Instrumentations Dr.

Ahmad Malkawi

Instrumentation

Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Book:

Process Control Instrumentation Technology

Curtis D. Johnson
Eighth Edition

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Instrumentations Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Instrumentation

Dr. Ahmad Malkawi

Chapter 1

Introduction to Process Control

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Introduction
• Control: methods to force parameters in the environment to have specific
values.
▪ Making the temperature in a room stay at 21oC.
▪ Manufacturing an integrated circuit.
▪ Guiding a spacecraft to Jupiter.
• Control System: All the elements necessary to accomplish the control
objective.
▪ Human aided.
▪ Automatic control.

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Process Control Principles
• The basic objective of the process control.
▪ To regulate the value of some quantity.

▪ Which means to maintain the quantity at some desired value regardless of

external influences.

• The desired value is called the reference value or setpoint.

• First: Define the process

• Then the control system

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Example
• The objective is to regulate the level of
the liquid in the tank, h, to the value
H.
• Process:
▪ Qin: Liquid flowing into a tank.
▪ Qout: Liquid flowing out of the tank.
▪ h: Liquid height or level .
• 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾 ℎ
▪ Higher level → faster liquid flow
• Qout > Qin : Level (h) drop.
• Qout < Qin : Level (h) increases.
• Qout = Qin : Level (h) constant.
▪ Self regulation

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Human Aided Control
• How to maintain the level at some particular value H.

S: Sight tube.

Qout : Manipulated variable.

Or Controlling variable.

h: Control Variable.
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Automatic Control
• The system is modified so that machines, electronics or computers
replace the operation of the human.

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Servomechanisms
• The objective is to force some parameter to vary in a specific manner.
▪ It could be called a tracking system.
• Example: Move a robot arm from point A to point B in a controlled fashion.

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Process Control Diagram

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Identification of Elements

• Process: Often called the plant.

▪ Flow of the liquid in and out, the tank, the liquid.
All constitute a process to be placed under control, ex, with respect to the fluid level.
▪ Single variable process: one variable is to be controlled.
▪ Multivariable process: many variable, perhaps interrelated, may require regulation.

• Measurement: information about the variable itself.

▪ Sensor: performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of the variable.
▪ Signal conditioning may be required.
▪ Transducer: converts any signal from one form to another.

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Identification of Elements

• Error Detector: Difference between the actual level and the set point.

• Controller: examine the error and determine what action, if any, should be
taken.

• Control Element: provide those required change in the control variable to

bring it to the setpoint.

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Example: physical control system
• Flow through a pipe.
• Physical diagram of the process control loop.

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Block diagram of the process control loop

P/I
• The loop: the signal flow forms a complete circuit from process through
measurement, error detector, controller, and final control element.
▪ Feedback loop.
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Control System Evaluation

• A process control system is used to regulate the value of some process
variable.
▪ How well is it working? Not easy question to answer.
▪ The control system could be adjusted to provide a different kind of response to errors.
• Evaluation methods are needed.
▪ Error 𝑒(𝑡) is used to measure the performance of the control system.
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 − 𝑐(𝑡)
▪ Error : is the difference between the constant setpoint or reference 𝑟 and the control
variable 𝑐(𝑡).

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Control System Objective

• The objective of the control system is to make the error zero.
▪ Control system responds only to error.
▪ i.e., when an error occurs, the control system takes action to drive it zero.
▪ or, if the error is zero and stay zero, the control system would not do anything.
• Evaluation: How large the error is and how it varies in time.
• Requirement of control system objective:
1. The system should be stable.
2. The system should provide the best possible steady state regulation.
3. The system should provide the best possible transient regulation.

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Stability

▪Prior turning on the control system, the control variable drifts randomly (not regulated).
▪After the control system is on, the variable is forced to adopt the setpoint and all is well
for a while.
▪Then the variable begins to exhibit growing oscillations of value→ instability.

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Steady State Regulation

• Steady state error should be a minimum.
• Some deviation of control variable ±∆𝑐, about setpoint, is allowed.
• In other word, the variation of the variable within this band is expected and
acceptable.
• Example: a process control technologist might be asked to design and
implement a control system to regulate the temperature at 150℃ within ±2℃.
This means: the setpoint is to be 150℃, but the temperature may be allowed to vary
within the range 148℃ to 152℃.

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Transient Regulation

• What happened to the value of the control variable when sudden transient
event occurs.
▪ Example, the setpoint could change, temperature changed to 160℃.

• Another type of transient due to a sudden change of some other process

variable.

• Transient response: How the control system reacts to suddenly change.

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Evaluation Criteria

• How well is the control system is working:

1. Ensuring stability.

2. Evaluating steady state response.

3. Evaluating the response to setpoint changes and transient effects.

• Is there criteria for gauging the response?

1. Damped response.

2. Cyclic response.

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Damped Response
• Error is with only one polarity (no oscillation).
• Two type of excitations: setpoint change and transient effects (disturbance).
• Setpoint change:
• Measures of quality: Duration 𝑡𝐷 (control variable changes from 10% of the change to
90% of the change)

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Damped Response- Transient effects

• Measures of quality: Duration 𝑡𝐷 , maximum error 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
• Duration 𝑡𝐷 : time from the start of the disturbance until the control variable is again
within 4% of the setpoint.

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Cyclic Response
• Control variable oscillates about the setpoint.
• Measures of quality: Duration 𝑡𝐷 (settling time), maximum error 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 .

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Cyclic Tuning Criteria

• Minimum area: the tuning is adjusted until the area under the error line curve
is minimum.
• Quarter amplitude: the amplitude of each peak of the cyclic response be a
quarter of the preceding peak ( 𝑎2 = 𝑎1 /4, 𝑎3 = 𝑎2 /4, and so on).

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Analog and Digital Processing

• Control system were performed by sophisticated electronic circuit.
▪ Data were represented by the magnitude of the voltage and current → analog
processing.

• Modern control system: employ digital computer or microcontroller to

perform controller operations.
▪ Data are represented as binary number consisting of a specific number of bit → Digital
processing.

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Data Representation
• How the magnitude of the some physical variable is represented in the control
loop.

• Example: A sensor output is a voltage whose magnitude varies with

temperature.
→ The voltage represents the temperature.

• Analog and digital systems represent data in very different fashion.

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Analog Data
• Analog representation of data → Smooth and continuous variation between a
representation of a variable value and the value it self.

• Analog representation of variable , 𝑐, and the representation 𝑏.

▪ For every value of 𝑐 within the range covered, there is a unique value of 𝑏.

▪ If 𝑐 changed by some small amount δ𝑐, then 𝑏 will

changed by a proportional amount δ𝑏.

▪ The same δ𝑐 does not result in the same δ𝑏 → nonlinear.

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Digital Data
• Number are represented in terms of binary digits (bit) → One 1 or Zero 0.

• Some range of analog number is encoded by a fixed number of binary digits.

▪ Loss of information, limited resolution.
▪ Can take an only discrete value.
▪ Variable 𝑐 is represented by a digital quantity n.
▪ Variation of c by such δ𝑐, may not result in any
change in n.
▪ Minimum amount of change.

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Digital Data - Example

• Table shows how the voltage change from 0 to 15 volts could be encoded by
four binary digits.
▪ Change of 1 V produces a change of

→ least significant bit (LSB).

▪ Voltage change by less than 1 V,

the digital representation would not change.

▪ Hexadecimal (hex) representation.

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Data Conversion
• Special devices are employed to convert analog voltages into a digital representation
→ Analog to Digital Converter (ADC).

▪ In the control system, the sensor often produces an analog output such as voltage → ADC.

▪ Example: ADC might be used to convert voltage in 4-bit digital signal.

• Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

▪ Convert digital signal into an analog voltage.

▪ To convert output of computer (digital) into a form suitable for the final control element.

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ON/OFF Control
• One of the most elementary type of digital processing.
▪ Final control element has only two states,

ON and OFF.

▪ Controller output need have only

these two states.

▪ Digital representation of a

single binary digit 0 or 1.

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ON/OFF Control – cont.

• Objective: to maintain the temperature in a system at some reference 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
• A sensor convert temperature values into a resistance (analog circuit) → 𝑅 varies
smoothly and continuously with 𝑇.
• Signal conditioning convert the variable 𝑅 into analog voltage 𝑉.
• Differential amplifier multiplies the difference between 𝑉 and 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 by a gain 𝐾 to
produce an error voltage 𝑉𝑒 .
• 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 defined as the voltage from the converter that would be produced by 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
• At this point the system becomes digital because the relay will either be open or
closed.
▪ Heater or cooler will either be on or off.

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ON/OFF Control – cont.

• Diodes direct the current to the appropriate relay based on the polarity.

• Deadband and hysteresis → there is a difference between a relay pull-in voltage and
the release voltage.

• A range of temperature, in this case, where in no action will occur.

• Hysteresis → the behavior of the system is different at the same value of temperature
depending on whether the temperature is increasing or decreasing.

• Home and auto heater, air conditioners, and home water heater.

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Analog Control
• Variable in the system are analog representation of another variable.

• Example: Process in which a heater is used to control temperature in an oven.

▪ Heater Output, 𝑄, is an analog of excitation voltage 𝑉𝑄 → heat can be varied
continuously.

▪ Note: every signal in analog.

▪ 𝑉𝑇 is an analog of 𝑇.

▪ 𝑉𝑒 is an analog difference between the

reference 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 and the temperature voltage 𝑉𝑇 .

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Digital Control
• Involves the use of a computer or digital logic circuit.

• To approaches to use computer for control:

• Supervisory control and direct digital control.

• Supervisory control

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Direct Digital Control (DDC)

• The analog processing loop is discarded.

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Smart Sensor
• The integration of the microprocessor-based controller computer directly into
the sensor assembly.

• Using Integrated Circuit (IC) technology → the sensor, signal conditioning,

ADC and computer are all contained within the sensor housing.

• Also, the unit could contain DAC with 4 to 20 mA output to be feed to final
control element.

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Networked Control System

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Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

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Analog Data Representation

• Part of the specification is the range of the variables are involved.
• System measure the temperature: there will be a range of temperature specified.
Example 20° 𝐶 to 120° 𝐶.
• Transmission variables information
over some distance.
▪ Electrical system:
a range of electrical current carried
in wires.
▪ Pneumatic system:
arrange of gas pressure carried in pipes.

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Example
• Suppose the temperature range 20° 𝐶 to 120° 𝐶 is linearly converted to the
standard current range of 4 − 20 𝑚𝐴. What current will result from
66° 𝐶? What temperature does 6.5 𝑚𝐴 represent.

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Accuracy
• The maximum overall error to be expected from a device.
▪ Measured variable: the accuracy is ±2° 𝐶 → In some temperature measurement
there would be an uncertainty of ±2° 𝐶 in the value of temperature measured.
▪ Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading: ±0.5% in a 5𝑉 full-scale
system → uncertainty of ±0.025𝑉.
▪ Percentage of instrument span (percentage of the range): ±3% of span for a
20 𝑝𝑠𝑖 to 50 𝑝𝑠𝑖 pressure → uncertainty ±0.03 50 − 20 = ±0.9 𝑝𝑠𝑖.
▪ Percentage of the actual reading: ±2% of the reading voltmeter → inaccuracy is
± 0.04𝑉 for a reading of 2𝑉.

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Example
• A temperature sensor has a span of 20° 𝐶 to 250° 𝐶. A measurement result
in a value of 55° 𝐶 from the temperature. Specify the error if the accuracy
is (a) ±0.5% FS. (b) ±0.75% of span. (c) ±0.8% of the reading. What is
the possible temperature in each case?

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System Accuracy
𝑉 ± ∆𝑉 = 𝐾 ± ∆𝐾 𝐺 ± ∆𝐺 𝐶
𝑉: output voltage.
∆𝑉: uncertainty in the output voltage.
𝐾, 𝐺: nominal transfer function.
∆𝐾, ∆𝐺: uncertainty in the transfer functions.
𝐶: dynamic variable.
∆𝑉 ∆𝐾 ∆𝐺
=± ±
𝑉 𝐾 𝐺
• The worst-case: sum of the individual uncertainty.
2 2
∆𝑉 ∆𝐾 ∆𝐺
=± +
𝑉 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐾 𝐺
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Example
• Find the system accuracy of a flow process if the transducer transfer
function is 10𝑚𝑉/(𝑚^3/𝑠) ± 1.5% and the signal conditioning system
transfer function is 2𝑚𝐴/𝑚𝑉 ± 0.5%?

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Linearity
• Specification of sensor output: the
degree of to which it is linear with the
measured variable and the span over
which this occurs.

• Determined by the deviation of the

sensor output from the best-fit straight
line over a particular range →
expressed as percentage of FS.

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Sensor Time Response

• First Order Response:
−𝑡
𝑏 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑖 + (𝑏𝑓 − 𝑏𝑖 )(1 − 𝑒𝜏)
𝑏𝑖 : initial sensor output from static transfer
function at initial input.
𝑏𝑓 : final sensor output from static transfer
function at final input.
𝜏: Sensor time constant → the time at which the
output value changed by 63% of the total change.

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Second-Order Response
𝑅(𝑡) ∝ 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑛 𝑡)
𝑅(𝑡): transducer output.
𝑎: output damping constant.
𝑓𝑛 : natural frequency of the oscillation.
𝑅0 : amplitude.

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Sensitivity
• Sensitivity is a measure of the change in output of an instrument for a
change in input.

• Example: when a temperature transducer output is 5𝑚𝑉 per degree

Celsius → the sensitivity is 5𝑚𝑉/℃.

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Units
• International System of Units (SI)
→ International agreement for worldwide standardization.

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English Unit to SI

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Centimeter-Gram-Second (CGS) System

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Unit Translation or Conversion

• Example: Express a pressure of 𝑃 = 2.1 ∗ 103 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚2 in pascals,
where 1𝑃𝑎 = 1𝑁/𝑚2 .

• Example: Find the number of feet in 5.7𝑚.

• Example: Express 6.00𝑓𝑡 in meters.

• Example: Find the mass in kilograms of 2𝑙𝑏.

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Metric Prefixes
• Example: Express 0.0000215s and 3,781,000,000W using decimal
prefixes.

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Significance and Statistics

• Significant Figures:
▪ Not to attach significance to a variable value more than the instrument can support.

▪ Example: A digital instrument measure a resistance as 125𝑘Ω. Ignore the instrument

accuracy.

→ This does not means that the resistance is 125,000Ω. Rather than the resistance is
closer to 125,000Ω than it is to 124,000Ω or to 126,000Ω.

• Significant figures are the digits (places) actually read or known from the
measurement or calculation.

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Example:
• A digital multimeter measures the current through a 12.5𝑘Ω resistor as
2.21𝑚𝐴 using 10𝑚𝐴 scale. The instrument accuracy is ±0.2% FS. Find
the voltage across the resistor and the uncertainty in the value obtained.

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Significance in Calculations
• Not to obtain a result that has more significance than the number employed
in the calculation.

• The answer can have no more significance than the least of the numbers
used in the calculation.

• Example: A transducer has a specified transfer function of 22.4𝑚𝑉/℃ for

temperature measurement. The measured voltage is 412𝑚𝑉. What is the
temperature.

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Significance in Design
• Example:
▪ If a designer specifies a 1.1𝑘Ω, the assumption is exactly 1100Ω.
▪ If the designer specifies that there are 4.7𝑉 across the resistor, then there are exactly
4.7𝑉.
→ The current can be calculated to be 4.2727272𝑚𝐴.
▪ Suppose we measure the resistor when the design is built and find it to be 1.1𝑘Ω
(two significant figures).
▪ And measure the voltage and find it to be 4.7𝑉 (two significance figures).
→ The calculated current is 4.3𝑚𝐴 (two significance figures).

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Statistics
• Statistical analysis of measurement improves the confidence in the value of
variable.

• Where random errors in measurement cause a distribution of reading of the

value of some variable.

• Arithmetic mean.

• Standard Deviation.

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Arithmetic mean
• Obtain the average value for the variable.

• One may wish to control the average temperature in a process.

→ The temperature might be measured in 10 location and averaged to give a control
variable.

• Calibration of transducers and other process instrument.

→ The average gives information about the transfer function.
σ 𝑥𝑖
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
𝑥:ҧ The arithmetic mean, 𝑥𝑖 : the individual value and 𝑛: number of values.
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Standard Deviation
• How the individual values are spread out about the mean.

• Deviation: the difference between the individual values and the arithmetic
mean.

σ 𝑑𝑖2
𝜎=
𝑛−1

𝜎: Standard deviation.
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ
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Interpretation of Standard Deviation

• Sensors A and B provide the correct value as
average.
• Distribution of reading for sensor A is much
more narrowly distributed around the average
than the sensor B.
• A single reading from sensor A is more likely
to give the actual value of the measured
variable.
𝜎𝐴 ≪ 𝜎𝐵

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Normal Probability Curve or Bell Curve

• For large sample of reading:
▪ 68% of all reading lie within ±1𝜎 of the mean.
▪ 95.5% of all reading lie within ±2𝜎 of the mean.
▪ 99.7% of all reading lie within ±3𝜎 of the mean.

• Example: one set of pressure reading has a mean of 44𝑝𝑠𝑖 with standard
deviation of 14𝑝𝑠𝑖 and another has a mean 44𝑝𝑠𝑖 with standard deviation of
3𝑝𝑠𝑖.
▪ The second has more peaked about the mean and 68% of all reading lie from 41𝑝𝑠𝑖 to
47𝑝𝑠𝑖.
▪ In the first case, 68% of all reading lie from 30𝑝𝑠𝑖 to 58𝑝𝑠𝑖.
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