolutions. liberated from Nazi rule. He was beginning to see the
Colonialism*
Ukraine and Belarus were admitted. Red Army as an army of occupation. However, without

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Economic, political and cultural control of another country. Key term risking further war, there was little Truman could do.
•• Stalin agreed to join in the war against Japan, three
months after the defeat of Germany. Veto* •• Truman also objected to the arrangements for

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Yalta, February 1945 Poland and the borders that had previously been
Forbid or refuse. Permanent members of the UN

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Two years after the Tehran Conference, the Big Three •• Stalin agreed that future governments of countries in
agreed. He wanted to see a new government with less
held a second meeting to discuss winning the war Eastern Europe would be decided in free elections. Security Council can stop resolutions being passed
communist influence.

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and the government of post-war Europe at Yalta in •• Poland proved to be the stumbling block at the with a single ‘no’ vote, even if all the other members

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the Soviet Union. By then, the ‘second front’ had been conference. It was agreed that the borders of Poland think it should be passed.
launched in France and British and American-led forces would be returned to their position in 1921 (which North Sea

D D
were pushing the Germans back towards Berlin. More would give the Soviet Union significant gains) The new personalities involved meant that relations Baltic Sea
importantly, the Soviets had defeated the Germans in and that there would be free elections. However, between the three leaders at Potsdam were very
the Soviet Union and now had control of most of Central Stalin expected those elections to bring about a different from the earlier conferences.
and Eastern Europe. Stalin was determined to keep the Hamburg
pro-communist government, whereas the British
•• Compared to Roosevelt and Churchill, Truman and POLAND
territory he had won between the Soviet border and supported the non-communist London Poles*. NETHERLANDS Hanover Berlin
Attlee were new to diplomatic discussions. It was
Germany as a cushion against future German invasions. Roosevelt and Stalin were pleased to get agreement British Zone Soviet Zone
much harder for them to get their way with Stalin.
At the Yalta Conference, the Big Three made agreements on free elections and the United Nations, but the issue BELGIUM
•• Truman was determined to take a ‘get tough’ Bonn GERMANY Leipzig
on the following issues. of Poland was to prove a difficult one to solve in future
approach with Stalin and deliberately delayed the Dresden
discussions.
date of the conference until the atomic bomb was
•• After the war, Germany would be split into four LUX. French Frankfurt
Key terms ready (see page 00). He thought this would give him
zones. They would each be controlled by a different Zone
an edge in discussions. US Zone CZECHOSLOVAKIA
power, the USA, Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Reparations*
Germany would pay $20 billion in reparations*, half •• As a newly-elected prime minister, Attlee’s main FRANCE Stuttgart
Payments in money or goods, after a war, from the losing
of which would go to the Soviet Union. The Nazi Party concern was to return to Britain to take charge and he Freiburg
country to the victors. Reparations are compensation
would be banned and war criminals prosecuted. did not want the talks to drag on. Munich
for loss of life and damage to land and the economy.
Although the development of the atomic bomb soured AUSTRIA
•• A United Nations would be set up, with its first SWITZERLAND
The London Poles* relations and the defeat of Germany had taken away
meeting on 25 April 1945. All nations could join,
The London Poles were the pre-war government in the need to work against a common enemy, several Figure 1.3 The post-war division of Germany into four parts:
but the USA and France did not agree with Stalin’s
Poland, which had fled to London in 1939. significant agreements were made at Potsdam. the Soviet, French, British and American sectors.
suggestion that all 16 Soviet republics should be
12 13
1.1  Early tensions between East and West 1.1  Early tensions between East and West

Activities The impact of the atom bomb on US– Source B

It contained a message that worried the American
Soviet relations government. He reported that Stalin wanted to see the
1 Create a table to summarise the Tehran, Yalta and This cartoon, ‘The Big Fourth’, by the British cartoonist destruction of capitalism and that he felt the world
Potsdam conferences. Label the columns: Tehran, On 6 August 1945, the USA exploded an atom bomb Philip Zec, was published in the Daily Mirror on 17 July 1945. outside the Soviet Union was hostile and looking to
Yalta and Potsdam. Label the rows: ‘Date’, ‘Leaders over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. A second was The label on the bomb reads: ‘The terrible weapons of
destroy communism. However, Kennan also believed that
present’, ‘Key decisions’, ‘Impact of decisions on released over Nagasaki on 9 August. The blast at future wars unless agreement is reached on world policy.’
the Soviet Union was not suicidal, so if faced with strong
relations between the Big Three’. Fill out the table Hiroshima was equivalent to over 12,000 tons of the
resistance, would back down. This was a really important
in as much detail as you can. TNT (explosive material) used in ordinary bombs. It is
message, which played a key role in American policy
estimated that over 120,000 Japanese civilians were
2 Discuss in small groups which impact had the towards the Soviet Union in the coming years. The American
killed by the two bombs.
most effect on relations between the Big Three. government believed there should be a determined policy

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3 Write a paragraph explaining why you made this Some historians argue that the USA could have won of ‘containment’ to stop communism spreading.
choice. the war against Japan without using nuclear weapons.

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Source C

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They say the USA really used the bombs to establish
a stronger bargaining position with the Soviet Union.

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From the ‘Long Telegram’ sent to Washington by the
Exam-style question, Section A This is only an opinion, but it is certainly true that US ambassador to the Soviet Union, George Kennan, on

e e
Explain two consequences of the decisions made knowing the USA could make atomic bombs made 22 February 1946.
Truman feel more confident and determined in the

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by the Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in We have here a political force committed fanatically
February 1945. 8 marks negotiations at Potsdam. Also the development of the to the belief that… it is desirable and necessary

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atomic bomb made the countries of Western Europe that… our traditional way of life be destroyed, the
feel more secure about placing themselves under Activities international authority of our state be broken, if Soviet
Exam tip American protection, rather than looking to reach power is to be secure… But… the problem is within

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1 Look at Source B in a small group and discuss
This question asks about ‘consequences’, so you will agreement with the Soviet Union. our power to solve… without… military conflict.
why the cartoon is called ‘The Big Fourth’. What is
need to think about what difference the decisions

t t
But, if the Americans hoped that having the atomic ‘The Big Fourth’? What does the shadow represent?
made to relations at that time. Don’t just give US attitudes: the Novikov Telegram

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bomb would make it easier to persuade Stalin to allow 2 The cartoon was published in July 1945. If Zec had
details of what happened, explain why the decision Nikolai Novikov was a Soviet diplomat working in
Eastern European countries more freedom, they were drawn it on 10 August, how might it have been
was important. It was agreed that Germany should Washington. His telegram to the government in Moscow

a a
wrong. Actually, Stalin now felt even more determined different? Describe the alternative cartoon in
be divided into four zones. How did that affect (discovered recently in a Soviet archive) shows that the

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to make the Soviet Union secure. His immediate aim words or draw your own version.
international relations? (See page 00 for examples Soviets thought equally poorly of the West: each side
was to create a buffer zone of countries sympathetic
of an average and high-scoring answer to the distrusted the other. Novikov’s telegram said the USA wanted

D D
to communism between Germany and the Soviet
question.)
Union’s western borders. So, overall, the effect the
Rising tensions: the Kennan Long to use their massive military power to dominate the world.
development of the atomic bomb had on US–Soviet Telegram and the Novikov telegram He believed that, since Roosevelt’s death, the Americans no
Both Truman and Stalin feared that the break-up of the longer wanted to co-operate with the Soviet Union and the
US–Soviet relations 1945–46: relations was completely opposite to what the
Americans had hoped for. Grand Alliance might lead to future conflict. They wanted American people would support their government if this led
to war. Such a view had a major impact in Moscow. If this was
the wartime alliance unravels The USA’s nuclear monopoly did not last. Soviet
to know what their rivals were thinking and, in 1946,
how the USA was thinking, it was vital to develop as much
both asked their embassies to report on attitudes in
Although the members of the Grand Alliance agreed scientists were already working on their own version of protection as possible in Eastern Europe.
each other’s countries. These reports came in the form of
on many issues at the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam the atom bomb and their first successful test was on telegrams – a written message sent over a telegraph line.
conferences, by the end of Postdam, it was clear that 29 August 1949, just four years after the USA. By 1964, Source D
there were now significant issues that they could not Britain, France and China also had the atomic bomb.
agree on. In particular, Stalin wanted control of Eastern
Soviet attitudes: George Kennan’s Long Telegram From the ‘Novikov Telegram’ sent from Washington to
George Kennan, America’s ambassador in Moscow, had Moscow by Nikolai Novikov, Soviet Ambassador to the USA,
Europe to ensure the security of the Soviet Union. In his The bomb dramatically increased Cold War tensions.
lived and worked in the Soviet Union as a diplomat. on 27 September 1946.
view, getting control of Eastern Europe was a reasonable A war that used atomic weapons could kill millions of
defensive measure. But Truman believed that Stalin was people and destroy the world many times over. But, When he sent a telegram discussing US–Soviet US foreign policy has been characterized in the postwar
trying to spread communism and looked upon Stalin’s equally, the terrible consequences of using an atomic relations, his views were taken seriously by the American period by a desire for world domination. All these steps
ambitions as examples of communist aggression. In bomb may have made both the USA and the Soviet Union government. While most telegrams were very short, to preserve the great military potential are not an end in
the years 1945–46, this basic disagreement and mutual more reluctant to go to war. Instead they entered an arms Kennan’s telegram was more like a letter, so his message itself, of course. They are intended only to prepare conditions
suspicion turned the wartime alliance into peacetime race, in which each side tried to make sure their nuclear became known as the Long Telegram. to win world domination in a new war being planned by
hostility. weapons were more powerful than those of their rival. the most warlike circles of American imperialism…

14 15
1.1  Early tensions between East and West 1.1  Early tensions between East and West

A British point–of–view: Winston Churchill’s Iron The creation of Soviet satellite Countries under
Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (sometimes called ‘the
Baltic States’) were conquered by the USSR in 1940.
Curtain speech They were treated as part of the Soviet Union.
In March 1946, Winston Churchill was no longer prime states in Eastern Europe Soviet influence
Non-Soviet communist ESTONIA
minister but he still had enormous influence. On a visit countries In 1944, Poles staged a rebellion against German
In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet Red Army freed many occupation known as the Warsaw Uprising. The
to Fulton, Missouri he gave a speech that is now seen as Soviets had promised to support them, but instead
countries in Eastern Europe from the Nazis as it LATVIA
a defining moment in US–Soviet relations. In the speech of helping, the Red Army waited until the uprising
advanced west towards Germany. When the war was had been crushed. Only then did they invade Poland
he made it plain that he thought the Soviet Union was and put a pro-Communist government in place. At
over, Stalin was reluctant to give up control of these LITHUANIA
a threat to freedom and world peace. He was provoked first it included some of the London Poles, but a˜er
countries as they were a useful buffer zone between the supposedly free elections in 1947 they were forced to
to make this speech by the fact that communist flee or face imprisonment.
Soviet Union and Germany. He turned them into satellite SOVIET UNION
governments had recently been set up in Hungary, Berlin

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states with communist governments and little genuine
Poland, Romania and Bulgaria. EAST From 1919 to 1938, Czechoslovakia was the only
independence from the Soviet Union. Truman saw this GERMANY POLAND democracy in Eastern Europe. A˜er the war, a coalition

a a
as evidence that the Soviet Union wanted to spread government led by Benes tried to restore the pre-war
Churchill was speaking in the USA and must have

i i
democracy. Stalin saw this as a threat to the secure
cleared his speech with Truman first. So Stalin communism worldwide, and relations between the USA buffer zone he was trying to set up. Supported by the
N

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interpreted what Churchill said as reflecting American and the Soviet Union became worse. CZECH Soviet Union, communists staged a coup in February
1948. Benes and other non-communists were removed
beliefs too. The speech, along with the Novikov 400 km from power and a pro-Soviet communist government

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telegram, increased tension and mistrust, and led the was set up under the leadership of Klement Gottwald.
Source F AUSTRIA

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Soviet Union to strengthen its forces and step up a HUNGARY
In Hungary there were elections in 1945. Some
campaign of anti-Western propaganda. Whether he A photograph of the communist Klement Gottwald communists were elected but not enough to form a

a a
speaking at a communist rally in Prague, February 1948. ROMANIA government. In the 1947 election voters were
intended it or not, Churchill’s speech intensified the intimidated in a campaign supported by Moscow and
After a coalition government collapsed, Gottwald became
growing hostility between East and West. a Communist Party government was elected. By 1949
president of a communist Czechoslovakia. YUGOSLAVIA

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Hungary was a one-party communist state.

Source E BULGARIA In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet Red Army took control

t t
of Bulgaria, Romania and eastern parts of Germany.
From a speech given by Winston Churchill on 5 March 1946 As in Poland, there were ‘free' elections but, in reality,

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at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri. Here he describes ALBANIA voters were intimidated. All the elections brought
communist governments.
the USSR’s growing control over Eastern Europe.

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GREECE
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, Yugoslavia and Albania were also satellite states, but

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TURKEY they were never occupied by the Red Army so had
an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. more independence than countries neighbouring the
Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient Soviet Union.

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states of Central and Eastern Europe… all are subject
Figure 1.4 How the countries of Eastern Europe became Soviet satellite states.
in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence
but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing
measure of control from Moscow.
Exam-style question, Section A Exam tip
Write an account that explains the key events of the To score well on this type of question, your account
Activities
Soviet takeover of the satellite states in the period needs to link events together and explain how one
1 What term does Churchill use in his speech to 1944–48. leads to another in a logical and structured way.
describe the imaginary line between East and
You may use the following in your answer:
West in Europe?
•• the Warsaw Uprising
2 With a partner re-read Sources C, D and E. Try to
summarise the message in each source into just •• the communist takeover of Czechoslovakia
one or two sentences. You must also use information of your own.  8 marks
3 Set up a debate, with one group representing the
USA and the other representing the USSR. Argue
that the worsening of relations after 1941 was
not your fault, but was all down to ‘the other side’.
What will you say?

16 17
1.1  Early tensions between East and West 1.2  The development of the Cold War
Major events 1941–46
August 1945 USA drops nuclear Learning outcomes
July 1945 bombs on Japan •• Find out how the USA used financial aid to fight communism in post-war Europe through the Marshall Plan.
Potsdam conference February 1946
June 1941 November 1943 May 1945 Kennan Long September 1946
•• Learn how the Soviet Union and USA came close to open conflict during the Berlin Crisis.
Grand Alliance formed Tehran conference VE Day telegram Novikov telegram •• See how Europe became more deeply divided with the formation of two new military alliances – NATO and the
Warsaw Pact.

Between 1947 and 1949, the differences that had begun The impact on US–Soviet
US-Soviet tensions

to arise between the USA and the Soviet Union in the

period immediately after the Second World War became relations of the Truman

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more fixed. During this period, President Truman set
out his views on the difference between communist and
Doctrine and Marshall Plan

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capitalist societies in the Truman Doctrine and used the Kennan’s Long Telegram (see page 00) had confirmed

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Marshall Plan to offer aid to countries trying to resist Truman’s worst fears. It said the Soviet Union intended

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‘the suppression of personal freedoms’. In response, to spread communism throughout Europe. Truman’s
the Soviet Union set up its own economic aid program, military advisers assured him that the Soviet Union was

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Figure 1.5 Declining relations between the USA and USSR, 1941–46.
Comecon. Formal alliances were created – NATO in the not strong enough to fight a successful war against the

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West and Cominform in the East. Germany too, along West, but Truman knew that the Soviet Union might not
Summary need to go to war to increase its territory and power.

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with its capital Berlin, was now formally divided into two
•• Although they followed different ideologies, from 1941 to 1945 the USA, the USSR and Britain were allies separate countries. The co-operation that had existed After the Second World War, many European countries
against a common enemy, Nazi Germany. in the war years was now firmly replaced with post-war were in ruins. Homes, factories and infrastructure

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•• In 1943, the Big Three began talks (at Tehran) about how to end the war and how to deal with Germany after the confrontation. like roads and railways had been destroyed. In these
war. Final agreement on the division of Germany into four zones of occupation came at Yalta in 1945. economic conditions, communism looked very attractive

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•• Victory in Europe (VE) Day saw Allied victory over the Nazis and left the Soviet Red Army in control of what Timeline to poorer members of society because, in a communist

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became the satellite states: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and the Soviet zone state, the wealth of the richest people would be
Growing East–West divisions, 1947–49
of Germany. redistributed and shared by all. So Stalin did not need to

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March 1947 Truman fight a war. He just needed to influence the discontented
•• In August 1945, the USA exploded two atomic bombs over Japan and a new age in international relations,

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Doctrine announced people of Europe to support communism and help set
dominated by these powerful new weapons, began. June 1947 Marshall Aid
up communist governments.
•• By 1946, the USA and the USSR had lost trust in each other. Both were convinced that their countries’ ideologies plan announced

D D
were under threat because of the aggressive foreign policies of their rivals. September 1947 First
Cominform meeting
The Truman Doctrine – stating the US
February 1948
position
Checkpoint Communist takeover of The USA had hoped that wealthier European countries,
Strengthen Czechoslovakia such as Britain, might be able to help rebuild Europe’s
June 1948 Berlin
shattered economies (and make communism look like a
S1 How is ‘cold’ war different from conventional war? blockade is set up
January 1949 Comecon less attractive option). But, after six years of war, Britain was
S2 Which heads of state attended the Tehran and Potsdam conferences? nearly bankrupt and aid to other countries was becoming
established
S3 What did the Allies plan for Germany at Yalta? Is this what finally happened? impossible. When the British government announced in
April 1949 NATO
Challenge 1947 that it could no longer provide military support to the
formed
September 1949 Greek government against communist guerrillas, President
C1 In your own words, explain the differences between communism and capitalism. Official founding of Truman decided it was time to take action.
C2 Describe how relations between the USA, Britain and the USSR changed between Tehran and Potsdam. the Federal Republic of
C3 How did the development and use of the atomic bomb affect East–West relations? October 1949 German Germany On 12 March 1947, President Truman delivered a speech
Democratic Republic to the US Congress (see Source A). The speech was
C4 What do the Long and Novikov telegrams show about mutual distrust between the USSR and the West? established officially given to announce an economic aid package to
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Form a small group and discuss any questions May 1955 Warsaw Pact Greece and Turkey. Truman announced that the US would
you are not sure about. Look for the answers in this section. Now rewrite your answers as a group. formed
provide $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey and sent
American civilian and military personnel to the region.

18 19
1.2  The development of the Cold War 1.2  The development of the Cold War

Extend your knowledge Key terms

The Marshall Plan was a practical outcome of the Truman ‘Dollar imperialism’ – the Soviet
Doctrine: providing economic aid to help war-torn response
The Greek Civil War Isolationism* countries in order to stop communism from taking over
During the Second World War, the German occupation President Truman saw his new policy as a defensive
Staying apart, not getting involved in the affairs of in Western Europe. Between 1948 and 1952, the USA gave
of Greece was resisted by two separate groups in measure to contain communism. Not surprisingly,
others. The USA followed a policy of isolationism after $13.7 billion dollars of aid, in addition to $13 billion already
Greece, a communist group and a pro-royalist group. Stalin did not see it like that at all. He believed the
the First World War. It was forced to abandon this policy given by the USA before the Marshall Plan went into action.
After the Germans left, the two groups fell out. The Truman Doctrine showed that the USA was trying
in 1941 when Japan bombed Pearl Harbour. However, The European countries helped by the Marshall Plan were:
British restored the Greek monarchy and put down a to extend its influence in Europe. He also thought it
in 1945, when the war ended, many Americans hoped Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
communist rebellion. When the communists renewed was undermining the international role of the United
the country would return to isolationism. Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
their fight in 1946, the British tried to suppress them, Nations by suggesting that it was America’s job to
Containment* Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and West Germany. Britain

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but asked the USA to take over in 1947. The communists protect the world. Stalin argued that the Marshall
received more than a quarter of the total aid package.
were finally defeated in 1949 and fled to Albania. Limiting the spread of something. In US foreign Plan was a way of using economic might to divide

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policy (during the Cold War), ‘containment’ meant The economic impact of Marshall Aid in Western Europe Europe in two and establish an American economic

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However, Truman also used the opportunity to make preventing the spread of communism outside a small was enormous, although it took until the 1950s for the empire in Europe. The Soviets called this ‘dollar

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a clear statement of what he saw as the differences number of countries. full effects to be seen. The British foreign secretary, imperialism’.
between democracy and communism. He spoke of two Ernest Bevin, called it ‘a lifeline to sinking men, giving

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The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan had a huge
alternative ways of life between which every nation The Marshall Plan – fighting communism hope where there was none’.
impact on international relations from 1947.

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must choose. The first way, he said, offered majority with financial aid In the USA, there was much debate about whether to
rule and freedom from political oppression. The second •• Any lingering belief that there was still a Grand

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offer aid to the Soviet Union and the satellite states. It
was for the will of the minority to be forced upon the Alliance was gone, as the USA had now set itself up
Source B was decided that it could be offered but (as in Western
in direct opposition to the communist Soviet Union –
majority, which Truman said was what communism did. Europe) countries would first have to agree to a thorough

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Truman believed choosing democracy over communism A photograph of American and British officials watching and invited other nations to join it.
Caribbean sugar, sent under the Marshall Plan, being
review of their finances. However, the USA knew Stalin
was like choosing good over evil. He said communism would not allow this so, in practice, Eastern European •• Stalin’s suspicions of the West were reinforced. He
unloaded at Woolwich Docks.

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should not be allowed to grow and that the USA was countries did not benefit from the Marshall Plan. believed he now had evidence that the USA was

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prepared to send troops and economic aid to those trying to crush the Soviet Union.
countries trying to resist it. •• The Marshall Plan successfully tied Western European
Source C

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These ideas became known as ‘the Truman Doctrine’ countries into supporting the USA. As Stalin rejected

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From a speech made by US Secretary of State, George it (and set up his own economic plan, Comecon – see
and signalled the beginnings of a new approach to Marshall, on 5 June 1947. Marshall said Europe could not
international relations for the USA. Before the Second below), Europe was now divided into two economic

D D
possibly meet its own needs for food and essential products
World War, the USA had followed a policy of isolationism*. and political camps.
for the next three–four years and needed substantial help.
This policy was now abandoned. The USA was setting •• The history of Europe for the next 50 years became
Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine
itself up as the leader of the fight against communism one of intense rivalry and attempts to win diplomatic
but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Its
and isolationism was replaced with containment*. and political victories over political opponents.
purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the
world so as to permit the emergence of political and social
Source A conditions in which free institutions can exist... Source D
From the Truman Doctrine speech delivered on 12 March
From a speech by the Soviet foreign minister, Andrey
1947 to the US Congress. Immediately before this extract, Extend your knowledge Vyshinsky, given at the United Nations in September 1947.
Truman described American-style democracy as majority
rule and freedom from political oppression. The USA had not suffered damage to its infrastructure Smaller-scale Marshall Aid It is becoming more and more evident that the
and industry during the war in the same way as Marshall Aid was not just loans and grants to implementation of the Marshall Plan will mean
The second way of life is based upon the will of a
European countries had, so it was well placed to provide governments. It also involved making direct grants placing European countries under the economic and
minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies
economic aid to Europe. Three months after Truman’s to groups in need. So it included nets for Norwegian political control of the United States and direct
upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and
speech, details were set out on how that aid would fishermen, mules for Greek farmers and food for interference in those countries. Moreover, this plan
radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of personal
be provided in a speech by the US secretary of state, starving people. One hungry boy who received is an attempt to split Europe into two camps, and
freedoms. I believe that our help should be primarily
George Marshall. free soup from the back of a lorry in his schoolyard with the help of Britain and France, to complete
through economic and financial aid which is essential
to economic stability and orderly political processes. was called Helmut Kohl. He grew up to be the first the formation of a group of countries hostile to the
Chancellor of a reunited Germany after the Cold War. interests of the democratic countries.

20 21
1.2  The development of the Cold War 1.2  The development of the Cold War

Source E Cominform, 1947 Berlin 1945 Berlin 1948

Cominform was set up on Stalin’s orders on 22 September
This cartoon about the Marshall Plan was published in a
Soviet magazine in 1947. 1947. It was an association of Communist Parties from all
over Europe. The new body gave Stalin a way of directing
and controlling the governments of the satellite states. At French
its first meeting it rejected the Marshall Plan. Cominform
spread propaganda and accused America of being no
different from Nazi Germany. It was also responsible for British BER L I N B ERLIN
Soviet Trizonia Soviet
stamping out opposition to Moscow and ensuring the
loyalty of Eastern European governments.

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<Cartoon will appear here in the US

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final version of the book.> Comecon, 1949

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Stalin wanted communist states to keep their

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independence from capitalist governments and did not
want the US to become influential in Eastern Europe,

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so he would not allow the satellite states to accept

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Figure 1.6 Berlin in 1945, divided into four zones, and in 1948, after the Western zones were joined together as Trizonia.
Marshall Aid. He also knew that he needed to offer a
positive alternative to American aid if he was to keep

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the satellite nations under his control. There were disagreements between the occupying powers. To Stalin, this was a further example of the West
The three Western countries and the Soviet Union had ‘ganging up’ on the Soviet Union. He saw the
Activities He therefore created an aid package based on communist

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different ways of looking at Germany. The Soviets wanted formation of Trizonia as a means of developing the
principles. Comecon was established on 25 January 1949, to take as much material as possible back to help rebuild three zones more effectively and deliberately forcing
1 Look at Sources A and B. In what ways does two years after the Marshall Plan was announced. Its the Soviet Union, whilst the Western countries wanted the Soviet zone into poverty. He was now even more

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Marshall’s speech (Source B) support what members were the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, to build up Germany’s economy. In December 1947, talks determined to stand firm and protect Soviet interests

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Truman says in Source A? In what ways is the Hungary, Poland and Romania. East Germany and between the foreign ministers of the occupying powers in Germany. He believed Germany should be one
message different? Albania joined the following year. Comecon was in direct

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broke down and the Soviets stormed out. united country and that it should follow communist
2 Look at Sources D and E. competition with the Marshall Plan and aimed to support ideology.

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a In what ways do Sources D and E agree or economic development in its member states. It also Uniting the Western zones
disagree? discouraged trade with the USA and Western Europe. With the Soviets no longer co-operating, the remaining

D D
Extend your knowledge
b Explain why these sources say different things allies (the USA, Britain and France) had to decide how
about the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan. The 1948 Berlin crisis – testing to run their part of Germany. The British and Americans German attitudes to the Soviets
Stalin hoped that, after the war, a united Germany
had already combined their zones into ‘Bizonia’ in 1947
the West and, in March 1948, the French added theirs to create might become communist. But this was very unlikely.
The formation of Cominform Europe was now divided into two distinct political ‘Trizonia’. Although this was never their intention, the Even in the Soviet zone, the Soviets were not popular.
and Comecon and economic camps. Soon there would also be two result was that Germany and Berlin were now split As the Red Army advanced into Germany at the end
military camps, but first Stalin wanted to see just how into two parts, western Trizonia and eastern Soviet- of the Second World War, its soldiers carried out
The Marshall Plan set Stalin an economic and political
determined the West really was. controlled Germany. brutal atrocities in revenge for what the Nazis had
challenge. He therefore set up two new organisations for
done in the USSR. This created deep resentment
the communist countries of Europe: Then, in June 1948, the three Allies created a single
Germany divided amongst many Germans.
currency, the Deutschmark, to give Trizonia economic
•• Cominform, the Communist Information Bureau, was At Potsdam, the Grand Alliance agreed to divide Germany, unity. The decision to introduce the Deutschmark took
a political organisation set up in 1947. and its capital Berlin, into four separate occupation place at an ACC meeting in Berlin. The Soviets were
The Berlin blockade
•• Comecon, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, zones administered by the Soviet Union, the USA, Britain Stalin knew that the Western-occupied zones of Berlin
furious about the decision for two reasons:
was an economic organisation set up in 1949. and France. The division was meant to be temporary were vulnerable, as they were entirely surrounded by
Stalin’s consolidation of power in turn led to a stand-off in but ended up lasting for many years. The Allied Control •• The new single currency in Trizonia created a separate Soviet-occupied territory. In addition, there were just
Berlin in 1948 (see page 00) and to the USA and Western Commission (ACC) was the central organisation for the economic unit from the East. two agreed land routes and two air routes or ‘corridors’
European countries creating a new military alliance, the four zones. There were soldiers on the streets and, in •• It acknowledged that there were in effect two across the Soviet zone of Germany to Western-occupied
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), in 1949. Berlin, military checkpoints between zones. Germanys: West and East. Berlin.

22 23
1.2  The development of the Cold War 1.2  The development of the Cold War

In June 1948, Stalin decided to shut off the land routes

across Soviet-controlled Germany into Berlin, in what
Extend your knowledge The formation of East and West In April 1949, the USA, Britain, France and nine other
Western countries joined together in the North Atlantic
has become known as the ‘Berlin blockade’. He wanted Operation Little Vittles Germany Treaty Organisation (NATO). The members of NATO
to show the USA, Britain and France that a divided Whilst landing supplies at Tempelhof airport, the After the Berlin blockade, it was clear that the division agreed that, if any member was attacked, all members
Germany would not work. Trizonia would no longer American pilot Gail Halvorsen saw children watching of Germany would continue. The Western allies quickly of NATO would come to its assistance. The British
be able to communicate with the capital Berlin and from the fence. He decided that on his next flight he moved to create a separate West Germany. foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin had played a major part
the people of Berlin would soon run short of food. would parachute-drop sweets to them. Soon other in bringing about this alliance. He made a speech in
If the blockade was successful, Stalin would win a huge pilots did the same. Their actions were nicknamed the British parliament in which he said that European
Federal Republic of Germany
propaganda success at the expense of the West. ‘Operation Little Vittles’. countries would welcome American involvement and
(West Germany)
It might also mean that the Western powers would give called on other Western European countries to reach out

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up control of their zones in Berlin and allow the whole of •• 8 May 1949: Just three days after the end of the to the USA.
the capital to be controlled by the Soviet Union. This was Source F blockade, the USA, Britain and France permitted

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a direct challenge to Truman – Stalin knew he could not their zones to come together as a state known as the

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A photograph of children watching as a supply plane
Federal Republic of Germany. Source G
ignore the blockade because of his recent speech about arrives in Berlin during the Berlin Airlift.

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•• 14 August 1949: Germans in the new country were An extract from the NATO Charter. Article 5 stated:
defending the world from communism (see page 00).
allowed to elect their own parliament, called the The Parties agree that an armed attack against

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The West knew that an attempt to force supplies to Berlin Bundestag. one or more of them in Europe or North America

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along the closed land routes would be seen as a potential shall be considered an attack against them all and
•• 15 September 1949: the first democratically elected
act of war and might lead to direct military confrontation. consequently they agree that, if such an armed

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chancellor of the Federal Republic, Konrad Adenauer
However, if they flew supplies into their zones in Berlin, attack occurs, each of them… will assist the Party or
took office.
the only way they could be stopped was if Stalin had the Parties so attacked by taking such action as it deems
•• The Federal Republic’s new capital was Bonn. The new

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planes shot down. That would make him the aggressor and necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore
Truman doubted that Stalin was prepared to go that far. country was much bigger than East Germany.
and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.
•• The three Western-controlled zones of Berlin

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The Berlin airlift continued and became known as West Berlin. It was not inevitable that the USA would get involved

f f
directly in the defence of Western Europe after the
The Western Allies launched Operation Vittles, better German Democratic Republic

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Second World War. The Truman Doctrine said the USA
known as the Berlin Airlift. They flew food, coal and other (East Germany) would offer assistance, but the creation of a formal

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necessities, assembled in the Allied zones, along the air
Stalin responded by creating the German Democratic military alliance was a major step beyond this. NATO
corridors. The pilots took a huge risk as they could not be
Activities Republic in October 1949. Only the communist bloc resulted in an ongoing American military presence in

D D
sure the Soviets would not shoot them down.
countries recognised it as a nation. The Federal Republic Europe throughout the Cold War, which has continued
1 List the practical steps the British and US armed
The people of West Berlin and Western troops in the city refused to recognise that Germany had been split in two right up to the present day.
forces took to set up the Berlin airlift. What
joined forces to create a new airport so that supplies could until the 1970s.
did citizens of Berlin do to help the airlift
be landed in the Western zones. Ordinary citizens helped
succeed? For the next 40 years, people would talk about West
The Warsaw Pact
to unload the planes and hand out the essential supplies When the German Federal Republic (West Germany) was
to all who needed them. The Americans were soon able to 2 Write a short paragraph explaining why the USA Germany and East Germany but, for most of this time,
was so determined to keep the Western zones of each German regarded their own state as the only allowed to join NATO in May 1955, Stalin’s fears were
fly in at least 1,000 tonnes of supplies every day and the increased. Now there was a real danger of an armed and
Berlin out of Soviet hands. real one.
British achieved a similar rate. In the peak month of flying, powerful Germany on the borders of Soviet-controlled
January 1949, no fewer than 170,000 tonnes of supplies 3 In a small group, discuss what the results might
Eastern Europe. Within a week of West Germany
have been if:
were sent into Berlin by Western aircraft.
a The Western Allies had not launched the
The creation of two armed camps joining NATO, the Soviet Union formed an equivalent
On 9 May 1949, nearly a year later, the Soviets gave in communist defensive military alliance – the Warsaw
and lifted the blockade. The airlift had worked. Amazingly,
Berlin Airlift. NATO, 1949 Pact. The members were the Soviet Union, Poland,
there were no Allied casualties, military or civilian. West b Stalin had shot down the first planes flying Stalin’s threat to Berlin and the communist takeover Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania
Berlin had survived. Stalin’s attempt to win a propaganda supplies to Berlin. in Czechoslovakia, which happened in the same year, and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).
victory over Britain, France and the USA had backfired. persuaded the Western powers that they needed a formal These countries became known as the ‘Eastern bloc’.
The West had responded in a peaceful way to what now military alliance to protect themselves from the Soviet Although the Warsaw Pact had many member states,
looked like an unwise and aggressive act by Stalin. Union. They also wanted to send Stalin a message about the leadership was entirely Soviet and the alliance was
their determination to stand firm against communism. under the command of the Soviet Union.

24 25
1.2  The development of the Cold War 1.3 The Cold War intensifies
There was now no doubt that Europe was, in reality, two Soviet Union and seeking to extend communist control.
Learning outcomes
Europes. One was under the protection of the USA and The confrontation and hostility between these two camps
working to defeat communism. The other was led by the would drive international relations for the next 35 years. •• Find out how the arms race between the USA and Soviet Union increased international tension.
•• Learn how the people of Hungary attempted to break free of Soviet rule.
Exam-style question, Section A Exam tip Disagreements over how Germany should be governed The significance of the arms
Explain two of the following: Remember that this question is not asking for a had helped divide Europe into two camps by 1949.
•• the importance of the Truman Doctrine for the description of an event or policy. It is asking why that During the 1950s, tension was further increased as race: USSR v. USA, 1950–58
development of the Cold War in the years 1947–55 event or policy was important. What difference did it both the USA and the Soviet Union tried to win military Since developing the atomic bomb in 1945, the USA
make? Also, remember to focus on the second part supremacy. This resulted in an arms race that led to had felt secure knowing it was the only country in the
•• the importance of the Berlin Blockade for the

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of each bullet point. So, for the second bullet point, each side having such powerful weapons that they could world with such a powerful weapon. President Truman
future of Germany
focus on the ‘future of Germany’. Don’t waste time destroy their rivals several times over. knew that the atomic bomb was an important counter to

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•• the importance of the formation of NATO for relations
discussing, for example, how the Berlin Blockade the Soviet Union’s much larger stocks of conventional*

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between the USA and the Soviet Union 16 marks When new leaders of the USA and the Soviet Union
affected relations between the USA and the USSR. weapons. However, Stalin instructed his scientists to

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emerged in 1953, there was some hope of a thaw in
work all-out to develop a Soviet atomic bomb and it
relations between East and West. Those hopes were
was achieved by 1949. In response, the USA developed

e e
Summary destroyed by the events of the Hungarian Uprising in 1956.
a hydrogen bomb in 1952. This was 1,000 times more

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•• In the Truman Doctrine, Truman promised to defend democratic countries against communism. powerful than the atomic bomb and restored the
Timeline
•• George Marshall, the US secretary of state, promised massive aid to Europe, launching the Marshall Plan. American advantage. One year later, the Soviet Union also

a a
Cold War, 1950–58
•• Western European countries welcomed the Marshall Plan, but Soviet-controlled countries were not allowed to had a hydrogen bomb. In 1957, the USA developed the
accept aid. Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon as rivals to the Marshall Plan. November 1952 USA ICBM (inter-continental Ballistic Missile), which could fire

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successfully tests January 1953 a nuclear warhead at a target 3,000 miles away. Just a few
•• West Berlin was blockaded by the USSR. Britain and the USA organised a successful airlift to rescue the city.
hydrogen bomb Eisenhower takes office months later, the Soviet Union was testing its first ICBMs.
•• The USA agreed to keep their troops in Europe and, with Britain’s encouragement, the North Atlantic Treaty

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as US President
Organisation (NATO) was formed. March 1953 Stalin dies

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August 1953 USSR
•• The Western-controlled areas of Germany were merged to form Trizonia, which eventually became the Federal successfully tests

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Republic of Germany. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic. hydrogen bomb
1945

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•• Stalin created a defensive military alliance for the communist countries of Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact,
USA develops
in May 1955. May 1955 German the atomic bomb

D D
Federal Republic (West
Germany) joins NATO A 1949
February 1956 Soviet Union develops
Checkpoint the atomic bomb
Khrushchev, new leader
Strengthen of USSR, makes speech
November 1956 1952
A
S1 What was the Truman Doctrine? criticising Stalin
Hungarian Uprising USA develops the
S2 Which countries received the most aid from the Marshall Plan? crushed June 1957 USA hydrogen bomb
S3 What was the role of Comecon? August 1957 Soviet launches first ICBM
H 1953
Union tests first ICBM (inter-continental
S4 Describe the events of the Berlin Airlift. Soviet Union develops
ballistic missile) the hydrogen bomb
Challenge June 1958 Imre Nagy,
H
C1 How did the Marshall Plan support the ideas of the Truman Doctrine? prime minister of 1957
Hungary, is executed USA launches first
C2 Why did Stalin create Cominform and Comecon? inter-continental
C3 In what way was the USA’s signing of the NATO treaty a significant break with the past? ballistic missile (ICBM)
Key term ICBM 1957
C4 Describe Germany’s division into four, then three and then two. Soviet Union launches
Conventional* first inter-continental
Challenge a partner to see who can give the best one-minute speech about ‘How the Cold War developed, 1947–55’. ballistic missle (ICBM)
Ordinary or normal. Conventional weapons are defined ICBM
As you listen to your partner’s speech, list any important events you think have been missed. What would you
by the International Committee of the Red Cross as any
include in a short summary?
weapons that are not nuclear, chemical or biological.
Figure 1.7 Reaction and counter-reaction in the arms race.

26 27
1.3 The Cold War intensifies 1.3 The Cold War intensifies

Source A New leaders for the USA and the USSR •• Both the USA and the Soviet Union were spending
From 1953, both the USA and the Soviet Union had large sums on their armed forces. Although both sides
A photograph of a US atom bomb test in the Pacific, in 1951. were prepared to carry on spending, they knew that
new leaders. Dwight Eisenhower was elected president
of the USA in 1952 and took office in January 1953. His reducing spending on armed forces would be good
presidential campaign targeted communism and both for their economies.
he and his secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, were
strongly anti-communist. Eisenhower was determined to Extend your knowledge
block any attempt at communist expansion, but he was The Korean War (1950–53)
also aware of the dangers posed by nuclear weapons. At the end of the Second World War, Korea was split
This made him prepared to listen to proposals from the

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in two. The Soviet Union supported North Korea
Soviet Union that there should be negotiations to try to and the USA supported South Korea. In 1950, North

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improve relations. Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations

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sent forces to support South Korea, led by the
Stalin’s death on 5 March 1953 led to a struggle for

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USA. Since the Soviet Union was supporting North
power within the Soviet Union, as Stalin had not named
Korea, the two superpowers found themselves on
a successor. It was not until 1956 that Nikita Khrushchev

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opposite sides. They weren’t actually fighting each
emerged as the effective ruler of the country. At the

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other, but they became involved in bitter diplomatic
Party Congress in that year, he openly criticised Stalin’s
hostilities.

a a
policies and suggested there should be peaceful
co‑existence with the West. This new optimism was fuelled by an agreement in
1955 on how Austria should be governed and a summit

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Source C meeting in Geneva in July 1955. The meeting in Geneva
failed to reach agreement over disarmament and the

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A photograph of Nikita Khrushchev answering questions at
future of Germany, but the atmosphere of co-operation
a press conference in Paris in 1960.

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that existed at the meeting reduced some of the tension
that existed between East and West.

a a
Unfortunately, the better relations were only short-lived.

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The arms race was making each side more powerful, In May 1955, West Germany joined NATO and the Soviet
Key term
but was it giving either side an advantage? The response was to announce the formation of the Warsaw

D D
development of nuclear weapons was typical of what Deterrent*
Pact. So the Geneva meeting took place at a time when
became known as ‘the arms race’. Both the USA and the A force that prevents something from happening. suspicion was still growing.
Soviet Union spent huge sums of money on building In the Cold War, many politicians believed in the
up large armies, navies, submarine fleets and stocks of ‘nuclear deterrent’. They thought a country would be
conventional and nuclear missiles. It was important to ‘deterred’ from using nuclear weapons if there was a The Hungarian Uprising, 1956
try to stay ahead in the race because military superiority danger that their enemy would reply with an equally Since 1949, when the Red Army liberated Hungary from
might help in any dispute with your rival. However, the devastating nuclear attack. German occupation, Hungary had been under strict
weapons that were being developed were so powerful Soviet control. Non-communist political parties were
that, from the early 1950s, both the USA and the Soviet banned and key officials in the government, police
Union had the capability to destroy the world many Source B and army were appointed by Stalin. The Hungarian
times over. From a lecture given by George Kennan on BBC radio in The change of leadership encouraged a new confidence Communist Party leader, Matyas Rakosi, was a firm
1957. He said that nuclear war had to be avoided because that a solution to the Cold War arms race could be supporter of Stalin and was ruthless in dealing with
This led to a change in thinking about war. Previously, there could never be such a thing as a ‘limited’ nuclear war. found. It was hoped that the two superpowers could opponents of communist rule. In the years 1949–56,
weapons and armed forces were developed to win wars. reduce the tension that made the arms race so more than 300,000 Hungarians were sent to prison and
But such was the power of the new weapons that they
I cannot accept that it would prove possible, in the event
of an atomic war, to arrive at a workable understanding dangerous. Two other factors contributed to this hope: more than 2,000 were executed.
were being developed to ensure that the other side
would not go to war at all. Since both sides understood
with the enemy about the degree of destructiveness of •• In 1950, there had been a war in Korea in which the During 1956, the people of Hungary began to protest
the risks involved in using nuclear weapons they acted
the weapons that would be used… This seems to me to USA and Soviet Union supported different sides. But, about their lack of political freedoms and problems
as a deterrent*.
be a very slender and wishful hope indeed. in July 1953, that war had come to an end. created by fuel shortages and poor harvests.

28 29
1.3 The Cold War intensifies 1.3 The Cold War intensifies

In October, there were riots in the capital, Budapest, Nagy and many of his supporters had believed that
Source E
and police clashed with protestors. Khrushchev sent the Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin would lead to a ‘softer’
Red Army into Hungary to restore order, but agreed to approach with the satellite countries. But they miscalculated. A photograph of Hungarian rebels waving their national flag in Budapest, Hungary. They are standing on top of a captured
replace Rakosi with Imre Nagy, a former prime minister Khrushchev could not allow any threat to Soviet security. Soviet tank.
who had been thrown out of the Communist Party after When Nagy was executed, Khrushchev described his
clashing with Rakosi. (Nagy was a communist, but he death as ‘a lesson to the leaders of all Socialist countries’.
thought that within a communist regime, there could be
more personal freedoms.) The Red Army then withdrew. Source D
At the end of October 1956, Nagy announced a set of From a transcript of Imre Nagy’s last-minute plea for support

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proposed reforms. These included Hungary leaving the as Soviet tanks rolled into Budapest on 4 November 1956.
Warsaw Pact and becoming a neutral country, and also This fight is the fight for freedom by the Hungarian

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a degree of power-sharing with non-communist groups. people against the Russian intervention, and it is

i i
possible that I shall only be able to stay at my post

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Extend your knowledge for one or two hours. The whole world will see how
the Russian armed forces, contrary to all treaties

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Prime Minister Imre Nagy
Imre Nagy became a communist during the First and conventions, are crushing the resistance of the

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World War, when he was a prisoner of war in Russia. In Hungarian people. I should like in these last moments
to ask the leaders of the revolution, if they can, to leave

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1944, Nagy joined the new communist government
in Hungary as minister for agriculture. His support for the country… [For] today it is Hungary and tomorrow,
peasant farmers (rather than the state) got him into or the day after tomorrow, it will be the turn of other

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trouble and he was expelled from the Communist Party countries, because the imperialism of Moscow does not
in 1949. After a public statement of loyalty to the USSR, know borders and is only trying to play for time.

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Nagy rejoined and even became prime minister (1953–

f f
55), but was expelled again in 1955. After the 1956 Extend your knowledge
uprising, Nagy was arrested, and then executed in 1958.

a a
Polish protests
In the summer of 1956, there were also protests

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Khrushchev’s response to the uprising against Soviet control in Poland. Here, the Polish leader,
Nagy’s proposals gave Khrushchev serious cause for Gomulka, was able to stave off an armed invasion by

D D
concern. If Hungary broke away from the Warsaw Pact, persuading the Soviets that, while Poland wanted to
other Eastern European countries might follow. Then the make some of its own decisions, the Poles were totally
whole strategy of achieving security for the Soviet Union loyal to the Warsaw Pact and to communism.
by surrounding it with pro-communist governments
would be under threat. Khrushchev therefore ordered What was the impact of the Hungarian
a Soviet invasion of Hungary. On 4 November, tanks
International reaction to the Eisenhower was sympathetic to the Hungarians, and
some NATO nations in Europe did take in Hungarian Uprising on international relations?
rolled into Budapest. Supporters of Nagy put up a fight Soviet invasion of Hungary refugees, but no military support was offered to the
The Hungarian Uprising made Khrushchev’s position
and begged the West for support (see Source D), but no When Nagy proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact, he Hungarians during the uprising. The US policy of
in the Soviet Union much stronger and gave him a
support came. It is believed that up to 20,000 Hungarians and his fellow rebels expected support from the USA containment meant that, while there might be a situation
stronger position in the Warsaw Pact. Members now
were killed as the Soviet forces re‑established control. and other Western nations. Radio Free Europe, a US where the USA would take military action to prevent the
knew they must do as they were told. If they rebelled,
A new pro-communist government was set up under government-funded radio station, regularly broadcast Soviet Union spreading communism beyond the satellite
they could not expect military support from the USA.
Janos Kadar and Nagy was later executed. messages urging the people of Eastern Europe to rise states, it was not prepared to interfere in the affairs of an
Khrushchev also became more confident in dealing with
up against the communist regime and, since the USA existing communist country. A military attack on a Soviet
the USA because he now knew they were unlikely to risk
Activities had offered financial aid through the Marshall Plan, satellite state could trigger nuclear war. This would result
taking military action.
people in Eastern Europe assumed they would be ready in the destruction of both sides – a far worse result than
Write a list of reasons why Hungarians wanted to
to help in other ways. leaving rebels to fight the Soviets alone.
leave the Warsaw Pact. Is it possible to say which
reason was most important?

30 31
1.3 The Cold War intensifies Recap: The origins of the Cold War, 1941–58
In some ways, the failure of the Hungarian Uprising Major events 1947–56
Activities
reflected badly on the West. The USA and its allies had February 1948 Communist January 1953 March 1953 July 1955
encouraged communist countries to stand up to the 1 You are a military adviser to President Eisenhower. June 1947 takeover of Czechoslovakia Eisenhower becomes Stalin dies Geneva Summit November 1956
He asks for a summary of reasons why he should Marshall June 1948 Berlin Blockade US President Hungarian Uprising
Soviet Union, but were not prepared to back up their Aid plan January 1949 Comecon established May 1955 is put down by
words with military support. support the Hungarian Uprising. What do you say? announced April 1949 NATO formed Warsaw Pact formed Soviet Union
2 President Eisenhower says he has received a
Even though the USA did not take military action, they report from another adviser with reasons why the
strongly opposed the Soviet invasion of Hungary, and USA should not intervene in Hungary. What do

US-Soviet tensions
Khrushchev’s crack down soured relations between the you think the report says?
two superpowers once more.

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Friendlier relations at the Geneva Summit had looked

a a
like a thaw in the Cold War, but it was short-lived and

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the events of the 1960s (covered in Chapter 2) would
make the Cold War even ‘colder’.

e r e r
Summary Figure 1.8 Tensions between the USA and the USSR, 1946–58.

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•• In the 1950s, the arms race between the USA and the USSR accelerated, with a massive build-up of nuclear arms
on both sides. Both sides had enough weapons to destroy each other and the world several times over. Recall quiz Activity

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•• In 1953, the election of Eisenhower and the death of Stalin seemed to reduce tension in the Cold War. 1 Which countries were members of the Grand Copy the table below, but give it ten rows. Pick ten
•• When West Germany joined NATO, the Soviets set up the Warsaw Pact. Alliance? events between 1941 and 1958 and complete the

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2 What years were the conferences at Tehran, Yalta columns to show their impact on relations between
•• A rebellion against Soviet domination of Hungary in 1956 was put down with armed force. The Hungarian
and Potsdam held? East and West. The first one is done for you.
Uprising did serious damage to East–West relations.

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3 Who were the leaders of the Grand Alliance up to Event Brief Did it improve

f f
1945? Who were the new leaders in that year? summary or harm
Checkpoint 4 What was the Truman Doctrine? relations

a a
Strengthen Formation USA, USSR and Improved
5 Explain what a ‘satellite state’ is.

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S1 What new types of weapons were developed in the 1950s? 6 Which countries joined NATO? of the Grand Britain join to
S2 What is meant by ‘deterrence’ in the Cold War? Alliance fight Hitler

D D
7 Which countries joined the Warsaw Pact?
S3 When did West Germany join NATO? 8 In what year was West Germany created? Challenge
Challenge 9 What is an ICBM? 1 Write a short paragraph explaining why Britain,
C1 Why did people think there might be an end to the Cold War after Stalin died? 10 Who was leader of the USSR during the Hungarian the USSR and the USA were allies until 1945. Why
Uprising? was the alliance difficult? Why did it end in 1945?
C2 If both the USA and the Soviet Union already had the capability to destroy their rivals by 1950, why did they
keep creating new weapons? 2 Explain why Germany was divided into two parts,
including as many reasons as you can.
C3 Why did Hungarians think their uprising would receive outside support?
Exam-style question, Section A 3 With a partner discuss how far you agree with the
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? If you’re not sure you answered them well,
Explain two consequences of the Hungarian Uprising following statement: ‘Relations between East and
form a group with other students, discuss the answers and then record your conclusions. Your teacher can give
in 1956. 8 marks West were far worse in 1958 than they were at the
you some hints.
end of the Second World War.’

Exam tip
Remember this question is about consequences, not
events. So don’t spend time saying what happened
during the uprising. Focus on explaining what
happened as a result of the uprising.

32 33
WRITING WRITING
H I S T O R I C A L LY H I S T O R I C A L LY

Writing historically: building information How can I add detail to my writing in different ways?
You can also add detail to a sentence using a noun phrase in apposition.
When you are asked to write an explanation or analysis, you need to provide as much detailed
information as possible. Compare these sentences:

Relations between the Soviet Union and the USA, which had been relatively warm and friendly
Learning outcomes
at the Tehran conference, now took a turn for the worse.
By the end of this lesson, you will understand how to:
•• use relative clauses to add detailed information to your writing, clearly and fluently This writer has used a relative clause to add information clearly and succinctly.
•• use nouns in apposition to add detailed information to your writing, clearly and fluently. Relations between the Soviet Union and the USA, relatively warm and friendly at the Tehran
conference, now took a turn for the worse.

l l
Definitions

a a
This writer has used a noun phrase in apposition to add the same information clearly and succinctly.

i i
Relative clause: a clause which adds information or modifies a noun, linked with a relative 5. How could you combine the information in these pairs of sentences using a noun phrase in

r r
Pronoun, for example: ‘who’, ‘that’, ‘which’, ‘where’, ‘whose’. apposition?
Noun in apposition: two noun phrases, positioned side by side, the second adding information to

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Stalin was highly suspicious of Germany. He wanted Poland to form a buffer zone between
the first, for example: ‘[1] Bangalore, [2] the second fastest growing city in India, has benefited greatly

t t
from the technology industry’.
Germany and the Soviet Union’s western border.
Stalin wanted a communist government in Poland. This was part of his plan to make Poland

a a
How can I add detail to my writing? into a buffer zone protecting the Soviet Union.
Look at a sentence from the response below to this exam-style question.

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Did you notice?
Explain two consequences of the decisions made by the Grand Alliance at the
6. If you remove the relative clause or the noun phrase in apposition from the two sentences at
Yalta Conference in February 1945. 8 marks

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the top of the page, they both still make sense. They are also both separated from the rest of the

f f
Britain and the USA supported the ‘London Poles’, who were non-Communists. sentence with commas. Can you explain why? Write a sentence or two explaining your ideas.

a a
The main clause is highlighted in yellow. The relative pronoun is highlighted in green. The relative
Improving an answer

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clause is highlighted in pink.
This noun phrase is modified by this relative clause: it provides more information about the London Look at an extract from another response to the exam question on the previous page:

D D
Poles. The Yalta conference was held in February 1945. The conference led to an increase in suspicion between
1. How could you re-structure the sentence above using two separate sentences? Stalin and the USA. The increase in suspicion was due to failure to agree on how Poland should be
2. Why do you think the writers chose to structure these sentences using a main clause and a relative governed. The superpowers did agree that there should be an election to choose a new government for
clause instead of writing them as two separate sentences? Poland. Stalin planned to influence the elections. He wanted a pro-Moscow government to be elected.
The USA supported free elections and wanted the London Poles to win the elections.
Now look at these four sentences taken from the same response:
7. a. Re-write the information in the answer above, making it as clear and succinct as possible. You
The Soviet Union and the USA and Britain failed to come to an agreement on how to govern could use:
Poland. Both countries thought there should be free elections. Stalin thought elections should
•• relative clauses
lead to a pro-communist government. The USA and Britain supported the ‘London Poles’.
3. How effectively is this information expressed? Write a sentence or two explaining your answer. •• nouns in apposition.

4. How could you improve the written expression in the answer above, using relative pronouns? b. Look carefully at your response to question 7a. Are all your sentences easy to read and
understand, or are some of them too long and confusing? If so, try rewriting them to make their
a. Re-write the sentences, using relative pronouns to link all the information in one sentence. meaning as clear as possible.
b. Now re-write the sentence using relative pronouns to link the information in two sentences.
c. Which version do you prefer? Is the information most clearly and fluently expressed in one, two
or four sentences? Write a sentence or two explaining your choice.
Preparing for your exams Preparing for your exams
Preparing for your GCSE Paper 2 exam Paper 2, Question 1
Paper 2 overview Q2 Write a narrative account analysing... Explain two consequences of the decisions made
Exam tip
(8 marks) by the Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in
Your Paper 2 is in two sections that examine the Period February 1945. (8 marks) The question wants you to explain the results of
Study and British Depth Study. They each count for This question asks you to write a narrative explaining
how events led to an outcome. Allow 15 minutes to
something. What difference did it make? Use phrases
20% of your History assessment. The questions on such as ‘as a result’ or ‘the effect of this was’.
Superpower relations and the Cold War (1941–91) are write your answer. You are given two information
the Period Study and are in Section A of the exam points as prompts to help you. You do not have to use
the prompts and you will not lose marks by leaving
paper. You should use just under half the time allowed
Average answer

l l
for Paper 2 to write your answers to Section A. This will them out. Always remember to add in a new point of
give you a few moments for checking your answers at your own as well. Higher marks are gained by adding Consequence 1:

a a
in a point extra to the prompts. You will be given at This answer has identified a consequence
the end of Section B. As a result of the Yalta Conference, Germany was divided into

i i
least two pages of lines in the answer booklet for your and given a brief description. However, it
different zones. There were four of these governed by different

r r
History Period Study and British Depth Time 1 needs more detail to provide an effective
answer. This does not mean you should try to fill all the
Paper 2 Study hour 45 countries. This division led to a lot of difficulties in the future. explanation.
space. The front page of the exam paper tells you ‘there

e e
mins may be more space than you need’. Aim to write an Consequence 2:

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Section Period Study Answer 3 32 50 mins organised answer, putting events in the right order and Another consequence of the conference was that there was This needs more examples and
A questions marks showing how one connected to the next. Your narrative disagreement about how Poland was to be governed. It was agreed explanation. The second sentence does

a a
Section Depth Options Answer 3 32 55 mins should have a clear beginning, middle and end: that there would be a government decided by free elections, but not explain fully how the decision led
to disagreements between different
B B1 or B2 questions marks there was disagreement about who the Grand Alliance wanted to
Start Event Finish win those elections. This led to further tension.
members of the Grand Alliance.

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Period Study Option 26/27:
Superpower relations and the Cold

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Verdict

f
This led This

f
War, 1941–91 to… prompted…
This is an average answer because it identifies two consequences with some support, but it needs more

a a
You will answer Questions 1, 2 and 3.
Q3 Explain the importance of two... (2 x 8 marks) explanation of consequence with specific information.

r r
Q1 Explain two consequences of... (2 x 4 marks) This question is worth half your marks for the whole Use the feedback to rewrite this answer, making as many improvements as you can.
Allow ten minutes to write your answer. Write about Period Study. Make sure you have kept 25 minutes of

D D
each consequence. You are given just over half a page the exam time to answer. It asks you to explain the
for each. Use this as a guide for answer length. You importance of events and developments. You have
should keep the answer brief and not try to add more a choice of two out of three. Take time to make the
information on extra lines. This will make sure you choice. Before you decide, be clear what you have to
allow enough time for later questions worth more explain: the question is always worded as ‘Explain the
marks. Make sure you focus on consequence: as a result; importance of… for…’ It is a good idea during revision
as a consequence; the effect was are useful phrases to use. to practise identifying the importance of key events
for something: what did they affect or lead to? Ask
yourself: ‘What difference did they make to it?’ or ‘Why
did they matter?’ Be clear about your reasons for saying
something is important.

94 95
Preparing for your exams
Paper 2, Question 1
Explain two consequences of the decisions made
by the Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in Exam tip
February 1945. (8 marks) The question wants you to explain the results of
something. What difference did it make? Use phrases
such as ‘as a result’ or ‘the effect of this was’.

Strong answer

l
Consequence 1:

a
At the Yalta Conference the Big Three decided what would happen to

i
A clear explanation of the impact of
Germany after the war. As a result of the conference Germany was

r
the division of Germany, with specific
divided into four zones, controlled by Britain, the USA, the Soviet Union factual support.

e
and France. Each country had the right to govern its sector as it saw fit.
However, Stalin believed that in the end he had been given the poorest

t
sector and resented the fact that the Western Allies administered the

a
wealthier parts. So this led to worse relations between East and West as
Germany became an area of tension.

m
Consequence 2:
Yalta led to an increase in suspicion between Stalin and the USA/
A valid point very well explained,

t
Britain. This suspicion was as a result of the failure to agree on with a high level of factual support.

f
how Poland should be governed. There was general agreement that
a government would be elected using free elections, but this meant

a
different things to each country. To Stalin it meant using his influence

r
to ensure a pro-Moscow government. Britain and the USA supported the
‘London Poles’ who were non-communists. Stalin wanted a communist

D
government in Poland as part of his plan to build a buffer zone. He saw
the action of Britain and the USA as trying to undermine the security of
the Soviet Union. So relations worsened.

Verdict
This is a strong answer because it has explained two consequences and supported
both with specific information showing good knowledge of the period.

96