GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M.

D 3
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

CHAPTER TWO

TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Topology and some examples

The fundamental properties of open subsets of metric space are outlined in

Proposition (6) of chapter 1. Mathematicians have found from experience that families
of having these same properties arise in contexts other than those metric spaces; hence
it is reasonable to study these properties in their own right, abstracted from the
limitations that metric spaces impose. In particular, the properties of open sets of metric
spaces inspire the following definition:

Definition (2.1):
Let X be any set. A collection  of subsets of X (i.e.,   P(X)) is said to be a topology
on X, if the following axioms are satisfied:
I) X,  are members of  (i.e.,   ).
II) The intersection of any of two members of  is a member of  .
(i.e., if G, U  , then G  U  ).
III) The union of any family of  is again in  .
(i.e., if { U  :    }   , then  U   ).


The members of  are then said to be   open (or simply open) subsets of X. and then
the pair (X,  ) (briefly, X) is called topological space.
In terms of open sets the above conditions can be restated as follows:
I) The empty set and the whole space are open.
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II) The intersection of any two open sets is open.
III) The union of arbitrary collection of open sets is open.
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Remark:
1- From II it is easy to that the intersection of arbitrary finite number of open set is
open.
2- If a collection  of subsets of X, satisfies only condition I and III, then we say 
is a supra topology on X.
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Example (1): (Indiscrete Topology (  ind ))
Let X be any Set. Then the collection  ind ={  , X}of subsets of X form a topology on X
(Check?), and this topology is called (trivial or indiscrete) topology, this topology
contains the fewest (smallest) possible open sets. The pair (X,  ind ) is called indiscrete
topological space.
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Example (2): (Discrete Topology (  dis )).
Let X be any Set and let  dis be the collection of all subsets X (i.e.,  dis =P(X)). Then
 dis form a topology on X (Check?), and this topology is called discrete topology, this

topology contains the maximum possible number of open sets. The pair (X,  dis ) is called
discrete topological space. [Show that  dis is a topology on X?].
-----------------------------
Example (3):
Let X ={a,b,c} and consider the following families of subsets of X:
 1  {  , X}

 2  {  ,{a}, {b,c},X}

 3  {  ,{a}, {b},X}
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 4  {  ,{a},X}

 5  {  ,{a}, {b},{a,b},X}

 6  {  ,{a,b},X}

 7  {  ,{b}, {a,b},X}

 8  {{a}, {b,c},X}

 9  {  ,{a}, {b},{a,b}}

 10  {  ,{a,b}, {b,c},X}

 11  {  ,{a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b},X}

 12  {  ,{a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b},{a,c},{b,c},X}=P(X).

Then it is easy to see that each of 1 ,  2 ,  4 ,  5 ,  6 ,  7 and  12 form a topology on X, but
neither  3 ,  8 ,  9 nor  11 form a topology on X.
For example: Since {a} and {b}   3 but {a}  {b}={a,b}   3 which  3 do not satisfy
condition III.
Since the empty set is not a member of  8 and the whole space X is not a
member of  9 so  8 and  9 do not satisfy condition I.
Since {a,b} and {b,c}   10 but {a,b}  {b,c}={b}   10 , so  10 do not satisfy
condition II.
Since {b} and {c}   11 but {b}  {c}   11 , so do not satisfy condition III.
-----------------------------
Example (4): (Metric Topology)
If (X,d) is any metric space, then the collection of all d-open subsets of X form a
topology on X. (How? (Because of Proposition (2) of Ch. 1) This topology is called the
metric topology induced by d (or d-metric topology) and it is denoted by d . it was of
course, this topology that we studied in Mathematical Analysis in the perfective year.
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Note that a subset G of a topological space (X, d ) is open if and only if for each
x  G, there exists r > 0 such that Br(x)  G.
-----------------------------
Example (5): (Co-finite Topology  cof ).
Let X be any Set, and let  cof be the collection of all subsets of X whose complements
are finite together with the empty set, that is;  cof ={A  X; AC is finite}  {  } and a
subset A of X belong to X if and only if A is empty or AC is finite. Then the collection
 cof form a topology on X, and this topology is called co-finite topology (or Finite

complement topology) on X.
Proof:
To show  cof is a topology on X.
I- Since    cof and X  X and XC=  , so X   cof . So  cof satisfies condition I.
II- Let A, B   cof , then we have the following cases:
Case i: if one of A and B is empty then A  B=    cof ,
Case ii: if both A and B non-empty, then A C and B C are finite sets, therefore A C 
B C is finite. But since A C  B C= (A  B) C [by De-Morgan Law], thus (A  B) C is
finite, therefore A  B   cof . Hence  cof satisfies condition II.
III- Let G   cof , for all    , to show  G ;     cof ?
If any G =  , then we neglected because it has no any effect on the union, so we
suppose that G   , for each    . Therefore, GC is finite for each    , then


 GC ;     is finite, then  G ;   C is finite [by De-Morgan Law], hence
 G ;     cof . Thus  cof satisfies condition III. So  cof is a topology on X.

-----------------------------
Remark:
If X is finite set, then  cof =  dis .
[Hint: to show any topology is discrete, we must show every subset of X is open].
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Example (6): (Co-countable Topology  coc ).
Let X be any Set, and let  coc be the collection of all subsets of X whose complements
are finite together with the empty set, that is; a subset A of X belong to X if and only if
A is empty or AC is finite. Then the collection  coc ={A  X; AC is countable}  {  }
form a topology on X (Check?), and this topology is called co-countable topology (or
countable complement topology) on X.
-----------------------------
Remark:
If X is countable set, then  coc =  dis
-----------------------------
Example (7): [Usual Topology = Standard Topology= Euclidean topology for Rn ,
n=1,2,3,4,….,]
It is the Topology which induced by the usual metric on R Rn , n=1,2,3,4,…., and
usually denoted by U .
Note that A subset G of (R, U ) is open if and only if for each x  G, there exists
an   0 such that (x-  ,x+  )  G.
-----------------------------
Example (8): Lower Limit Topology or = (Right half-open interval topology).
Let SL be a collection of subsets of R defined as follows:
(i)   SL.

(ii) A non-empty subset G of R belong to SL if and only if to each p  G, there

exists a right half-open interval [a,b) such that p  [a,b)  G.
Then SL form a topology on R (Check?), and this topology is called lower limit (or
right hal-open interval) topology on R.
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Example (9): Upper Limit Topology or = (Left half-open interval topology).
Let SU be a collection of subsets of R defined as follows:
i-   SU.

ii- A non-empty subset G of R belong to SU if and only if to each p  G, there

exists a left half-open interval (a,b] such that p  (a,b]  G.
Then SU form a topology on R (Check?), and this topology is called upper limit (or left
half-open interval) topology on R.
-----------------------------
Example (10): Left ray Topology.
Let for each a  R, define La={x  R; x < a} to be the left ray of real numbers. The
point a is called the right end point of La. Let  L consist of all possible left rays
together with  and R. then  L form a topology on R (Check?), this topology is called
left ray topology.
-----------------------------
Example (10): Right ray Topology.
Let for each a  R, define Ra={x  R; a < x} to be the right ray of real numbers. The
point a is called the left end (or right initial) point of Ra. Let  R consist of all possible
right rays together with  and R. then  R form a topology on R (Check?), this topology
is called left ray topology.
-----------------------------
Example (11): The one point included topology.
Let X be any non-empty set, and let p be a fixed point in X, then the collection  of all
subsets of X whose contains p together with the empty set(i.e.,  ={A  X;
p  A}  {  }. Then  form a topology on X (Check?), and this topology is called the
one point included topology on X.
-----------------------------
Example (12): The one point excluded topology.
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Let X be any non-empty set, and let p be a fixed point in X. Then the collection  of all
subsets of X whose not containing p together with the whole space X (i.e.,  ={A  X;
p  A}  {X}. Then  form a topology on X (Check?), and this topology is called the
one point excluded topology on X.
-----------------------------
Remark:
To show the collections that are given in Examples (6) and (12), and also to see some
other topological spaces and there properties, see [Topology, by (J. N. Sharma
(1977)), pp. 169-174] or [Counterexamples In Topology, by (Lenn A. Steen and J.
Arthur Seebach, Jr.(1970))].
-----------------------------
Definition (2.2): Let  1 and  2 be two topologies on a set X, we say  1 is coarser (or
weaker or smaller) than  2 or that  2 is finer (or stronger or larger) than  1 if and
only if  1   2 , that is; if and only if every  1  open set is  2  open.
If either  1   2 or  2   1 , then we say that the topologies  1 and  2 are comparable,
and if  1   2 and  1   2 , then we say  1 and  2 are not-comparable.
-----------------------------
Note: For any set X, the indiscrete topology  ind is coarsest topology and the discrete
topology  dis is finest topology on X.
-----------------------------
Example (13):
Let X={a,b}. Then the topologies  1 ={  , {a}, X}and  2 ={  , {b}, X} are non-
comparable topologies on X. However,  ind   1 ,  ind   2 and  1 ,  2   dis .
-----------------------------
Example (14):
The left ray topology  L on R is coarser than the usual topology U on R but the lower
limit topology SL on R is finer than the usual topology U on R.
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Solution:
[we show the first one and we left the second to reader]
Let G be any  L -open subset of R, then G=R or G=  or there exists a  R such that
G=La=(   ,a) which is in each cases G  U . Hence G is a U -open set. Thus  L is
coarser than U .
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.3):
Let {   ;    } be an arbitrary family of topologies on a set X. Then show that
    is a topology on X.


Proof:
I) Since   is a topology on X for each    , then X and     for each    .
Therefore, X and       . Thus  satisfied condition I.
 

II) Let G1 and G2   , this means that G1 and G2    . Then G1 and G2    for
 

each    . Since   is a topology on X for each    . Then by condition II, G1  G2

   for each    . Therefore, G1  G2    , that is G1  G2   . Hence  satisfied
 

condition II.
III) Let G  ;    be any collection of members of  . This means that G       ,


for each    . Then G     , for each    and each    . Given that   is a

topology on X for each    . Then by Condition III,  G   for each    . Thus
 

 G     , that is,  G    . Hence

   
 is a topology on X.

-----------------------------
Now, it is natural that one ask (Is the union of two topologies on a set X also a topology
on X?).
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The answer is surely No, because of the following example:

Example (15):
Let X={a,b,c} and consider the two topologies  1  {,{a}, X} and  2  {,{b}, X} on X,
then  1   2  {,{a},{b}, X} is not a topology on X. Thus the union of two topologies on
any set X is not necessary a topology on X also.
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.4):
For any collection of topologies on any set X, there exists a unique largest topology on
X which is smaller than each member of the collection.
Proof: [It is an exercise; see Topology by Sharma, pp.176]
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Theorem (2.5):
For any collection of topologies on any set X, there exists a unique smallest topology on
X which is larger than each member of the collection.
Proof:
Let X be any set and let {  ;    } be an arbitrary family of topologies on X. Then
the collection of topologies  on X larger than each member of {   ;    } is not
empty, since discrete topology  dis is always there. Let {  ,    } be the collection a
all topologies on X which is finer than   for all    , then by Theorem (2.1.3)
   is a topology on X. Hence  is the smallest topology having the property that


it is finer than each member of {   ;    }. Clearly it is unique (why??)

[Note: This topology is the least upper bound (i.e., suprimum) of {   ;    } ordered
the set of all topologies on X by inclusion relation]
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Closed subsets
Definition (2.6):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space. A subset A of X is said to be  -closed (briefly closed)
if and only if AC is  -open (or simply, open).
-----------------------------
Remarks:
1- Let (X,  ) be any topological space. Since X and  both are  -open sets and
XC=  and  C=X . Then X and  both are  -closed.
2- Since every subset of a discrete topological space is open, so each subset of a
discrete topological space is closed.
-----------------------------
Example (16):
Let X={a,b,c}and consider the two topologies  ={  , {b}, {a,b}, {b,c}, X} and
 ={  ,{b,c},{a},X}. Then the set of all  -closed subsets of X are {  ,{c},{a,c},{a},

X} and the set of all  -closed subsets of X are {  ,{a},{b,c},X}=  .

-----------------------------
Definition (2.7):
1- A topological space (X,  ) is said to be door space, if every subset of X is either
closed or open.
2- A subset F of a topological space X is called locally closed, if there exist an open
set G and a closed set H in X such that F=G  H.

In Example (16) the topological space (X,  ) is a door space (Check it?) but the
topological space (X,  ) is not a door space. Since the subset {b} is neither closed nor
open.
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Theorem (2.8):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space. Then the closed subsets of X have the following
properties:
a) X and  are closed subsets of X.
b) The union of any two closed subsets of X is again a closed subset of X.
c) The intersection of any family of closed sets is also a closed subset of X.
Proof:
a) From the part one of the above remark, we have X and  are closed subsets of X.
b) Let E and F be any two closed subsets of X, then by Definition (2.6), EC and FC are
open subsets of X. Since (X,  ) is a topological space, then by Condition II of
Definition (2.1) EC  FC is an open subsets of X . But since EC  FC= (E  F)C {De-
Morgan Law}, therefore, (E  F)C is an open subset of X. Hence by Definition (2.6)
E  F)C is an open subset of X.
c) [Exercise].
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.9):
Let X be any set, and suppose that be any family of subsets of X such that
i) X and  are in .
ii) The union of any two members of  is again in .
iii) The intersection of any family of members of  is again in .
If we define a family  as: A subset U of X is in  if and only if there exists a member
E in  such that U= EC, then show that
1- The family  is a topology on X, and the members of the family are  -closed
subsets of X.
2- The topology that is given in (1) is unique.
Proof:
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 14
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[Exercise, see Elementary Topology (2
nd
, by (Gemignani) pp. 41 or see Topology,
edition)

by sharma, pp.184-185] [Hint: it is easy to see U   if and only if UC  ].

-----------------------------
Question: Is the union of any family of closed subsets of a topological space also a
closed subset.
Answer: No, [see your lectures in Mathematical Analysis, certainly there is an
example]
-----------------------------
Definition (2.10):
A topological space (X,T) is called metrizable if there exists a metric d on X such that
T= d .
-----------------------------
Remark:
We have seen that in Example (4) that every metric d on a set X induces a topology on
X. Now, the question here is: Given a topological space (X,T), does there exists a
metric d on X which induces the topology T? i.e., are every topological spaces
metrizable?

The following example is answered the above question negatively.

Example (17):
Let X={1,2} and consider the topology T={  ,{1},X} on X. To show (X,T) is not
metrizable, for any metric d on X, we have d(1,2)=r >0. Since 1  2, so Br(2)={2}, this
means that {2} is a d-open (hence d -open) set. But since {2} is not a T-open set, then
d  T. Hence (X,T) is not metrizable

-----------------------------
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Questions:
(1) Let X be any set then show that discrete metric d on X which is given by
1 if x  y
d ( x , y)  
0 if x  y

Induces the discrete topology on X. [in other words, show that for any set X, the
topological space (X,  dis ) is a metrizable space].

(2) Let X be any set with at leas two elements, then show that the topological spaces
(X,  ind ) is not metrizable.

(3) Show that the usual metric on the set of all integer numbers Z induces the
discrete topology on Z.
-----------------------------
Neighbourhoods
Definition (1.11):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space and let x  X. A subset N of X is said to be a  -
neighbourhood of x if there exists a  -open set G such that x  G  N.
Similarly, a subset N is called a  - neighbourhoods of A  X, if there exists a  -open
set G such that A  G  N.
-----------------------------
Remark:
1- Simply, we say N is a nbhd of x (or A), if we spook a bout only one topology
on a set X, or if we have only one topological space.
2- If A  B, then we say B is a superset of A. hence every nbhd of x (or A) is a
superset of an open set contains x (or A).
3- The collection of all  -neighbourhoods of x  X is called the neighbourhood
system at x and shall be denoted by N(x).
4- We shall use the abbreviated form (nbhd) for the word “neighbourhoods”.
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5- It is evident from the above definition that each open set is a nbhd of each of its
points. But a nbhd need not be an open set.

-----------------------------
Theorem (2.12):
A subset of a topological space (X,  ) is open if and only if it is a nbhd of each of it is
point.
Proof: [It is very simple].
-----------------------------
Proposition (2.13):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space and let M and N  N(x). Then
1- N  M and N  M  N(x). [In other words, the intersection and union of any two
nbhds of x is also a nbhd of x].
2- For any S  X, if N  S, then S  N(x). [In other words, any superset of any nbhd
of x is a nbhd of x].
Proof:
1- Let (X,  ) be a topological space and let M and N  N(x), then there exist open sets G
and U such that x  G  N and x  U  M, then x  G  U  N  M and x  G  U  N  M.
Since G  U and G  U are open sets in X, the each of N  M and N  M are nbhds of x,
this means that N  M and N  M  N(x).
2- [Exercise].
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Theorem (2.14):
Let X be a non-empty set, and for each x  X. Let N(x) be a non-empty collection of
subsets of X satisfying the following conditions
M1: N  N(x), then x  N.
M2: N,M  N(x), then N  M  N(x).
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Let  consist of the empty set and all those subsets G of X having the property that
x  G implies that there exists N  N(x) such that N  G. Then  is a topology on X.
Proof:
I] Clearly,    by definition of  . To show X   , let x  X, then since N(x) is a non-
empty collection of subsets of X with the condition that given in the text of the theorem,
then there exist N  N(x), so by [M1], we have x  N, but since N  N(x), so by definition
of N(x), we have N  X. thus x  N  X. hence by definition of  we have X   .
II] Let U and V   . If x  U  V, then x  U and x  V, then by definition of  , there
exist N and M  N(x) such that N  U and M  V, but from [M2], we have N  M  N(x)
and since N  M  U  V, then by definition of  , we have U  V   .
III] Let { U j ; j J} be any family of members of  . If x   U j , then there exist i  J
jJ

such that x  U i . Since U j   for all j  J, then there exists an N  N(x) such that N  U i .

But since x  N  U i   U j , then by definition of  , we have U j  . Thus  is a

jJ jJ

topology on X.
-----------------------------
Bases, local bases and Sub bases for topology

Definition (2.15):
Suppose that (X,  ) is a topological space. A subset  of  (i.e.,  is a d collection of
open sets) is said to be a basis for the topology  , if each non-empty member of  is
the union of members of .
-----------------------------
Remark:
There is no analogy of linear independence in Definition (2.15). Any topology has at
least one basis, namely itself.
Generally it is of no consequence whether or not a basis is in any sense minimal.
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 18
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
-----------------------------
Example (18):
Let X={a,b,c,d} and  ={  , {a},{b}, {a,b}, {c,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}, X}, consider the
collection  ={{a},{b},{c,d}} of subsets of X. Since    ,and {a}=  {a}={a}  {a},

{b}=  {b} ={b}  {b}, {a,b}={a}  {b}, {c,d}=  {c,d}, {a,c,d}={a}  {c,d},
{b,c,d}={b}  {c,d}, and X={a}  {b}  {c,d}, then  is a base for  .
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.16):
A collection  of subsets of a topological space (X,  ) form a base for a the topology
 on X if and only if
1-   .

2- For each point x X and each nbhd N of x, there exists some B   , such that x
B  N.
Proof:
 Let  be a basis of the topology  on X, then by Definition (2.15),  is a
collection of open (  -open) subsets of X, hence   .

Now, x  X and N be any nbhd of x in X, then by def. (of nbhds), there exist an open
subset G of X such that x  G  N. Since  is a basis of  , then by Definition (2.15), G
is the union of members of  , that is , there exists a subset  of  such that G=  B .
B

Since x  G  N, then x   B , then there exists B     such that x  B. Now, Since

B

B   and x  B   B =G  N, then x B  N.
B

 Conversely; suppose that  is a collection of subsets of a topological space (X, )

which satisfies conditions (1) and (2) of the theorem. Then it is clear from condition (1)
that  is a collection of open subsets of X. Let G be any non-empty subset of X, then
by Theorem (2.12) for each x  G, G is a nbhd of x, so by condition (2) of our
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 19
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
hypothesis, there is some Bx in  such that x Bx  G . Thus G=  Bx which is the
xG

union of members of  . Hence  is a basis of  on X.

-----------------------------
Example (19):
For a topological space (X,  dis ), the collection  ={{x}; x  X} is a bases of  dis . Since
   dis and for each x  X and each nbhd N of x, then {x}   and x  {x}  N.

----------------------------
Some Home Works:
A- If  is a base for a topology  on a set X, then any collection L of subsets of 
such that   L is also a base for  .
B- Show each of the following:
1-  ={ (a,b) ; a<b and a,b  R}, where (a,b) is an open interval. Then show
that each of  form a basis for the topology U on R.
2-  ={(a,b]; a<b and a,b  R}, where (a,b] is a left half open interval. Then
show that  form a basis for the topology SU on R.
3- W ={[a,b); a<b and a,b  R}, where [a,b) is a Right half open interval. Then
show that W form a basis for the topology SL on R.
Finally, show that no one of  ,  and W form a basis for the others topology on R.

C- Show that the collection  ={ (a,b) ; a<b and a,b Q}, where (a,b) is an open
interval in R. Then show that  form a basis for the topology U on R.
-----------------------------
[Remarks:
1- Form Part (A), we notice that any topological space may have more than a
base.
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 20
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
2- From Part (B), we notice that it is not necessary that each collection of
subsets of a topological space for a basis.
3- If we take a look at part C, [we see that the usual space (R, U ) has a
countable base].
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.17):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space and let  be a base for  . Then  has the following
properties:
B1: For any x  X, there exists B   such that x  B (that is X=  {B; B   }.
B2: For any A and B   and for any x  A  B, then there exits C   such that x  C 
A  B, that is the intersection of any two members of  is also a member of  .
Proof:
B1) Since X is an open subset in itself and  is a base, then by Theorem (2.16), B1 is
followed (How??).
B2) Let A and B   .Since    , then A and B are open subsets of X, and therefore,
A  B is an open subset of X. Since  is a base for  , then by Theorem (2.16) for any
element x of A  B, there exists C   such that x  C  A  B.
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.18):
Let X be a non-empty set and let  be a collection of subsets of X satisfies the
following conditions:
B*1: For any x  X, there exists B   such that x  B (that is X=  {B; B   }.
B*2: For any A and B   and for any x A  B, then there exits C   such that x C 
A  B, that is the intersection of any two members of  is also a member of  .
Then there exists a unique topology  for X with a base  .
Proof: [Exercise]
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 21
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
[Hint: put  = the collection of all those subsets of X which are unions of members of
 together with  ].
-----------------------------
Corollary (2.19):
Let X be a non-empty set and let  be a collection of subsets of X. Then  is a base for
some topology on X if and only if it satisfies the following conditions:
1: For any x  X, there exists B  such that x  B (that is X=  {B; B   }.
2: For any A and B   and for any x A  B, then there exits C  such that x  C 
A  B, that is the intersection of any two members of  is also a member of  .

Proof: It follows from Theorem (2.17) and Theorem (2.18).

-----------------------------
Proposition (2.20):
Let  and   be two topologies on a non-empty set X with bases B and  respectively.
If each member of B is a union of members of  , then show that  is coarser than   .
Proof:
Let  and   be two topologies on a non-empty set X with bases B and  respectively
such that each member of B is a union of members of  . Let G be any member of 
and since B is a base for  , then G=  B , where B is a member of B for each  , and

by hypothesis, we have for each  , B    . Hence G=   , where  is a

member of  , for each  and  . Thus G is a member of   .

-----------------------------
Definition (2.21): [Local base]
Let (X,  ) be a topological space. A non-empty collection B(x) of a  -nbhds of x is
called a local base of X at x (or a fundamental system of nbhds of x), if for every nbhd
Nx of x , there exists a member Bx  B(x) such that x  Bx  Nx.
-----------------------------
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 22
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Remark:
If B(x) is a local base at x, then the members of B(x) are called basic  -nbhds of x.
-----------------------------
Example (20):
Let X={a,b,c,d} and  ={  , {a},{b}, {a,b}, {c,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}, X} (which is given
in example (18)). Then the local bases of  at a, b, c and d are given by
B(a) ={{a}}, B(a) ={{a},{a,b}}, B(a) ={{a},{a,c,d}} or B(a) ={{a},{a,b},{a,c,d}} or …,
but collection of subsets of X which is not contains {a} is not a local base for  at a,
because {a} is a nbhd of a.
B(b) ={{b}},
B(c) ={{c,d}},
B(d) ={{c,d}}.
Finally, find all other local bases of X at each b,c,d. and for each of the point a, b,c and
find a one collection which is not local base of X at that point?
-----------------------------
Theorem (2.22):
Let (X,  ) be a topological space and let B(x) be a local base of X at any point x in X.
Then B(x) has the following properties:
[B0]: B(x)   , for each x in X.
[B1]: If B  B(x), then x  B.
[B2]: If A and B  B(x), then there exists C  B(x) such that C  A  B.
[B3]: If A B(x), then there exists a set B such that x  B  A, and such that for each
y  B, there exists a C  B(y) satisfying C  B.
Proof:
If X=  , then there is nothing to prove, since it has no any point. Let X   .
[B0]: Let x be any point of X. Since X is a  -open set which contains x, and B(x) is a
local base of X at x, then there exists B  B(x) such that x B  X. Hence B(x)   . Now,
since x is taken arbitrarily in x, so B(x)   for all x  X.
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 23
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

[B1]: Let B  B(x), then B is a  -nbhd of x, so by definition of nbhds we have x  B.

[B2]: Let A and B  B(x), then each of A and B is a  -nbhd of x, so by Proposition

(2.13), we have A  B is a  -nbhd of x. since B(x) is a local base of X at x, then by its
definition there exists C  B(x) such that C  A  B.

[B3]: let A  B(x), then A is a  -nbhd of x. then by definition of nbhds there exists an  -
open set B such that x  B  A. Since B is a  -open set, so by Theorem (2.12) B is a  -
nbhd of each of its point. Therefore, for each y  B, the set B is  -nbhd of y. Now, since
B(y) is a local base of X at y, then for each y  B, there exists C  B(y) such that C  B
-----------------------------
Definition (2.23): [Sub-base]
Let (X,  ) be a topological space. A collection SB of subsets of X is called a sub-base
for the topology  on X if SB   and finite intersections of members of SB form a base
of  .

Remark (*):
If we take a look at the above definition, it is easy to see that, SB is a sub-base of  if
and only if each member of  is the union of finite intersection of SB.
-----------------------------
Example (21):
Let X={a,b,c,d} and  ={  , X, {a},{a,c}, {a,d}, {a,c,d}}. Then show that
SB={{a,c},{a,d}, X} form a sub-base for  .
Solution:
Since the family of finite intersections of SB is given by B={{a},{a,c},{a,d}, X} and it
is easy to show that B is a base for  . Hence SB is a sub-base for  .
-----------------------------
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 24
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
Theorem (2.24):
Let SB be a non-empty collection of subsets of a non-empty set X. Then SB is a sub-
base of a unique topology  for X, that is, finite intersections of members of SB form a
base of  .
Proof:
Let  be the collection of all finite intersections of members of SB, and we put
 n 
 ={G  X ; G=    Bi  , where Bi  SB for each  , i  1,2,..., n  and n    } of subsets
  i1 

 n 
of X . Note that   Bi    , for each  . Now, we have to show  is a topology on X.
 i 1 

to this end,
[I]: Since  is finite set, so we have X=  Bi , where Bi  SB. [check it?], therefore, X is
i

a finite intersection of members of SB, hence X  

 n 
Since  =    Bi  [Check it? And tell me how?]. Then    .
  i1 

 m   q 
[II]: Let G and V   , then by definition of  , we have G=    Bi  and V=    Ai  ,
  i1    i1 

 m   q    n   q 
so that we have G  V=    Bi   
   Ai  =     Bi     Ai   which is belonging
  
  i 1   i1   ,   i1   i1 

to  .
 n 
[III]: Let { G  ;    } be any collection of members of  , then G  =    Bi  for each
  i1 

  n 
  B     B    B  . Thus
n n
   , then         i      i     i 
G =  G  . Hence by
       i 1     i1   ,   i1   
 

[I], [II] and [III], we have  is a topology on X. Now, since each members of  is the
union of members of  . Thus  is a base for  , and then SB form a sub-base of  . The
uniqueness of  it follows from Theorem (2.18).
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 25
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
-----------------------------
Remarks:
1- The topology that is constricted in the above theorem is called the topology
generated by SB.
2- Any non-empty collection of subsets of any non-empty set generates a topology
for that set.
-----------------------------
Some Home Works:
1- Let X=R and SB={[a,a+1], a  R}, the find the topology  on R which is
generated by SB.
2- Let X={1,2,3,4,5} and S={{1,2},{2,3},{3,4},{4,5}, {5,1}}, the find the topology
 on X which is generated by S.

3- Let X={x,y,z,w} ans A={{x,y},{y,z},{w}}, the find the topology  on X which

is generated by A.
4- Let X={a,b,c,d,e} and C={{a,b,c},{c,d},{d,e}}, the find the topology  on X
which is generated by C.
-----------------------------
Proposition (2.25):
Let A be a family of subsets of a non-void set X, then the topology  on X generated by
A is the intersection of all topologies on x which is contained A.
Proof: [H.W]
Let {  } be the family of all topologies on X containing A and let  =   , clearly


from Theorem (2. 3) , we have  is a topology on X. now to show  =  .

Since  is a topology generated by A, so  contains A, and hence    . Now, let
G   , then G is the union of finite intersections of members of A, but since A   and
 is a topology on X, then any finite intersections of members of A is also belonging to
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 26
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
 , and since any arbitrary union of members of  is also in  , therefore, G   . Thus

 = .

-----------------------------
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 27
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
PROBLEMS:

1- Let  be the set of all natural numbers, and let T be a collection of subsets of
 consists of the empty set and all subsets of  of the form Gn={n,
n+1,n+2,….}, for all n   . Then show that (N,  ) is a topological space.

2- Let  be the set of all natural numbers, and let T be a collection of subsets of 
consists of the empty set, the whole set N and all subsets of N of the form Gn={1,
2, 3,…,n}, for all n   , then show that (  ,T) is a topological space.

3- Let  and  be the collection of subsets of R defined respectively as follows:

(i)  ={ r,  ; r  R }  {  }.

(ii)  ={ q,  ; q  Q }  {  }.
Then show that  form a topology on R but  is not a topology on R.

4- Let X be an infinite set and let  be the family of all those subsets of X which do
not contains a particular point g  X and of finite complement, then show that 
is a topology on X.

5- Let Gp={p+2i, i  Z} and let T={Gp ; p Z}  {  }. Then show that T is a non-

trivial (non-indiscrete) topology on Z.

6- Show that the co-finite topology on any finite set is the same as the discrete
topology on the set.
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 28
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
7- Show that the co-countable topology on any finite set is the same as the discrete
topology on the set.

8- Complete the proofs of each example which are given in this chapter.

9- List all possible topologies on a set X={a,b} and a set Y={1,2,3}.

10- Show that T={  }  { r,  , r  R }  {R} and

L={  }  {  , r , r  R }  {R} are not topologies on R.
[Hint: to show L is not a topology on R, consider the collection
 1 
  ,1  , n  N  of members of L then show that there union is not a member
 n 

of L]

11- Show that each singleton subset of the usual topological space (R, U ) is
closed. [see topology by sharma, pp. 182].

12- Show that the closed intervals in the usual topological space (R, U ) is
U -closed. [see topology by sharma, pp. 182].

13- Show that the right (left) half open intervals in the usual topological space
(R, U ) is neither U -closed nor U -open. [see topology by sharma,
pp. 182].

14- Consider the set of all real numbers R, and let  consists of the empty set
and all those subsets G of R having the property that x  G implies -x  G. then
show that:
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 29
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES
i.  is a topology on R.
ii. A subset A of R is  -open if and only if it is  -closed.

15- Show that the co-finite topology on  can not be induced by a metric on
N, in other word, show that the topological space (  ,  cof ) is not metrizable.

16- Let X be a non-empty set such that for each x  X there is a family N(x) of
subsets of X called neighbourhoods, satisfying the following conditions:
i. N(x)   , for all x  X.
ii. N  N(x), then x  N.
iii. N  N(x) and N  M, then M N(x).
iv. N,M  N(x), then N  M  N(x).
v. for N N(x), there is M  N(x) such that M  N and M  N(y) for all y  M.
Then show that there is a unique topology  on X in such a way that if if N*(x) is the  -
nbhd system of x in X, then N*(x)=N(x).
[See Topology, by Sharma, pp. 190]

17- Let (X,  ) be any topological space and let x  X. Then show that the set
of all members of  which is containing x, is a local base of X at x.

18- Consider the usual space (R, U ), and x is any point in R. Then the
collection B(x) = { (x-r,x+r), 0 < r  R} constitute a local base for (R, U ) at x.

19- Consider the usual space (R, U ), and x is any point in R. Then the
collection SB = {(   ,b); b  R}  {(a,  ); a  R } form a
sub-base for U .
GENERAL TOPOLOGY CHAPTER TWO LEC. DR. HALGWRD M. D 30
TOPOLOGY AND TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

20- Let X be any non-empty set and let to each x in X. A collection B(x) of
subsets of X be assigned satisfying the conditions [B0], [B1], [B2] and [B3] of
the Theorem (2.22), then there exists a topology on X for which B(x) forms a local
base of X at x.