Bradley R. Shiller - Essentials of Economics PDF
Bradley R. Shiller - Essentials of Economics PDF
Bradley R. Schiller
Professor Emeritus, American University
with Karen Gebhardt
Colorado State University
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2014, 2011, and
2009. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a
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ISBN: 978-1-259-23570-2
MHID: 1-259-23570-X
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Bradley R. Schiller has over four decades of experience teaching introductory econom-
ics at American University, the University of California (Berkeley and Santa Cruz), the University of
Maryland, and the University of Nevada (Reno). He has given guest lectures at more than 300
colleges ranging from Fresno, California, to Istanbul, Turkey. Dr. Schiller’s unique contribution to
teaching is his ability to relate basic principles to current socioeconomic problems, institutions,
and public policy decisions. This perspective is evident throughout Essentials of Economics.
Dr. Schiller derives this policy focus from his extensive experience as a Washington con-
sultant. He has been a consultant to most major federal agencies, many congressional com-
mittees, and political candidates. In addition, he has evaluated scores of government
programs and helped design others. His studies of income inequality, poverty, discrimination,
Source: © Bradley Schiller
training programs, tax reform, pensions, welfare, Social Security, and lifetime wage patterns
have appeared in both professional journals and popular media. Dr. Schiller is also a frequent
commentator on economic policy for television, radio, and newspapers.
Dr. Schiller received his PhD from Harvard and his BA degree, with great distinction, from
the University of California (Berkeley). When not teaching, writing, or consulting, Professor
Schiller is typically on a tennis court, schussing down a ski slope, or enjoying the crystal blue
waters of Lake Tahoe.
Election campaigns bring out the best and the worst economic ideas. Virtually every can-
didate promises a “chicken in every pot,” without regard to the supply of chickens. They
will clean up the environment, fix our schools, put more police on the streets, build more
affordable housing, and, of course, guarantee every American access to quality health care.
And they’ll do this while cutting taxes, subsidizing alternative energy sources, and rebuild-
ing America’s infrastructure.
Don’t you wish you lived in such a utopia?! I know I do. And our students overwhelm-
ingly embrace these promises.
The problem is, of course, that there is no such thing as a free lunch. Nor free health
care, free environmental protection, or free infrastructure development. As economists, we
know this; we know that resource scarcity requires us to make difficult choices about com-
peting uses of those resources. We know that politicians can’t place a chicken in every pot
without allocating more resources to poultry production—and fewer resources to the pro-
duction of other desired goods and services.
Our first task as instructors is to convince students of this basic fact of life—that
every decision about resource use entails opportunity costs. If we can establish that
beachhead early on, we have a decent chance of instilling in students a basic appreciation
of economic theory.
The other challenge for us as instructors is to instill in students a sense of why the eco-
nomic problems we analyze are important. We know that inflation and unemployment
cause serious hardships. But most of our students haven’t experienced the income losses
that accompany unemployment or seen their retirement savings decimated by inflation. We
have to explain and illustrate why the macro problems we seek to solve are politically, so-
cially, and economically important.
The same reference gap exists in micro. Formulas and graphs illustrating external-
ities or lost consumer surplus are meaningless abstractions to most students. If we
want them to appreciate these concepts, we have to illustrate them with real-world
examples (e.g., the death toll from second-hand smoke; the higher airfares that result
on monopoly airplane routes). For most students, this course is their first exposure to
economics. If we want them to understand the subject—maybe even pursue it
further—we have got to relate our concepts and theories to the world that they live in.
This has been the hallmark of Essentials from the beginning: introducing the core
concepts of economics in a reality-based, p olicy-driven context. This tenth edition
continues that tradition.
iv
CENTRAL THEME
The central goal of this text is to convey a sense of how economic systems affect economic
outcomes. When we look back on the twentieth century, we see how some economies
flourished while others languished. Even the “winners” had recurrent episodes of slow, or
negative, growth. The central analytical issue is how various economic systems influenced
those diverse growth records. Was the relatively superior track record of the United States
a historical fluke or a by-product of its commitment to market capitalism? Were the long
economic expansions of the 1980s and 1990s the result of enlightened macro policy, more
efficient markets, or just good luck? What roles did policy, markets, and (bad) luck play in
the Great Recession of 2008–2009? What forces deserve credit for the economic recovery
that followed?
In the 2016 presidential elections, economic issues were at the forefront (as Yale
economist Ray Fair has been telling us for years). Democratic candidates claimed credit
for the economic recovery, pointing to their support of President Obama’s stimulus pro-
gram, u nemployment assistance, financial regulation, and health care reform. Republican
REAL-WORLD
18
EMPHASIS
Basics
The decision to include a descriptive chapter on the U.S. economy reflects a basic
commitment to a real-world in error. context. Students
Worse still, there rarelyarguments
are never-ending get interested in stories
about what caused about the
a major eco-
nomic event long after it occurred. In fact, economists are still arguing over the causes of
mythical widget manufacturers
not only the Great Recession of 2008–2009 but even the Great Depression of the 1930s! glim-
that inhabit so many economics textbooks. But
mers of interest—even Did some enthusiasm—surface
government failure or market failure causewhen real-world
and deepen those economic illustrations,
setbacks? not
fables, are offered. Modest Expectations
Every chapter starts out with
In view of allreal-world applications
these debates and ofshould
uncertainties, you corenotconcepts.
expect to learnAs the chapters
everything
there is to know about the economy in this text or course. Our goals are more modest. We
unfold, empirical illustrations
want you continue
to develop sometoperspective
enlivenonthe textbehavior
economic analysis.
and anThe chapters
understanding end with
of basic
a Policy Perspectives principles.
section With this foundation, you should acquire a better view of how the economy
that challenges the student to apply new
works. Daily news reports on economic events should make more sense. Political debates
concepts to
real-world issues. The first Policy
on tax and budgetPerspective,
policies should in
takeChapter 1 (Is You
on more meaning. “Free” Health
may even developCare
some Really
insights that you can apply toward running a business or planning a career.
Free?), highlights the difficult choices that emerge when we try to offer “free” health care.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Is “Free” Health Care Really Free?
Everyone wants more and better health care, and nearly everyone agrees that even the poorest
members of society need reliable access to doctors and hospitals. That’s why President
Obama made health care reform such a high priority in his first presidential year.
Although the political debate over health care reform was intense and multidimensional,
the economics of health care are fairly simple. In essence, President Obama wanted to ex-
pand the health care industry. He wanted to increase access for the millions of Americans
who didn’t have health insurance and raise the level of service for people with low incomes
and preexisting illnesses. He wasn’t proposing to reduce health care for those who already
had adequate care. Thus his reform proposals entailed a net increase in health care services.
Were health care a free good, everyone would have welcomed President Obama’s re-
forms. But the most fundamental concept in economics is this: There is no free lunch.
Resources used to prepare and serve even a “free” lunch could be used to produce some-
thing else. So it is with health care. The resources used to expand health care services
Source: © Photodisc/Getty Images, RF
could be used to produce something else. The opportunity costs of expanded health care
are the other goods we could have produced (and consumed) with the same resources.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the basic policy dilemma. In 2009 health care services absorbed
about 16 percent of total U.S. output. So the mix of output resembled point X1, where H1
THE GREAT RECESSION OF 2008–2009 Anxiety about the ability of the U.S.
Preface vii
economy to crank out more goods every year spiked in 2008–2009. Indeed, the economic
∙∙ The
NOTE: opportunity
People always wantcost
more(famine) of North
than they have. Korea’s rocket
Even multimillionaires sayprogram
they
don’t have enough to live “comfortably.”
∙∙ The impact of lower gas prices on sales of electric vehicles
∙∙ The diversity in starting pay for various college majors
∙∙ The incidence of passive smoking deaths
∙∙ 2014–2015 tuition hikes
∙∙ The impact of the 2013 payroll tax hike on consumer spending
∙∙ How the strong dollar has made European vacations cheaper
h01_002-025.indd 4 01/29/16 9:49 PM
This is just a sampling of the stream of real-world applications that cascades throughout
this text. Twenty-eight of the News Wires are new to this edition.
The following list highlights both the essential focus of each chapter and the new material
that enlivens its presentation:
Chapter 1: The Challenge of Economics—The first challenge here is to get students to
appreciate the concept of scarcity and how it forces us to make difficult choices among
desirable, but competing, options. That is really the essence of economic thinking. How
we make those choices is also critical. The 2016 presidential campaign seemed to imply
that we can have it all, without higher taxes or other sacrifices. That created a great chance
to emphasize opportunity costs. The opportunity costs of North Korea’s stepped-up rocket
program and the implied costs of “affordable” health care also make for good illustra-
tions. Chapter 1 includes 10 new Problems, one new Discussion Question, and three new
News Wires.
Chapter 2: The U.S. Economy—The purpose of this chapter is to give students an accu-
rate picture of the size and content of the U.S. economy, especially as compared to other
nations. Most students have no sense of how large the U.S. economy is or what it produces
or trades. The description here is organized around the core questions of What, How, and
For Whom output is produced. The portrait includes the latest data on U.S. and global out-
put, income distributions, and government sectors. A new News Wire on manufacturing
jobs versus output helps put the changing answers to the What question into perspective.
There are 6 new Problems.
Chapter 3: Supply and Demand—This is the introduction to the market mechanism, that
is, how markets set both prices and production for various goods. Interesting new News
Wires include the shortages that accompany new iPhone launches and the impact of falling
gasoline prices on sales of electric vehicles. Five new Problems and two new Discussion
Questions are included.
Micro
Chapter 4: Consumer Demand—This chapter starts by looking at patterns of U.S. con-
sumption, then analyzing the demand factors that shape those patterns. The elasticity of
demand gets a lot of attention, as illustrated by consumer responses to iMac prices, price
hikes at Starbucks, and higher gasoline prices (all new News Wires). There are 6 new Prob-
lems and 3 new Discussion Questions.
Chapter 5: Supply Decisions—The key point of this chapter is to highlight the differ-
ence between what firms can produce (as illustrated by the production function) and what
they want to produce (as illustrated by profit-maximization calculations). The importance
of marginal costs in the production decision gets its proper spotlight. The Tesla decision to
build a “gigafactory” to produce lithium batteries for electric cars is used to contrast the
long-run investment decision and the short-run production decision. The addition of 5 new
Problems and 3 new Discussion Questions keep the topic lively.
Chapter 6: Competition—This first look at market structure emphasizes the lack of
pricing power possessed by small, competitive firms. Perfectly competitive firms must
relentlessly pursue cost reductions, quality improvements, and product innovation if they
are to survive and prosper. Although few firms are perfectly competitive, competitive
dynamics keep all firms on their toes. Those dynamics affect even the behavior of such
giants as Apple (relentlessly trying to stay ahead of the pack)—not just the small T-shirt
vendors on beach boardwalks (both in new News Wires). How firms locate the most prof-
itable rate of production with the use of market prices and marginal costs is illustrated. The
chapter includes 3 new Problems and 1 new Discussion Question. The chapter-ending
Policy Perspective considers how competition helps rather than hurts society.
Chapter 7: Monopoly—As a survey introduction to economics, Essentials focuses on the
differences in structure, behavior, and outcomes of only two market structures, namely, per-
fect competition and monopoly. This two-way contrast underscores the importance of market
structure for social welfare. The monopoly produces less and charges more than a competi-
tive market with the same cost structure, as illustrated with a step-by-step comparison of
market behavior. The various barriers monopolies use to preserve their position and profits
are illustrated as well. The chapter includes 3 new Problems and 1 new Discussion Question.
Chapter 8: The Labor Market—The 2016 presidential campaign highlighted very differ-
ent views about income equality, minimum wages, unions, and mandatory workforce regu-
lations. This chapter delves into these issues by first illustrating how market wages are set,
and then examining how various interventions alter market outcomes. Highlighted stories
include Dale Earnhardt’s earnings, Nick Saban’s salary and benefits at Alabama, mini-
mum-wage proposals, and the Swiss rejection of CEO pay caps. Of special interest to stu-
dents is the latest data on salaries for college grads in various majors. There are 6 new
Problems and 3 new Discussion Questions.
Chapter 9: Government Intervention—Another focus of every election is the appropri-
ate role for government in a market-driven economy. This chapter identifies the core ra-
tionale for government intervention and offers new illustrations of public goods (Israel’s
“Iron Dome” anti-missile program) and externalities (the Keystone XL Pipeline). There is
also new poll data on trust in government. The chapter includes 1 new Problem and 2 new
Discussion Questions.
Macro
Chapter 10: The Business Cycle—This introduction to macro examines the up and down
history of the economy, then looks at the impact of cyclical instability on unemployment,
inflation, and the distribution of income. The goal here is to get students to recognize why
macro instability is a foremost societal concern. The latest macro data are incorporated,
along with 3 new News Wires, 9 new Problems, and 4 new Discussion Questions.
Chapter 11: Aggregate Supply and Demand—This chapter gives students a conceptual
overview of the macro economy, highlighting the role that market forces and other factors
play in shaping macro outcomes. Aggregate supply (AS) and aggregate demand (AD) are
assessed, with an emphasis on the distinction between curve positions and curve shifts (the
source of instability). The bottom line is that either AS or AD must shift if macro outcomes
are to change. There are 3 new News Wires highlighting shift factors, 6 new Problems, and
2 new Discussion Questions. The Policy Perspectives section summarizes the broad policy
options that President Obama’s successor will have to work with.
Chapter 12: Fiscal Policy—This chapter highlights the potential of changes in govern-
ment spending and taxes to shift the AD curve. The power of the income multiplier is illus-
trated in the context of the AS/AD framework and operationalized with analysis of the
2009 Economic Recovery Act and the 2013 payroll tax hike. The implications of fiscal
policy for budget deficits are also examined. Updated budget data are included, along with
9 new Problems.
Chapter 13: Money and Banks—ApplePay and Bitcoins are used to illustrate differ-
ences between payment services and money. A new News Wire focuses on the methods of
payment consumers utilize. The core of the chapter depicts how deposit creation and the
money multiplier work, using a step-by-step illustration of each. The new Policy Perspec-
tives section assesses why Bitcoins aren’t really “money.” There are 8 new Problems and
2 new Discussion Questions.
Chapter 14: Monetary Policy—In this chapter, students first get an overview of how the
Federal Reserve is organized, including an introduction to Janet Yellen. Then the 3 basic
tools of monetary policy are illustrated, with an emphasis on how open-market operations
work. The narrative then focuses on how the use of these monetary tools shifts the AD curve,
ultimately impacting both output and prices. News about China’s cut in reserve requirements
helps illustrate the intended effects. The 2008–2015 spike in excess reserves is also dis-
cussed, along with the Fed’s new policy targeting. The chapter includes 6 new Problems.
Chapter 15: Economic Growth—The challenge of every society is to grow its economy
and lift living standards. This chapter reviews the world’s growth experience, then highlights
the factors that affect growth rates. Of special interest in today’s policy context is the role of
immigration in spurring growth. The chapter’s Policy Perspectives section examines whether
economic growth is desirable, a question students often ask. There are 5 new Problems.
Chapter 16: Theory and Reality—This unique capstone chapter addresses the perennial
question of why economies don’t function better if economic theory is so perfect. The
chapter reviews the major policy tools and their idealized uses. Then it contrasts theoretical
expectations with real-world outcomes and asks why macro performance doesn’t live up to
its promise. Impediments to better outcomes are explored and the chapter ends by asking
students whether they favor more or less policy intervention. Lots of new data are incorpo-
rated, along with 4 new Problems and 2 new Discussion Questions.
International
Chapter 17: International Trade—Students are first introduced to patterns of global trade,
highlighting international differences in export dependence and trade balances. Then the
question of “why trade at all?” is explicitly addressed, leading into an illustration of com-
parative advantage. Of importance is also a discussion of the sources of resistance to free
trade and the impact of trade barriers. In addition to updating all data, 2 new News Wires,
5 new Problems, and 2 new Discussion Questions are included.
AACSB STATEMENT
The McGraw-Hill Companies is a proud corporate member of AACSB International. Un-
derstanding the importance and value of AACSB accreditation, Essentials of Economics,
10e, recognizes the curricula guidelines detailed in the AACSB standards for business ac-
creditation by connecting selected questions in the text and the test bank to the six general
knowledge and skill guidelines in the AACSB standards.
The statements contained in Essentials of Economics, 10e, are provided only as a guide
for the users of this textbook. The AACSB leaves content coverage and assessment within
the purview of individual schools, the mission of the school, and the faculty. While Essen-
tials of Economics, 10e, and the teaching package make no claim of any specific AACSB
qualification or evaluation, we have within Essentials of Economics, 10e, labeled selected
questions according to the six general knowledge and skills areas.
updated for the tenth edition by Larry Olanrewaju of John Tyler Community College. Each
chapter of the Instructor’s Resource Manual contains the following features:
∙∙ What is this chapter all about? A brief summary of the chapter.
∙∙ New to this edition A list of changes and updates to the chapter since the last edition.
∙∙ Lecture launchers Designed to offer suggestions on how to launch specific topics in
each chapter.
∙∙ Common student errors To integrate the lectures with the student Study Guide, this
provides instructors with a brief description of some of the most common problems
that students have when studying the material in each chapter.
∙∙ News Wires A list of News Wires from the text is provided for easy reference.
∙∙ Annotated outline An annotated outline for each chapter can be used as lecture notes.
∙∙ Structured controversies Chapter-related topics are provided for sparking small
group debates that require no additional reading. Also accessible on the website.
∙∙ Mini-debates Additional chapter-related debate topics that require individual stu-
dents to do outside research in preparation. Also accessible on the website.
∙∙ Mini-debate projects Additional projects are provided, cutting across all the chap-
ters. These include several focus questions and outside research. Also accessible
on the website.
∙∙ Answers to the chapter questions and problems The Instructor’s Resource Manual
provides answers to the end-of-chapter questions and problems in the text, along
with explanations of how the answers were derived.
∙∙ Answers to Web activities Answers to Web activities from the textbook are provided
in the Instructor’s Resource Manual as well as on the website.
∙∙ Media exercise Provides a ready-to-use homework assignment using current news-
papers and/or periodicals to find articles that illustrate the specific issues.
Test Bank
The Test Bank has been rigorously revised for this tenth edition of Essentials. Digital
co-author Karen Gebhardt and Nancy Rumore of University of Southwestern Louisiana
assessed every problem in the Test Bank, assigning each problem a letter grade and identi-
fying errors and opportunities for improvement. This author team assures a high level of
quality and consistency of the test questions and the greatest possible correlation with the
content of the text. All questions are coded according to chapter learning objectives,
AACSB Assurance of Learning, and Bloom’s Taxonomy guidelines. The computerized
Test Bank is available in EZ Test, a flexible and easy-to-use electronic testing program that
accommodates a wide range of question types, including user-created questions. Tests cre-
ated in EZ Test can be exported for use with course management systems such as WebCT,
BlackBoard, or PageOut. The program is available for Windows, Macintosh, and Linux
environments. Additionally, you can access the test bank through McGraw-Hill Connect.
PowerPoints
Digital co-author Karen Gebhardt and Gregory Gilpin of Montana State University have
prepared a concise set of Instructor PowerPoint presentations to correspond with the tenth
edition of Essentials. Developed using Microsoft PowerPoint software, these slides are a
step-by-step review of the key points in each of the book’s chapters. They are equally use-
ful to the student in the classroom as lecture aids or for personal review at home or the
computer lab. The slides use animation to show students how graphs build and shift.
Web Activities
To keep Essentials connected to the real world, Web activities, updated by Charles Newton
of Houston Community College, appear in the Instructor Resources section in Connect for
each chapter. These require the student to access data or materials on a website and then use,
summarize, or explain this external material in the context of the chapter’s core economic
concepts. The Instructor’s Resource Manual provides answers to the Web-based activities.
News Flashes
As up-to-date as Essentials of Economics is, it can’t foretell the future. As the future be-
comes the present, however, we will provide new two-page News Flashes describing major
economic events and related to specific text references. These News Flashes provide good
lecture material and can be copied for student use. They are also available via the Instructor
Resource Material in Connect. Four to six News Flashes are sent to adopters each year.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The greatest contribution to this tenth edition comes from the enlistment of Karen G
ebhardt
to the author team. Karen is a distinguished teacher who has won numerous awards for her
pedagogical prowess at Colorado State University. She has assumed responsibility for the
digital content of the Essentials learning package, including an overhaul of the test bank,
the Connect program, LearnSmart, and other digital products. She has done a marvelous
job not only improving the content of each digital supplement but also enhancing the sym-
metry between the text and all dimensions of the digital products. Students and instructors
will share my gratitude for Karen’s excellent work.
Reviewers and users of past editions of Essentials have also contributed to the evolution
of this text. The following manuscript reviewers were generous in sharing their teaching
experiences and offering suggestions for the revision:
Bob Abadie, National College
Vera Adamchik, University of Houston at Victoria
Jacqueline Agesa, Marshall University
Jeff Ankrom, Wittenburg University
J. J. Arias, Georgia College & State University
James Q. Aylsworth, Lakeland Community College
Mohsen Bahmani-Oskooee, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Nina Banks, Bucknell University
John S. Banyi, Central Virginia Community College
Ruth M. Barney, Edison State Community College
Nancy Bertaux, Xavier University
John Bockino, Suffolk County Community College
T. Homer Bonitsis, New Jersey Institute of Technology
Judy Bowman, Baylor University
Jeff W. Bruns, Bacone College
Douglas N. Bunn, Western Wyoming Community College
Ron Burke, Chadron State College
Kimberly Burnett, University of Hawaii–Manoa
Tim Burson, Queens University of Charlotte
Hanas A. Cader, South Carolina State University
Raymond E. Chatterton, Lock Haven University
Hong-yi Chen, Soka University of America
FINAL THOUGHTS
I am deeply grateful for the enormous success Essentials has enjoyed. Since its first publi-
cation, it has been the dominant text in the one-semester survey course. I hope that its
brevity, content, style, and novel features will keep it at the top of the charts for years to
come. The ultimate measure of the book’s success, however, will be reflected in student
motivation and learning. As the author, I would appreciate hearing how well Essentials
lives up to that standard.
Bradley R. Schiller
xvi
Preface iv
Section I BASICS
Chapter 1 THE CHALLENGE OF ECONOMICS 2
Chapter 2 THE U.S. ECONOMY 26
Chapter 3 SUPPLY AND DEMAND 46
Section II MICROECONOMICS
Chapter 4 CONSUMER DEMAND 72
Chapter 5 SUPPLY DECISIONS 92
Chapter 6 COMPETITION 110
Chapter 7 MONOPOLY 132
Chapter 8 THE LABOR MARKET 152
Chapter 9 GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION 172
Section IV INTERNATIONAL
Chapter 16 THEORY AND REALITY 304
Chapter 17 INTERNATIONAL TRADE 324
Glossary 347
Index 351
xvii
xviii
xxiii
Source: Courtesy of Library of Congress Prints and Photograph Division
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain the meaning of scarcity.
2. 2 Define opportunity cost.
3. 3 Recite society's three core economic questions.
4. 4 Discuss how market and command economies differ.
5. 5 Describe the nature of market and government failures.
Page 3
T
he twentieth century was very good to the United States of America. At the beginning of that century, life was
hard and short. Life expectancy was only 47 years for whites and a shockingly low 33 years for blacks and other
minorities. People who survived infancy faced substantial risk of early death from tuberculosis, influenza,
pneumonia, or gastritis. Measles, syphilis, whooping cough, malaria, typhoid, and smallpox were all life
threatening diseases at the turn of the last century.
Work Then:
Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LCDIGnclc01133]
Work was a lot harder back then, too. In 1900 onethird of all U.S. families lived on farms, where the workday
began before sunrise and lasted all day. Those who lived in cities typically worked 60 hours a week for wages of
only 22 cents an hour. Hours were long, jobs were physically demanding, and workplaces were often dirty and
unsafe.
People didn't have much to show for all that work. By today's standards, nearly everyone was poor back then.
The average income per person was less than $4,000 per year (in today's dollars). Very few people had
telephones, and even fewer had cars. There were no television sets, no home freezers, no microwaves, no
dishwashers or central air conditioning, and no computers. Even indoor plumbing was a luxury. Only a small
elite went to college; an eighthgrade education was the norm.
Work Now: Technology has transformed work.
Source: © Yuri_Arcurs/Getty Images, RF
All this, of course, sounds like ancient history. Today most of us take new cars, central air and heat, remote
control TVs, flush toilets, smartphones, college attendance, and even long weekends for granted. We seldom
imagine what life would be like without the abundance of goods and services we encounter daily. Nor do we
often ponder how hard work might still be had factories, offices, and homes not been transformed by technology.
■
HOW DID WE GET SO RICH?
We ought to ponder, however, how we got so affluent. Billions of people around the world are still as poor today
as we were in 1900. How did we get so rich? Was it our high moral standards that made us rich? Was it our
religious convictions? Did politics have anything to do with it? Did extending suffrage to women, ending
prohibition, or repealing the military draft raise our living standards? Did the many wars fought in the twentieth
century enhance our material wellbeing? Was the tremendous expansion of the public sector the catalyst for
growth? Were we just lucky?
Some people say America has prospered because our nation was blessed with an abundance of natural resources.
But other countries are larger. Many others have more oil, more arable land, more gold, more people, and more
math majors. Yet few nations have prospered as much as the United States.
Students of history can't ignore the role that economic systems might have played in these developments. Way
back in 1776 the English economist Adam Smith asserted that a free market economy would best promote
economic growth and raise living standards. As he saw it, people who own a business want to make a profit. To
do so, they have to create new products, improve old ones, reduce costs and prices, and advance technology. As
this happens, the economy grows, more jobs are created, and living standards rise. Market capitalism, Adam
Smith reasoned, would foster prosperity.
Karl Marx, a German philosopher, had a very different view of market capitalism. Marx predicted that the
capitalist system of private ownership would eventually selfdestruct. The capitalists who owned the land, the
factories, and the machinery would keep wages low and their own lifestyles high. They would continue
exploiting the working class until it rose up and overthrew the social order. Longterm prosperity would be
possible only if the state owned the means of production and managed the economy—a communist system.
Subsequent history gave Adam Smith the upper hand. The “working class” that Marx worried so much about
now owned their own homes, a couple of cars, flatscreen TVs, and smartphones, and they take expensive
vacations they locate on the Internet. By contrast, the nations that adopted Marxist systems—Russia, China,
North Korea, East Germany, Cuba—fell behind more marketoriented economies. The gap in living standards
between communist and capitalist nations got so wide that communism effectively collapsed. People in those
countries wanted a different economic system—one that would deliver the goods capitalist consumers were
already enjoying. In the last decade of the twentieth century, formerly communist nations scrambled to
transform their economies from centrally planned ones to more marketoriented systems. They sought the rules,
the mechanisms, the engine that would propel their living standards upward.
Page 4
Even in the United States the quest for greater prosperity continues. As rich as we are, we always want more.
Our materialistic desires, it seems, continue to outpace our everrising incomes. We need to have the newest
iPhone, a larger TV, a bigger home, a faster car, and a more exotic vacation. People today seem to think they
need twice as much income as they have to be really happy (see News Wire “Insatiable Wants”). Even
multimillionaires say they need much more money than they already have: People with more than $10 million of
net worth say they need at least $18 million to live “comfortably.”
How can any economy keep pace with these everrising expectations? Will the economy keep churning out more
goods and services every year like some perpetual motion machine? Or will we run out of goods, basic
resources, and new technologies? Will the future bring more goods and services — or less?
THE GREAT RECESSION OF 2008–2009 Anxiety about the ability of the U.S. economy to crank out more
goods every year spiked in 2008–2009. Indeed, the economic system screeched to a halt in September 2008,
raising widespread fears about another 1930sstyle Great Depression. Things didn't turn out nearly that bad, but
millions of Americans lost their jobs, their savings, and even their homes in 2008–2009. As the output of the
U.S. economy contracted, people's faith in the capitalist system plunged. By the end of 2009, only one of four
American adults expected their income to increase in the next year. Worse yet, one of four Americans also
expected their children to have fewer goods and services in the future than people now do (see the News Wire
“Future Living Standards?”). Could that happen?
NEWS WIRE INSATIABLE WANTS
Never Enough Money!
A public opinion poll asked Americans how much money they would need each year to be “happy.” In general,
people said they needed twice as much income as they had at present to be happy.
Photo Source: © Roberto Machado Noa/Getty Images
Data Source: CNN/ORC opinion poll of May 29 June 1, 2014.
NOTE: People always want more than they have. Even multimillionaires say they don't have enough to live
“comfortably.”
Page 5
People worry not only about the resilience of the economic system but also about resource limitations. We now
depend on oil, water, and other resources to fuel our factories and irrigate our farms. What happens when we run
out of these resources? Do the factories shut down? Do the farms dry up? Does economic growth stop?
An end to world economic growth would devastate people in other nations. Most people in the world have
incomes far below American standards. A billion of the poorest inhabitants of Earth subsist on less than $3 per
day—a tiny fraction of the $75,000 a year the average U.S. family enjoys. Even in China, where incomes have
been rising rapidly, daily living standards are below those that U.S. families experienced in the Great Depression
of the 1930s. To attain current U.S. standards of affluence, these nations need economic systems that will foster
economic growth for decades to come.
Will consumers around the world get the kind of persistent economic growth the United States has enjoyed?
Will living standards here and abroad rise, stagnate, or fall in future years? To answer this question, we need to
know what makes economies “tick.” That is the foremost goal of this course. We want to know what kind of
system a “market economy” really is. How does it work? Who determines the price of a textbook in a market
economy? Who decides how many textbooks will be produced? Will everyone who needs a textbook get one?
And why are gasoline prices so high? How about jobs? Who decides how many jobs are available or what wages
they pay in a market economy? What keeps an economy growing? Or stops it in its tracks?
NEWS WIRE FUTURE LIVING STANDARDS?
Will Your Kids Be Better Off?
Question: When your children are at the age you are now, do you think their standard of living will be better,
about the same, or worse than yours is now?
Source: Gallup poll of June 2008
NOTE: Will you be better off than your parents? For living standards to keep rising, the economy must continue
to grow. Will that happen? How?
Page 6
To understand how an economy works, we have to ask and answer a lot of questions. Among the most important
are these:
What are the basic goals of an economic system?
How does a market economy address these goals?
What role should government play in shaping economic outcomes?
We won't answer all of these questions in this first chapter. But we will get a sense of what the study of
economics is all about and why the answers to these questions are so important.
HOW DID WE GET SO RICH?
We ought to ponder, however, how we got so affluent. Billions of people around the world are still as poor today
as we were in 1900. How did we get so rich? Was it our high moral standards that made us rich? Was it our
religious convictions? Did politics have anything to do with it? Did extending suffrage to women, ending
prohibition, or repealing the military draft raise our living standards? Did the many wars fought in the twentieth
century enhance our material wellbeing? Was the tremendous expansion of the public sector the catalyst for
growth? Were we just lucky?
Some people say America has prospered because our nation was blessed with an abundance of natural resources.
But other countries are larger. Many others have more oil, more arable land, more gold, more people, and more
math majors. Yet few nations have prospered as much as the United States.
Students of history can't ignore the role that economic systems might have played in these developments. Way
back in 1776 the English economist Adam Smith asserted that a free market economy would best promote
economic growth and raise living standards. As he saw it, people who own a business want to make a profit. To
do so, they have to create new products, improve old ones, reduce costs and prices, and advance technology. As
this happens, the economy grows, more jobs are created, and living standards rise. Market capitalism, Adam
Smith reasoned, would foster prosperity.
Karl Marx, a German philosopher, had a very different view of market capitalism. Marx predicted that the
capitalist system of private ownership would eventually selfdestruct. The capitalists who owned the land, the
factories, and the machinery would keep wages low and their own lifestyles high. They would continue
exploiting the working class until it rose up and overthrew the social order. Longterm prosperity would be
possible only if the state owned the means of production and managed the economy—a communist system.
Subsequent history gave Adam Smith the upper hand. The “working class” that Marx worried so much about
now owned their own homes, a couple of cars, flatscreen TVs, and smartphones, and they take expensive
vacations they locate on the Internet. By contrast, the nations that adopted Marxist systems—Russia, China,
North Korea, East Germany, Cuba—fell behind more marketoriented economies. The gap in living standards
between communist and capitalist nations got so wide that communism effectively collapsed. People in those
countries wanted a different economic system—one that would deliver the goods capitalist consumers were
already enjoying. In the last decade of the twentieth century, formerly communist nations scrambled to
transform their economies from centrally planned ones to more marketoriented systems. They sought the rules,
the mechanisms, the engine that would propel their living standards upward.
Page 4
Even in the United States the quest for greater prosperity continues. As rich as we are, we always want more.
Our materialistic desires, it seems, continue to outpace our everrising incomes. We need to have the newest
iPhone, a larger TV, a bigger home, a faster car, and a more exotic vacation. People today seem to think they
need twice as much income as they have to be really happy (see News Wire “Insatiable Wants”). Even
multimillionaires say they need much more money than they already have: People with more than $10 million of
net worth say they need at least $18 million to live “comfortably.”
How can any economy keep pace with these everrising expectations? Will the economy keep churning out more
goods and services every year like some perpetual motion machine? Or will we run out of goods, basic
resources, and new technologies? Will the future bring more goods and services — or less?
THE GREAT RECESSION OF 2008–2009 Anxiety about the ability of the U.S. economy to crank out more
goods every year spiked in 2008–2009. Indeed, the economic system screeched to a halt in September 2008,
raising widespread fears about another 1930sstyle Great Depression. Things didn't turn out nearly that bad, but
millions of Americans lost their jobs, their savings, and even their homes in 2008–2009. As the output of the
U.S. economy contracted, people's faith in the capitalist system plunged. By the end of 2009, only one of four
American adults expected their income to increase in the next year. Worse yet, one of four Americans also
expected their children to have fewer goods and services in the future than people now do (see the News Wire
“Future Living Standards?”). Could that happen?
NEWS WIRE INSATIABLE WANTS
Never Enough Money!
A public opinion poll asked Americans how much money they would need each year to be “happy.” In general,
people said they needed twice as much income as they had at present to be happy.
Photo Source: © Roberto Machado Noa/Getty Images
Data Source: CNN/ORC opinion poll of May 29 June 1, 2014.
NOTE: People always want more than they have. Even multimillionaires say they don't have enough to live
“comfortably.”
Page 5
People worry not only about the resilience of the economic system but also about resource limitations. We now
depend on oil, water, and other resources to fuel our factories and irrigate our farms. What happens when we run
out of these resources? Do the factories shut down? Do the farms dry up? Does economic growth stop?
An end to world economic growth would devastate people in other nations. Most people in the world have
incomes far below American standards. A billion of the poorest inhabitants of Earth subsist on less than $3 per
day—a tiny fraction of the $75,000 a year the average U.S. family enjoys. Even in China, where incomes have
been rising rapidly, daily living standards are below those that U.S. families experienced in the Great Depression
of the 1930s. To attain current U.S. standards of affluence, these nations need economic systems that will foster
economic growth for decades to come.
Will consumers around the world get the kind of persistent economic growth the United States has enjoyed?
Will living standards here and abroad rise, stagnate, or fall in future years? To answer this question, we need to
know what makes economies “tick.” That is the foremost goal of this course. We want to know what kind of
system a “market economy” really is. How does it work? Who determines the price of a textbook in a market
economy? Who decides how many textbooks will be produced? Will everyone who needs a textbook get one?
And why are gasoline prices so high? How about jobs? Who decides how many jobs are available or what wages
they pay in a market economy? What keeps an economy growing? Or stops it in its tracks?
NEWS WIRE FUTURE LIVING STANDARDS?
Will Your Kids Be Better Off?
Question: When your children are at the age you are now, do you think their standard of living will be better,
about the same, or worse than yours is now?
Source: Gallup poll of June 2008
NOTE: Will you be better off than your parents? For living standards to keep rising, the economy must continue
to grow. Will that happen? How?
Page 6
To understand how an economy works, we have to ask and answer a lot of questions. Among the most important
are these:
What are the basic goals of an economic system?
How does a market economy address these goals?
What role should government play in shaping economic outcomes?
We won't answer all of these questions in this first chapter. But we will get a sense of what the study of
economics is all about and why the answers to these questions are so important.
THE CENTRAL PROBLEM OF SCARCITY
The land area of the United States stretches over 3.5 million square miles. We have a population of 325 million
people, about half of whom work. We also have over $80 trillion worth of buildings and machinery. With so
many resources, the United States produces an enormous volume of output. But it is never enough: Consumers
always want more. We want not only faster cars, more clothes, and larger TVs but also more roads, better
schools, and more police protection. Why can't we have everything we want?
The answer is fairly simple: Our wants exceed our resources. As abundant as our resources might appear, they
are not capable of producing everything we want. The same kind of problem makes doing homework so painful.
You have only 24 hours in a day. You can spend it watching movies, shopping, hanging out with friends,
sleeping, tweeting, using Facebook, or doing your homework. With only 24 hours in a day, you can't do
everything you want to, however: Your time is scarce. So you must choose which activities to pursue—and
which to forgo.
Economics offers a framework for explaining how we make such choices. The goal of economic theory is to
figure out how we can use our scarce resources in the best possible way.
Consider again your decision to read this chapter right now. Hopefully, you'll get some benefit from finishing it.
You'll also incur a cost, however. The time you spend reading could be spent doing something else. You're
probably missing a good show on TV right now. Giving up that show is the opportunity cost of reading this
chapter. You have sacrificed the opportunity to watch TV in order to finish this homework. In general, whatever
you decide to do with your time will entail an opportunity cost—that is, the sacrifice of a nextbest alternative.
The rational thing to do is to weigh the benefits of doing your homework against the implied opportunity cost
and then make a choice.
The larger society faces a similar dilemma. For the larger economy, time is also limited. So, too, are the
resources needed to produce desired goods and services. To get more houses, more cars, or more movies, we
need not only time but also resources to produce these things. These resources—land, labor, capital, and
entrepreneurship—are the basic ingredients of production. They are called factors of production. The more
factors of production we have, the more we can produce in a given period of time.
As we've already noted, our available resources always fall short of our output desires. The central problem here
again is scarcity, a situation where our desires for goods and services exceed our capacity to produce them.
THE CENTRAL PROBLEM OF SCARCITY
The land area of the United States stretches over 3.5 million square miles. We have a population of 325 million
people, about half of whom work. We also have over $80 trillion worth of buildings and machinery. With so
many resources, the United States produces an enormous volume of output. But it is never enough: Consumers
always want more. We want not only faster cars, more clothes, and larger TVs but also more roads, better
schools, and more police protection. Why can't we have everything we want?
The answer is fairly simple: Our wants exceed our resources. As abundant as our resources might appear, they
are not capable of producing everything we want. The same kind of problem makes doing homework so painful.
You have only 24 hours in a day. You can spend it watching movies, shopping, hanging out with friends,
sleeping, tweeting, using Facebook, or doing your homework. With only 24 hours in a day, you can't do
everything you want to, however: Your time is scarce. So you must choose which activities to pursue—and
which to forgo.
Economics offers a framework for explaining how we make such choices. The goal of economic theory is to
figure out how we can use our scarce resources in the best possible way.
Consider again your decision to read this chapter right now. Hopefully, you'll get some benefit from finishing it.
You'll also incur a cost, however. The time you spend reading could be spent doing something else. You're
probably missing a good show on TV right now. Giving up that show is the opportunity cost of reading this
chapter. You have sacrificed the opportunity to watch TV in order to finish this homework. In general, whatever
you decide to do with your time will entail an opportunity cost—that is, the sacrifice of a nextbest alternative.
The rational thing to do is to weigh the benefits of doing your homework against the implied opportunity cost
and then make a choice.
The larger society faces a similar dilemma. For the larger economy, time is also limited. So, too, are the
resources needed to produce desired goods and services. To get more houses, more cars, or more movies, we
need not only time but also resources to produce these things. These resources—land, labor, capital, and
entrepreneurship—are the basic ingredients of production. They are called factors of production. The more
factors of production we have, the more we can produce in a given period of time.
As we've already noted, our available resources always fall short of our output desires. The central problem here
again is scarcity, a situation where our desires for goods and services exceed our capacity to produce them.
THREE BASIC ECONOMIC QUESTIONS
The central problem of scarcity forces every society to make difficult choices. Specifically, every nation must
resolve three critical questions about the use of its scarce resources:
WHAT to produce.
HOW to produce.
FOR WHOM to produce.
Page 7
We first examine the nature of each question and then look at how different countries answer these three basic
questions.
WHAT to Produce
The WHAT question is quite simple. We've already noted that there isn't enough time in the day to do everything
you want to. You must decide what to do with your time. The economy confronts a similar question: There aren't
enough resources in the economy to produce all the goods and services society desires. Because wants exceed
resources, we have to decide WHAT goods and services we want most, sacrificing less desired products.
PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES Figure 1.1 illustrates this basic dilemma. Suppose there are only two kinds
of goods, “consumer goods” and “military goods.” In this case, the question of WHAT to produce boils down to
finding the most desirable combination of these two goods.
FIGURE 1.1
FIGURE 1.1 A Production Possibilities CurveA production possibilities curve describes the various
combinations of final goods or services that could be produced in a given time period with available resources
and technology. It represents a menu of output choices.
Point C indicates that we could produce a combination of OD units of consumer goods and the quantity OE of
military output. To get more military output (e.g., at point X), we have to reduce consumer output (from OD to
OF).
We must decide what to produce (i.e., pick a point on the production possibilities curve). Our goal is to select the
best possible mix of output.
To make that selection, we first need to know how much of each good we could produce. That will depend in
part on how many resources we have available. The first thing we need to do, then, is count our factors of
production.
The factors of production include the following:
Land (including natural resources).
Labor (number and skills of workers).
Capital (machinery, buildings, networks).
Entrepreneurship (skill in creating products, services, and processes).
The more we have of these factors, the more output we can produce. Technology is also critical. The more
advanced our technological and managerial abilities, the more output we will be able to produce with available
factors of production. If we inventoried all our resources and technology, we could figure out what the physical
limits to production are.
Page 8
To simplify the computation, suppose we wanted to produce only consumer goods. How much could we
produce? Surely not an infinite amount. With limited stocks of land, labor, capital, and technology, output would
have a finite limit. The limit is represented by point A in Figure 1.1. That is to say, the vertical distance from the
origin (point O) to point A represents the maximum quantity of consumer goods that could be produced this year.
To produce the quantity A of consumer goods, we would have to use all available factors of production. At point
A no resources would be available for producing military goods. The choice of maximum consumer output
implies zero military output.
We could make other choices about WHAT to produce. Point B illustrates another extreme. The horizontal
distance from the origin (point O) to point B represents our maximum capacity to produce military goods. To get
that much military output, we would have to devote all available resources to that single task. At point B, we
wouldn't be producing any consumer goods. We would be well protected but ill nourished and poorly clothed
(wearing last year's clothes).
Our choices about WHAT to produce are not limited to the extremes of points A and B. We could instead
produce a combination of consumer and military goods. Point C represents one such combination. To get to
point C, we have to forsake maximum consumer goods output (point A) and use some of our scarce resources to
produce military goods. At point C we are producing only OD of consumer goods and OE of military goods.
Point C is just one of many combinations we could produce. We could produce any combination of output
represented by points along the curve in Figure 1.1. For this reason we call it the production possibilities curve;
it represents the alternative combinations of goods and services that could be produced in a given time period
with all available resources and technology. It is, in effect, an economic menu from which one specific
combination of goods and services must be selected.
The production possibilities curve puts the basic issue of WHAT to produce in graphic terms. The same choices
can be depicted in numerical terms as well. Table 1.1, for example, illustrates specific tradeoffs between missile
production and home construction. The output mix A allocates all resources to home construction, leaving
nothing to produce missiles. If missiles are desired, the level of home construction must be cut back. To produce
50 missiles (mix B), home construction activity must be cut back to 90. Output mixes C through F illustrate
other possible choices. Notice that every time we increase missile production (moving from A to F), house
construction must be reduced. The question of WHAT to produce boils down to choosing one specific mix of
output—a specific combination of missiles and houses.
TABLE 1.1
TABLE 1.1 Specific Production Possibilities
The choice of WHAT to produce eventually boils down to specific goods and services. Here the choices are
defined in terms of missiles or houses. More missiles can be produced only if some resources are diverted from
home construction. Only one of these output combinations can be produced in a given time period. Selecting
that mix is a basic economic issue.
THE CHOICES NATIONS MAKE No single point on the production possibilities curve is best for all nations
at all times. In the United States, the share of total output devoted to “guns” has varied greatly. During World
War II, we converted auto plants to produce military vehicles. Clothing manufacturers cut way back on
consumer clothing in order to produce more uniforms for the army, navy, and air force. The government also
drafted 12 million men to bear arms. By shifting resources from the production of consumer goods to the
production of military goods, we were able to move down along the production possibilities curve in Figure 1.1
toward point X. By 1944 fully 40 percent of all our output consisted of military goods. Consumer goods were so
scarce that everything from butter to golf balls had to be rationed.
Page 9
Figure 1.2 illustrates that rapid military buildup during World War II. The figure also illustrates how quickly we
reallocated factors of production to consumer goods after the war ended. By 1948 less than 4 percent of U.S.
output was military goods. We had moved close to point A in Figure 1.1.
FIGURE 1.2
FIGURE 1.2 Military Share of Total U.S. OutputThe share of total output devoted to national defense has risen
sharply in war years and fallen in times of peace. The defense buildup of the 1980s increased the military share
to more than 6 percent of total output. The end of the Cold War reversed that buildup, releasing resources for
other uses (the peace dividend). The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington,
DC, altered the WHAT choice again, increasing the military's share of total output.
Source: Congressional Research Service
PEACE DIVIDENDS We changed the mix of output dramatically again to fight the Korean War. In 1953
military output absorbed nearly 15 percent of America's total production. That would amount to nearly $2
trillion of annual defense spending in today's dollars and output levels. We're not spending anywhere near that
kind of military money, however. After the Korean War, the share of U.S. output allocated to the military
trended sharply downward. Despite the buildup for the Vietnam War (1966–1968), the share of output devoted
to “guns” fell from 15 percent in 1953 to a low of 3 percent in 2001. In the process, the U.S. armed forces were
reduced by nearly 600,000 personnel. As those personnel found civilian jobs, they increased consumer output.
That increase in nonmilitary output is called the peace dividend.
THE COST OF WAR The 9/11 terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, DC, moved the mix of
output in the opposite direction. Military spending increased by 50 percent in the three years after 9/11. The
wars in Iraq and Afghanistan absorbed even more resources. The economic cost of those efforts is measured in
lost consumer output. The money spent by the government on war might otherwise have been spent on schools,
highways, or other nondefense projects. The National Guard personnel called up for the war would otherwise
have stayed home and produced consumer goods (including disaster relief). These costs of war are illustrated in
Figure 1.3. Notice how consumer goods output declines (from C1 to C2) when military output increases (from
M1 to M2).
FIGURE 1.3
FIGURE 1.3 The Cost of WarAn increase in military output absorbs factors of production that could be used to
produce consumer goods. The military buildup associated with the move from point R to point S reduces
consumption output from C1 to C2.
The economic cost of war is measured by the implied reduction in nondefense output (“less butter”).
Page 10
In some countries the opportunity cost of military output seems far too high. North Korea, for example, has the
fourth largest army in the world. Yet North Korea is a relatively small country. Consequently it must allocate a
huge share of its resources to feed, clothe, and arm its military. As Figure 1.4 illustrates, nearly 15 percent of
North Korean output consists of military goods and services. That compares with a military share of only 3.8
percent in the United States.
FIGURE 1.4
FIGURE 1.4 The Military Share of OutputThe share of output allocated to the military indicates the opportunity
cost of maintaining an army. North Korea has the highest cost, using nearly 15 percent of its resources for
military purposes. Although China's army is twice as large, its military share of output is much smaller (2.1
percent).
Source: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency and World Bank (2010–2014 data)
Page 11
NEWS WIRE OPPORTUNITY COST
North Korea's Rockets Deepen Food Crisis
North Korea's rocket program is costly. In December 2012 North Korea successfully launched a longrange
rocket carrying a satellite into space. That feat cost $300 million. The entire cost of the rocket program last year
—including the failed launch in April—totaled about $1.3 billion, according to estimates by experts in South
Korea. With that much money North Korea could have purchased 4.6 million tons of corn—enough to feed its
population for 4–5 years. North Korea's ambitious nuclear program costs nearly triple that amount. The burden
of North Korea's military program is evident in the country's widespread poverty and periodic starvation.
Source: News accounts of December 2012 – January 2013.
NOTE: North Korea's inability to feed itself is due in part to its large army and missile program. Resources used
for the military aren't available for producing food.
North Korea's military has a high price tag. North Korea is a very poor country, with output per capita in the
neighborhood of $1,000 per year. That is substantially less than the American standard of living was in 1900 and
a tiny fraction of today's U.S. output per capita (around $50,000). Although onethird of North Korea's
population lives on farms, the country cannot grow enough food to feed its population. The farm sector needs
more machinery, seeds, and fertilizer; bettertrained labor; and improved irrigation systems. So long as the
military absorbs oneseventh of total output, however, North Korea can't afford to modernize its farm sector. The
implied shortfall in food and other consumer goods is the opportunity cost of a large military sector (see News
Wire “Opportunity Cost”).
THE BEST POSSIBLE MIX Ultimately the designation of any particular mix of output as “best” rests on the
value judgments of a society. A militaristic society would prefer a mix of output closer to point B in Figure 1.1.
By contrast, Iceland has no military and so produces at point A. In general, one specific mix of output is optimal
for a country—that is, a mix that represents the best possible allocation of resources across competing uses.
Locating and producing that optimal mix of output is the essence of the WHAT challenge.
The same desire for an optimal mix of output drives your decisions on the use of scarce time. There is only one
best way to use your time on any given day. If you use your time in that way, you will maximize your well
being. Other uses won't necessarily kill you, but they won't do you as much good.
ECONOMIC GROWTH The selection of an optimal mix depends in part on how futureoriented one is. If you
had no concern for future jobs or income, there would be little point in doing homework now. You might as well
play all day if you're that presentoriented. On the other hand, if you value future jobs and income, it makes
sense to allocate some present time to studying. Then you'll have more human capital (knowledge and skills)
later to pursue job opportunities.
What else might these North Korean women be producing?
Source: © AP Images/KATSUMI KASAHARA
The larger society confronts the same choice between present and future consumption. We could use all our
resources to produce consumer goods this year. If we did, however, there wouldn't be any factors of production
available to build machinery, factories, or telecommunications networks. Yet these are the kinds of investment
that enhance our capacity to produce. If we want the economy to keep growing—and our living standards to rise
—we must allocate some of our scarce resources to investment rather than current consumption. The resultant
economic growth will expand our production possibilities outward, allowing us to produce more goods in future
years. The phenomenon of economic growth is illustrated in Figure 1.5 by the outward shift of the production
possibilities curve. Such shifts occur when we acquire more resources (e.g., more machinery) or better
technology. Our decision about WHAT to produce must take future growth into account.
Page 12
FIGURE 1.5
FIGURE 1.5 Economic GrowthSince 1900 the U.S. population has quadrupled. Investment in machinery and
buildings has increased our capital stock even faster. These additional factors of production, together with
advancing technology, have expanded (shifted outward) our production possibilities.
HOW to Produce
The second basic economic question concerns HOW we produce output. Should this class be taught in an
auditorium or in small discussion sections? Should it meet twice a week or only once? Should the instructor
make more use of computer aids? Should, heaven forbid, this textbook be replaced with online text files? There
are numerous ways of teaching a course. Of these many possibilities, one way is presumably best, given the
resources and technology available. That best way is HOW we want the course taught. Educational researchers
and a good many instructors spend a lot of time trying to figure out the best way of teaching a course.
Pig farmers do the same thing. They know they can fatten pigs up with a lot of different grains and other food.
They can also vary breeding patterns, light exposure, and heat. They can use more labor in the feeder process or
more machinery. Faced with so many choices, pig farmers try to find the best way of raising pigs.
Should pig farmers be free to breed pigs and to dispose of waste in any way they desire? Or should the
government regulate how pigs are produced?
Source: Bob Nichols/Natural Resources Conservation Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture
The HOW question isn't just an issue of getting more output from available inputs. It also encompasses our use
of the environment. Should the waste from pig farms be allowed to contaminate the air, groundwater, or local
waterways? Or do we want to keep the water clean for other uses? Humanitarian concerns may also come into
play. Should live pigs be processed without any concern for their welfare? Or should the processing be designed
to minimize trauma? The HOW question encompasses all such issues. Although people may hold different
views on these questions, everyone shares a common goal: to find an optimal method of producing goods and
services. The best possible answer to the HOW question will entail both efficiency in the use of factors of
production and adequate safeguards for the environment and other social concerns. Our goal is to find that
answer.
Page 13
FOR WHOM to Produce
The third basic economic question every society must confront is FOR WHOM? The answers to the WHAT and
HOW questions determine how large an economic pie we'll bake and how we'll bake it. Then we have to slice it
up. Should everyone get an equal slice of the pie? Or can some people have big pieces of the pie while others get
only crumbs? In other words, the FOR WHOM question focuses on how an economy's output is distributed
across members of society.
A pie can be divided up in many ways. Personally, I like a distribution that gives me a big slice even if that
leaves less for others. Maybe you feel the same way. Whatever your feelings, however, there is likely to be a lot
of disagreement about what distribution is best. Maybe we should just give everyone an equal slice. But should
everyone get an equal slice even if some people helped bake the pie while others contributed nothing? The Little
Red Hen of the children's fable felt perfectly justified eating all the bread she made herself after her friends and
neighbors refused to help sow the seeds, harvest the grain, or bake it. Should such a workbased sense of equity
determine how all goods are distributed?
Karl Marx's communist vision of utopia entailed a very different FOR WHOM answer. The communist ideal is
“From each according to his ability, to each according to his need.” In that vision, all pitch in to bake the pie
according to their abilities. Slices of the pie are distributed, however, based on need (hunger, desire) rather than
on productive contributions. In a communal utopia there is no direct link between work and consumption.
INCENTIVES There is a risk entailed in distributing slices of the pie based on need rather than work effort.
People who work hard to bake the pie may feel cheated if nonworkers get just as large a slice. Worse still,
people may decide to exert less effort if they see no tangible reward to working. If that happens, the size of the
pie may shrink, and everyone will be worse off.
This is the kind of problem income transfer programs create. Governmentpaid income transfers (e.g., welfare,
unemployment benefits, Social Security) are intended to provide a slice of the pie to people who don't have
enough income to satisfy basic needs. As benefits rise, however, the incentive to work diminishes. If people
choose welfare checks over paychecks, total output will decline.
The same problem emerges in the tax system. If Paul is heavily taxed to provide welfare benefits to Peter, Paul
may decide that hard work and entrepreneurship don't pay. To the extent that taxes discourage work, production,
or investment, they shrink the size of the pie that feeds all of us.
The potential tradeoffs between taxes, income transfers, and work don't compel us to dismantle all tax and
welfare programs. They do emphasize, however, how difficult it is to select the right answer to the FOR WHOM
question. The optimal distribution of income must satisfy our sense of fairness as well as our desire for more
output.
THE MECHANISMS OF CHOICE
By now, two things should be apparent. First, every society has to make choices about WHAT, HOW, and FOR
WHOM to produce. Second, those choices are difficult. Every choice involves conflicts and tradeoffs. More of
one good implies less of another. A more efficient production process may pollute the environment. Helping the
poor may dull work incentives. In every case, society has to weigh the alternatives and try to find the best
possible answer to each question.
How does “society” actually make such choices? What are the mechanisms we use to decide WHAT to produce,
HOW, and FOR WHOM?
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The Political Process
Many of these basic economic decisions are made through the political process. Consider again the decision to
increase the military share of output after 9/11. Who made that decision? Not me. Not you. Not the mass of
consumers who were streaming through real and virtual malls. No, the decisions on military buildups and
builddowns are made in the political arena: the U.S. Congress makes those decisions. Congress also makes
decisions about how many interstate highways to build, how many Head Start classes to offer, and how much
space exploration to pursue.
Should all decisions about WHAT to produce be made in the political arena? Should Congress also decide how
much ice cream will be produced and how many DVRs? What about essentials like food and shelter? Should
decisions about the production of those goods be made in Washington, DC, or should the mix of output be
selected some other way?
The Market Mechanism
The market mechanism offers an alternative decisionmaking process. In a marketdriven economy the process
of selecting a mix of output is as familiar as grocery shopping. If you desire ice cream and have sufficient
income, you simply buy ice cream. Your purchases signal to producers that ice cream is desired. By expressing
the ability and willingness to pay for ice cream, you are telling ice cream producers that their efforts are going to
be rewarded. If enough consumers feel the same way you do—and are able and willing to pay the price of ice
cream—ice cream producers will churn out more ice cream.
The same kind of interaction helps determine which crops we grow. There is only so much good farmland
available. Should we grow corn or beans? If consumers prefer corn, they will buy more corn and shun the beans.
Farmers will quickly get the market's message and devote more of their land to corn, cutting back on bean
production. In the process, the mix of output will change—moving us closer to the choice consumers have
made.
The central actor in this reshuffling of resources and outputs is the market mechanism. Market sales and
prices send a signal to producers about what mix of output consumers want. If you want something and have
sufficient income, you buy it. If enough people do the same thing, total sales of that product will rise, and
perhaps its price will as well. Producers, seeing sales and prices rise, will want to increase production. To do so,
they will acquire more resources and use them to change the mix of output. No direct communication between
us and the producer is required; we don't need Twitter or Facebook to get our message transmitted. Instead,
market sales and prices convey the message and direct the market, much like an “invisible hand.”
It was this ability of “the market” to select a desirable mix of output that so impressed the eighteenthcentury
economist Adam Smith. He argued that nations would prosper with less government interference and more
reliance on the invisible hand of the marketplace. As he saw it, markets were efficient mechanisms for deciding
what goods to produce, how to produce them, and even what wages to pay. Smith's writings (The Wealth of
Nations, 1776) urged government to pursue a policy of laissez faire—leaving the market alone to make basic
economic decisions.
Central Planning
Karl Marx saw things differently. In his view, a freewheeling marketplace would cater to the whims of the rich
and neglect the needs of the poor. Workers would be exploited by industrial barons and great landowners. To
“leave it to the market,” as Smith had proposed, would encourage exploitation. In the midnineteenth century,
Karl Marx proposed a radical alternative: Overturn the power of the elite and create a communist state in which
everyone's needs would be fulfilled. Marx's writings (Das Kapital, 1867) encouraged communist revolutions
and the development of central planning systems. The (people's) government, not the market, assumed
responsibility for deciding what goods were produced, at what prices they were sold, and even who got them.
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Central planning is still the principal mechanism of choice in some countries. In North Korea and Cuba, for
example, the central planners decide how many cars and how much bread to produce. They then assign workers
and other resources to those industries to implement their decisions. They also decide who will get the bread and
the cars that are produced. Individuals cannot own factors of production or even employ other workers for
wages. The WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM outcomes are all directed by the central government.
Mixed Economies
Few countries still depend so fully on central planners (government) to make basic economic decisions. China,
Russia, and other formerly communist nations have turned over many decisions to the market mechanism.
Likewise, no nation relies exclusively on markets to fashion economic outcomes. In the United States, for
example, we let the market decide how much ice cream will be produced and how many cars. We use the
political process, however, to decide how many highways to construct, how many schools to build, and how
much military output to produce.
Because most nations use a combination of government directives and market mechanisms to determine
economic outcomes, they are called mixed economies. There is huge variation in that mix, however. The
governmentdominated economic systems in North Korea, Cuba, Laos, and Libya are starkly different from the
freewheeling economies of Singapore, Bahrain, New Zealand, and the United States.
WHAT ECONOMICS IS ALL ABOUT
The different economic systems employed around the world are all intended to give the right answers to the
WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions. It is apparent, however, that they don't always succeed. We have too
much poverty and too much pollution. There are often too few jobs and pitifully small paychecks. A third of the
world's population still lives in abject poverty.
Economists try to explain how these various outcomes emerge. Why are some nations so much more prosperous
than others? What forces cause economic downturns in both rich and poor nations? What causes prices to go up
and down so often? How can economies grow without destroying the environment?
Market Failure
In studying these questions, economists recognize that neither markets nor governments always have the right
answers. On the contrary, we know that a completely private market economy can give us the wrong answers to
the WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions on occasion. A completely free market economy might produce
too many luxury cars and too few hospitals. Unregulated producers might destroy the environment. A
freewheeling market economy might neglect the needs of the poor. When the market mechanism gives us these
kinds of suboptimal answers, we say the market has failed. Market failure occurs when the market mechanism
does not generate the best possible (optimal) answers to the WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions.
An unregulated market might generate too much pollution. Such a market failure requires government
intervention.
Source: © Patrick Clark/Getty Images, RF
Government Failure
When market failure occurs, there is usually a call for the government to “fix” the failure. This may or may not
be a good response. Government intervention doesn't always work out so well. Indeed, economists warn that
government intervention can fail as well. Government failure occurs when intervention fails to improve—or
actually worsens—economic outcomes. The possibility of government failure is sufficient warning that there is
no guarantee that the visible hand of government will be any better than the invisible hand of the
marketplace.
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Economists try to figure out when markets work well and when they are likely to fail. We also try to predict
whether specific government interventions will improve economic outcomes—or make them worse.
Macro versus Micro
The study of economics is typically divided into two parts: macroeconomics and microeconomics.
Macroeconomics focuses on the behavior of an entire economy—the big picture. In macroeconomics we study
such national goals as full employment, control of inflation, and economic growth, without worrying about the
wellbeing or behavior of specific individuals or groups. The essential concern of macroeconomics is to
understand and improve the performance of the economy as a whole.
Microeconomics is concerned with the details of this big picture. In microeconomics we focus on the
individuals, firms, and government agencies that actually make up the larger economy. Our interest here is in the
behavior of individual economic actors. What are their goals? How can they best achieve these goals with their
limited resources? How will they respond to various incentives and opportunities?
A primary concern of macroeconomics, for example, is to determine the impact of aggregate consumer spending
on total output, employment, and prices. Very little attention is devoted to the actual content of consumer
spending or its determinants. Microeconomics, on the other hand, focuses on the specific expenditure decisions
of individual consumers and the forces (tastes, prices, incomes) that influence those decisions.
The distinction between macro and microeconomics is also reflected in discussions of business investment. In
macroeconomics we want to know what determines the aggregate rate of business investment and how those
expenditures influence the nation's total output, employment, and prices. In microeconomics we focus on the
decisions of individual businesses regarding the rate of production, the choice of factors of production, and the
pricing of specific goods.
The distinction between macro and microeconomics is a matter of convenience. In reality, macroeconomic
outcomes depend on micro behavior, and micro behavior is affected by macro outcomes. Hence we cannot fully
understand how an economy works until we understand how all the participants behave and why they behave as
they do. But just as you can drive a car without knowing how its engine is constructed, you can observe how an
economy runs without completely disassembling it. In macroeconomics we observe that the car goes faster when
the accelerator is depressed and that it slows when the brake is applied. That is all we need to know in most
situations. There are times, however, when the car breaks down. When it does, we have to know something
more about how the pedals work. This leads us into micro studies. How does each part work? Which ones can or
should be fixed?
Theory versus Reality
The distinction between macroeconomics and microeconomics is one of many simplifications we make in
studying economic behavior. The economy is much too vast and complex to describe and explain in one course
(or one lifetime). Accordingly, we focus on basic relationships, ignoring unnecessary detail. What this means is
that we formulate theories, or models, of economic behavior and then use those theories to evaluate and design
economic policy.
The economic models that economists use to explain market behavior are like maps. To get from New York to
Los Angeles, you don't need to know all the details of topography that lie between those two cities. Knowing
where the interstate highways are is probably enough. An interstate route map therefore provides enough
information to get you to your destination.
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The same kind of simplification is used in economic models of consumer behavior. Such models assert that
when the price of a good increases, consumers will buy less of it. In reality, however, people may buy more of a
good at increased prices, especially if those high prices create a certain snob appeal or if prices are expected to
increase still further. In predicting consumer responses to price increases, we typically ignore such possibilities
by assuming that the price of the good in question is the only thing that changes. This assumption of “other
things remaining equal (unchanged)” (in Latin, ceteris paribus) allows us to make straightforward predictions. If
instead we described consumer responses to increased prices in any and all circumstances (allowing everything
to change at once), every prediction would be accompanied by a book full of exceptions and qualifications. We
would look more like lawyers than economists.
Although the assumption of ceteris paribus makes it easier to formulate economic theory and policy, it also
increases the risk of error. Obviously, if other things do change in significant ways, our predictions (and
policies) may fail. But like weather forecasters, we continue to make predictions, knowing that occasional
failure is inevitable. In so doing, we are motivated by the conviction that it is better to be approximately right
than to be dead wrong.
Politics versus Economics
Politicians cannot afford to be quite so complacent about predictions. Policy decisions must be made every day.
And a politician's continued tenure in office may depend on being more than approximately right. Economists
contribute to those policy decisions by offering measures of economic impact and predictions of economic
behavior. But in the real world, those measures and predictions always contain a substantial margin of error.
Even if the future were known, economic policy could not rely completely on economic theory. There are
always political choices to be made. The choice of more consumer goods (“butter”) or more military hardware
(“guns”), for example, is not an economic decision. Rather it is a sociopolitical decision based in part on
economic tradeoffs (opportunity costs). The “need” for more butter or more guns must be expressed politically
—ends versus means again. Political forces are a necessary ingredient in economic policy decisions. That is not
to say that all political decisions are right. It does suggest, however, that economic policies may not always
conform to economic theory.
Both politics and economics are involved in the continuing debate regarding the merits of a laissez faire
approach versus government intervention. The pendulum has swung from laissez faire (Adam Smith) to central
government control (Karl Marx) and to an illdefined middle ground where the government assumes major
responsibilities for economic stability (John Maynard Keynes) and for answers to the WHAT, HOW, and FOR
WHOM questions. In the 1980s the Reagan administration pushed the pendulum a bit closer to laissez faire by
cutting taxes, reducing government regulation, and encouraging market incentives.
President Clinton thought the government should play a more active role in resolving basic economic issues. His
“Vision for America” spelled out a bigger role for government in ensuring health care, providing skills training,
protecting the environment, and regulating working conditions. In this vision, wellintentioned government
officials could correct market failures. President George W. Bush favored less government intervention and
more reliance on the market mechanism. President Obama moved the pendulum back: He made it clear that he
believed more government intervention and less market reliance were needed to attain the right WHAT, HOW,
and FOR WHOM answers. The debate over market reliance versus government intervention again heated up in
the 2016 presidential campaign, especially on issues of health care, job protection, and climate change.
The debate over markets versus government persists in part because of gaps in our economic understanding. For
over 200 years economists have been arguing about what makes the economy tick. None of the competing
theories have performed spectacularly well. Indeed, few economists have successfully predicted major economic
events with any consistency. Even annual forecasts of inflation, unemployment, and output are regularly in error.
Worse still, there are neverending arguments about what caused a major economic event long after it occurred.
In fact, economists are still arguing over the causes of not only the Great Recession of 2008–2009 but even the
Great Depression of the 1930s! Did government failure or market failure cause and deepen those economic
setbacks?
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Modest Expectations
In view of all these debates and uncertainties, you should not expect to learn everything there is to know about
the economy in this text or course. Our goals are more modest. We want you to develop some perspective on
economic behavior and an understanding of basic principles. With this foundation, you should acquire a better
view of how the economy works. Daily news reports on economic events should make more sense. Political
debates on tax and budget policies should take on more meaning. You may even develop some insights that you
can apply toward running a business or planning a career.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Is “Free” Health Care Really Free?
Everyone wants more and better health care, and nearly everyone agrees that even the poorest members of
society need reliable access to doctors and hospitals. That's why President Obama made health care reform such
a high priority in his first presidential year.
Although the political debate over health care reform was intense and multidimensional, the economics of health
care are fairly simple. In essence, President Obama wanted to expand the health care industry. He wanted to
increase access for the millions of Americans who didn't have health insurance and raise the level of service for
people with low incomes and preexisting illnesses. He wasn't proposing to reduce health care for those who
already had adequate care. Thus his reform proposals entailed a net increase in health care services.
Were health care a free good, everyone would have welcomed President Obama's reforms. But the most
fundamental concept in economics is this: There is no free lunch. Resources used to prepare and serve even a
“free” lunch could be used to produce something else. So it is with health care. The resources used to expand
health care services could be used to produce something else. The opportunity costs of expanded health care are
the other goods we could have produced (and consumed) with the same resources.
Source: © Photodisc/Getty Images, RF
Figure 1.6 illustrates the basic policy dilemma. In 2009 health care services absorbed about 16 percent of total
U.S. output. So the mix of output resembled point X1, where H1 amount of health care is produced and O1 of
other goods. At H1 millions of Americans had no health insurance and were not receiving adequate care. So,
President Obama wanted to increase health care access and services. His goal was to increase the quantity of
health services from H1 to H2.
FIGURE 1.6
FIGURE 1.6 No Free Health CareHealth care absorbs resources that can be used to produce other goods.
Increasing health care services from H1 to H2 requires a reduction in other goods from O1 to O2.
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If health care were a free good, no one would object to raising the quantity of health care from H1 to H2. But
health care isn't a free good: It absorbs resources that could be used to produce other goods. We can't move the
mix of output from X1 to X2 (i.e., get more health care without giving up other goods). The production
possibilities curve tells us we can get more health care only by reducing the output of other goods (i.e., by
moving from the output mix X1 to the mix X3). At X3 we have more health care (H2) but fewer other goods (O2)
than we had before. That's the policy dilemma. What other goods will be sacrificed and who will absorb the
loss? The Affordable Care Act of 2010 imposed taxes and fees that reduced consumer incomes and thereby
forced reductions in the purchase and production of “other goods.” That's the kind of tradeoff that triggers
political debate and makes decisions about WHAT to produce so difficult.
SUMMARY
Every nation confronts the three basic economic questions of WHAT to produce, HOW, and FOR
WHOM. LO3
The need to select a single mix of output (WHAT) is necessitated by our limited capacity to produce.
Scarcity results when our wants exceed our resources. LO1
The production possibilities curve illustrates the limits to output dictated by available factors of
production and technology. Points on the curve represent the different output mixes that we may choose.
LO1
All production entails an opportunity cost: We can produce more of output A only if we produce less of
output B. The implied reduction in output B is the opportunity cost of output A. LO2
The HOW question focuses on the choice of what inputs to use in production. It also encompasses choices
made about environmental protection. LO3
The FOR WHOM question concerns the distribution of output among members of society. LO3
The goal of every society is to select the best possible (optimal) answers to the WHAT, HOW, and FOR
WHOM questions. The optimal answers will vary with social values and production capabilities. LO3
The three questions can be answered by the market mechanism, by a system of central planning, or by a
mixed system of market signals and government intervention. LO4
Price signals are the key feature of the market mechanism. Consumers signal their desires for specific
goods by paying a price for those goods. Producers respond to the price signal by assembling factors of
production to produce the desired output. LO4
Market failure occurs when the market mechanism generates the wrong mix of output, undesirable
methods of production, or an inequitable distribution of income. Government intervention may fail, too,
however, by not improving (or even worsening) economic outcomes. LO5
The study of economics focuses on the broad question of resource allocation. Macroeconomics is
concerned with allocating the resources of an entire economy to achieve broad economic goals (e.g., full
employment). Microeconomics focuses on the behavior and goals of individual market participants. LO3
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
economics
opportunity cost
factors of production
scarcity
production possibilities
investment
economic growth
market mechanism
laissez faire
mixed economy
market failure
government failure
macroeconomics
microeconomics
ceteris paribus
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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. As rich as America is, how can our resources possibly be “scarce”? LO1
2. What opportunity costs did you incur in reading this chapter? LO2
3. How would you answer the question in the News Wire “Future Living Standards”? Why? LO3
4. Why might it be necessary to reduce consumer spending in order to attain faster economic growth? Would
it be worth the sacrifice? LO2
5. In a purely private market economy, how is the FOR WHOM question answered? Is that optimal? LO3
6. Why doesn't North Korea reduce its military and put more resources into food production (News Wire
“Opportunity Cost”)? What is the optimal mix of “guns” and “butter” for a nation? LO3
7. If taxes on the rich were raised to provide more housing for the poor, how would the willingness to work
be affected? What would happen to total output? LO3
8. What kind of knowledge must central planners possess to manage an economy efficiently? LO4
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why can't we produce at point X2 in Figure 1.6? Will we ever get there?
LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES How was the FOR WHOM question affected by the Affordable Care Act?
LO3
PROBLEMS
1. Iceland has no military. (a) So, at what point in Figure 1.1 is Iceland producing? (b) If Iceland decided to
produce the quantity OE of military goods, how much consumer output would it have to give up? LO2
2. What percentage of total U.S. output consisted of military goods LO2
1. in 1944? (Figure 1.2)
2. in 2014? (Figure 1.2)
3. Draw a production possibilities curve based on Table 1.1, labeling combinations A–F. What is the
opportunity cost of increasing missile production LO2
1. From 0 to 50?
2. From 50 to 100?
4. Assume that it takes four hours of labor time to paint a room and two hours to sand a floor. If all 24 hours
were spent painting, (a) How many rooms could be painted by one worker? (b) If a decision were made to
sand two floors, how many painted rooms would have to be given up? (c) Illustrate with a production
possibilities curve. LO1
5. Assume that it takes four hours of labor time to paint a room and two hours to sand a floor. If two workers
each spend 24 hours painting, (a) How many rooms could be painted by both workers? (b) If a decision
were made to only sand floors, how many floors could be sanded? (c) Illustrate with a production
possibilities curve. LO2
6. North Korea has a population of 25 million people, of whom 1.1 million are in the military. South Korea
has an army of 650,000 out of a population of 49 million. What percentage of the population is in the
military in LO2
1. North Korea?
2. South Korea?
7. The table below describes the production possibilities confronting an economy. Using that information:
LO3
1. Calculate the opportunity costs of building hospitals.
2. Draw the production possibilities curve.
3. Why can't more of both outputs be produced?
4. Which point on the curve is the most desired one?
8. In 2014 the dollar value of total output was roughly $40 billion in North Korea and $1,600 billion in
South Korea. South Korea devotes 2.7 percent of its output to defense and North Korea devotes 14.8
percent of its output to defense. (a) Compute how much North Korea spends on its military. (b) Which
nation spends more, in absolute dollars? LO3
9. According to the News Wire “Opportunity Cost,” what is the opportunity cost of North Korea's rocket
program in terms of corn for North Korea's 25 million people? LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES In Figure 1.6, (a) If as much health care as possible is provided, how many
other goods will be provided? (b) What is the opportunity cost of increasing health care from H1 to H2?
LO5
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11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Suppose the following data reflect the production possibilities for providing
health care and education:
1. Graph the production possibilities curve.
2. If maximum health care is provided, how much education will be provided?
3. What is the opportunity cost of increasing health care from 190 to 270 units? LO5
APPENDIX–USING GRAPHS
Economists like to draw graphs. In fact, we didn't even make it through the first chapter without a few graphs.
The purpose of this appendix is to look more closely at the way graphs are drawn and used.
The basic purpose of a graph is to illustrate a relationship between two variables. Consider, for example, the
relationship between grades and studying. In general, you expect that additional hours of study time will result
in higher grades. If true, you should be able to see a distinct relationship between hours of study time and grade
point average. In other words, there should be some empirical evidence that study time matters.
Suppose we actually tracked study times and grades for all the students taking this course. The resulting
information might resemble the data in Table A.1.
TABLE A.1
TABLE A.1 Hypothetical Relationship of Grades to Study Time
These data suggest that grades improve with increased study time.
According to the table, students who don't study at all can expect an F in this course. To get a C, the average
student apparently spends eight hours a week studying. All those who study 16 hours a week end up with an A
in the course.
These relationships between grades and studying can also be illustrated on a graph. Indeed, the whole purpose of
a graph is to summarize numerical relationships in a visual way.
We begin to construct a graph by drawing horizontal and vertical boundaries, as in Figure A.1. These boundaries
are called the axes of the graph. On the vertical axis we measure one of the variables; the other variable is
measured on the horizontal axis.
FIGURE A.1
FIGURE A.1 The Relationship of Grades to Study TimeThe upward (positive) slope of the curve indicates that
additional studying is associated with higher grades. The average student (2.0, or C grade) studies eight hours
per week. This is indicated by point M on the graph.
In this case, we shall measure the grade point average on the vertical axis. We start at the origin (the intersection
of the two axes) and count upward, letting the distance between horizontal lines represent half (0.5) a grade
point. Each horizontal line is numbered, up to the maximum grade point average of 4.0.
The number of hours each week spent doing homework is measured on the horizontal axis. We begin at the
origin again, and count to the right. The scale (numbering) proceeds in increments of 1 hour, up to 20 hours per
week.
When both axes have been labeled and measured, we can begin to illustrate the relationship between study time
and grades. Consider the typical student who does eight hours of homework per week and has a 2.0 (C) grade
point average. We illustrate this relationship by first locating eight hours on the horizontal axis. We then move
up from that point a distance of 2.0 grade points, to point M. Point M tells us that eight hours of study time per
week is typically associated with a 2.0 grade point average.
The rest of the information in Table A.1 is drawn (or plotted) on the graph in the same way. To illustrate the
average grade for people who study 12 hours per week, we move upward from the number 12 on the horizontal
axis until we reach the height of 3.0 on the vertical axis. At that intersection, we draw another point (point N).
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Once we have plotted the various points describing the relationship of study time to grades, we may connect
them with a line or curve. This line (curve) is our summary. In this case, the line slopes upward to the right—
that is, it has a positive slope. This slope indicates that more hours of study time are associated with higher
grades. Were higher grades associated with less study time, the curve in Figure A.1 would have a negative slope
(downward from left to right)—a puzzling outcome.
Slopes
The upward slope of Figure A.1 not only tells us that more studying raises your grade, it also tells us by how
much grades rise with study time. According to point M in Figure A.1, the average student studies eight hours
per week and earns a C (2.0 grade point average). In order to earn a B (3.0 grade point average), a student
apparently needs to study an average of 12 hours per week (point N). Hence an increase of four hours of study
time per week is associated with a 1point increase in grade point average. This relationship between changes in
study time and changes in grade point average is expressed by the steepness, or slope, of the graph.
The slope of any graph is calculated as
Some people simplify this by saying
In our example, the vertical distance (the “rise”) between points M and N represents a change in grade point
average. The horizontal distance (the “run”) between these two points represents the change in study time.
Hence the slope of the graph between points M and N is equal to
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In other words, a 4hour increase in study time (from 8 to 12 hours) is associated with a 1point increase in
grade point average (see Figure A.1).
Shifts
The relationship between grades and studying illustrated in Figure A.1 is not inevitable. It is simply a graphical
illustration of student experiences, as revealed in our hypothetical survey. The relationship between study time
and grades could be quite different.
Suppose that the university decided to raise grading standards, making it more difficult to achieve good grades.
To achieve a C, a student now would need to study 12 hours per week, not just 8 (as in Figure A.1). To get a B,
you now have to study 16 hours, not the previous norm of only 12 hours per week.
Figure A.2 illustrates the new grading standards. Notice that the new curve lies to the right of the earlier curve.
We say that the curve has shifted to reflect a change in the relationship between study time and grades. Point R
indicates that 12 hours of study time now “produces” a C, not a B (point N on the old curve). Students who now
study only four hours per week (point S) will fail. Under the old grading policy, they could have at least gotten a
D. When a curve shifts, the underlying relationship between the two variables has changed.
FIGURE A.2
FIGURE A.2 A ShiftWhen a relationship between two variables changes, the entire curve shifts. In this case a
tougher grading policy alters the relationship between study time and grades. To get a C, one must now study 12
hours per week (point R), not just 8 hours (point M).
A shift may also change the slope of the curve. In Figure A.2, the new grading curve is parallel to the old one; it
therefore has the same slope. Under either the new grading policy or the old one, a fourhour increase in study
time leads to a 1point increase in grades. Therefore, the slope of both curves in Figure A.2 is
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This, too, may change, however. Figure A.3 illustrates such a possibility. In this case, zero study time still results
in an F. But now the payoff for additional studying is reduced. Now it takes six hours of study time to get a D
(1.0 grade point), not four hours as before. Likewise, another four hours of study time (to a total of 10) raises the
grade by only twothirds of a point.
FIGURE A.3
FIGURE A.3 A Change in SlopeWhen a curve shifts, it may change its slope as well. In this case, a new grading
policy makes each higher grade more difficult to achieve. To raise a C to a B, for example, one must study six
additional hours (compare points J and K). Earlier it took only four hours to move up the grade scale a full point.
The slope of the line has declined from 0.25 (= 1 ÷ 4) to 0.17 (= 1 ÷ 6).
It takes six hours to raise the grade a full point. The slope of the new line is therefore
The new curve in Figure A.3 has a smaller slope than the original curve and so lies below it. What all this means
is that it now takes a greater effort to improve your grade.
Linear versus Nonlinear Curves
In Figures A.1–A.3, the relationship between grades and studying is represented by a straight line—that is, a
linear curve. A distinguishing feature of linear curves is that they have the same (constant) slope throughout. In
Figure A.1, it appears that every fourhour increase in study time is associated with a 1point increase in average
grades. In Figure A.3, it appears that every sixhour increase in study time leads to a 1point increase in grades.
In reality, the relationship between studying and grades may not be linear. Higher grades may be more difficult
to attain. You may be able to raise a C to a B by studying six hours more per week. But it may be harder to raise
a B to an A. According to Figure A.4, it takes an additional eight hours of studying to raise a B to an A. Thus the
relationship between study time and grades is nonlinear in Figure A.4; the slope of the curve changes as study
time increases. In this case, the slope decreases as study time increases. Grades continue to improve, but not so
fast, as more and more time is devoted to homework. You may know the feeling.
Causation
Figure A.4 does not itself guarantee that your grade point average will rise if you study four more hours per
week. In fact, the graph drawn in Figure A.4 does not prove that additional study ever results in higher grades.
The graph is only a summary of empirical observations. It says nothing about cause and effect. It could be that
students who study a lot are smarter to begin with. If so, then less able students might not get higher grades if
they studied harder. In other words, the cause of higher grades is debatable. At best, the empirical relationship
summarized in the graph may be used to support a particular theory (e.g., that it pays to study more). Graphs,
like tables, charts, and other statistical media, rarely tell their own stories; rather, they must be interpreted in
terms of some underlying theory or expectation. That's when the real fun starts.
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FIGURE A.4
FIGURE A.4 A Nonlinear RelationshipStraight lines have a constant slope, implying a constant relationship
between the two variables. But the relationship (and slope) may vary. In this case it takes six extra hours of
study to raise a C (point W) to a B (point X) but eight extra hours to raise a B to an A (point Y). The slope is
decreasing as we move up the curve.
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Source: © Digital Vision/Getty Images, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain how an economy's size is measured.
2. 2 Describe the absolute and relative size of the U.S. economy.
3. 3 Explain why the U.S. economy can produce so much.
4. 4 Recount how the mix of U.S. output has changed over time.
5. 5 Describe how (un)equally incomes are distributed.
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W
e are surrounded by the economy but never really see it. We see only fragments, never the entirety. We see
boutiques at the mall, never total retail sales. We visit virtual stores in cyberspace but can't begin to describe the
dimensions of ecommerce. We pump gas at the service station but have no notion of how many millions of
barrels of oil are consumed each day. We know every detail on our paychecks but don't have a clue about how
much income the entire workforce earns. Most of us have no idea how our own income stacks up against that of
the average U.S. household, much less that of earlier generations or other nations. Such details simply aren't a
part of our daily agendas. For most people, the “economy” is just a vague reference to a mass of meaningless
statistics.
The intent of this chapter is to provide a more userfriendly picture of the U.S. economy. This profile of the
economy is organized around the three core questions of WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM. Our interest here is
to see how these questions are answered at present in the United States—that is,
WHAT goods and services does the United States produce?
HOW is that output produced?
FOR WHOM is the output produced?
We focus on the big picture without going into too much statistical detail. Along the way, we'll see how the U.S.
economy stacks up against other nations. ■
WHAT AMERICA PRODUCES
In Chapter 1 we used the twodimensional production possibilities curve to describe WHAT output
combinations can be produced. In reality, the mix of output includes so many different products that we could
never fit them on a graph. We can, however, sketch what the U.S. mix of output looks like and how it has
changed over the years.
How Much Output
The first challenge in describing the actual output of an economy is to somehow add up the millions of different
products produced each year into a meaningful summary. The production possibilities curve in Chapter 1 did
this in physical terms for only two products (see Figure 1.1). We ended up at a specific mix of output with
precise quantities of two goods. In principle we could list all of the millions of products produced each year. But
such a list would be longer than this textbook and a lot less useful. We need a summary measure of how much is
produced.
The top panel of Table 2.1 illustrates the problem of obtaining a summary measure of output. Even if we
produced only three products—oranges, disposable razors, and video games—there is no obvious way of
summarizing total output in physical terms. Should we count units of output? In that case oranges would appear
to be the most important good produced. Should we count the weight of different products? In that case video
game software would not count at all. Should we tally their sizes? Clearly physical measures of output aren't
easy to aggregate.
TABLE 2.1
TABLE 2.1 Measuring Output
It is impossible to add up all output when it is counted in physical terms. Accordingly, total output is measured
in monetary terms, with each good or service valued at its market price.
GDP refers to the total market value of all goods and services produced in a given time period. According to the
numbers in this table, the total value of the oranges, razors, and video games produced is $4.2 billion.
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If we use monetary value instead of physical units to compute total output, the accounting chore is much easier.
In a market economy, every product commands a specific price. Hence the value of each product can be
observed easily. By multiplying the physical output of each good by its price, we can determine the total value
of each good produced. Notice in the bottom panel of Table 2.1 how easily the separate values for the output of
oranges, razors, and video games can be added up. The resultant sum ($4.2 billion, in this case) is a measure of
the value of total output.
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT The summary measure of output most frequently used is called gross
domestic product (GDP). GDP refers to the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country
during a given time period: It is a summary measure of a nation's output. GDP enables us to add oranges and
razors and even video games into a meaningful summary of economic activity (see Table 2.1). The U.S.
Department of Commerce actually does this kind of accounting every calendar quarter. Those quarterly GDP
reports tell us how much output the economy is producing.
REAL GDP Although GDP is a convenient summary of how much output is being produced, it can be
misleading. GDP is based on both physical output and prices. Accordingly, from one year to the next either
rising prices or an increase in physical output could cause nominal GDP to increase.
Notice in Table 2.2 what happens when all prices double. The measured value of total output also doubles—
from $4.2 to $8.4 billion. That sounds like an impressive jump in output. In reality, however, no more goods are
being produced; physical quantities are unchanged. So the apparent jump in nominal GDP is an illusion caused
by rising prices (inflation).
TABLE 2.2
TABLE 2.2 Inflation Adjustments
If prices rise, so does the value of output. In this example, the nominal value of output doubles from Year 1 to
Year 2 solely as a result of price increases; physical output remains unchanged. Real GDP corrects for such
changing price levels. In this case real GDP in Year 2, measured in Year 1 prices, is unchanged at $4.2 billion.
To provide a clearer picture of how much output we are producing, GDP numbers must be adjusted for inflation.
These inflation adjustments delete the effects of rising prices by valuing output in constant prices. The end result
of this effort is referred to as real GDP, an inflationadjusted measure of total output.
In 2015 the U.S. economy produced $18 trillion of output. That was a lot of oranges, razors, and video games—
not to mention the tens of thousands of other goods and services produced.
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INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS The $18 trillion of output that the United States produced in 2015 looks
particularly impressive in a global context. The output of the entire world in that year was only $90 trillion.
Hence the U.S. economy produces roughly 20 percent of the entire planet's output. With less than 5 percent of
the world's population, that's a remarkable feat. It clearly establishes the United States as the world's economic
giant.
Figure 2.1 provides some specific country comparisons for a recent year. The U.S. economy is three times larger
than Japan's, which is the world's third largest. It is fourteen times larger than Mexico's. In fact, the U.S.
economy is so large that its output exceeds by a wide margin the combined production of all the countries in
Africa and South America.
FIGURE 2.1
FIGURE 2.1 How Much Output Nations ProduceThe United States is by far the world's largest economy.
America's annual output of goods and services is three times that of Japan and equal to all of Western Europe.
The output of Third World countries is only a tiny fraction of U.S. output.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2015. (Data for 2013 based on purchasing power parity.)
PER CAPITA GDP Another way of putting these trilliondollar figures into perspective is to relate them to
individuals. This can be done by dividing a nation's total GDP by its population, a calculation that yields per
capita GDP. Per capita GDP tells us how much output is potentially available to the average person. It doesn't
tell us how much any specific person gets. Per capita GDP is an indicator of how much output each person
would get if all output were divided evenly among the population.
In 2015 per capita GDP in the United States was approximately $55,000—more than four times the world
average. Individual country comparisons are even more startling. In Ethiopia and Haiti, per capita incomes are
less than $2,000—less than $6 per day. Homeless people in the United States fare better than that—typically
much better. Americans classified as poor have more food, more shelter, and more amenities than most people in
the less developed nations even hope for. That is the reality depicted in the statistics of Table 2.3 and the
accompanying photos.
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TABLE 2.3
TABLE 2.3 Per Capita Incomes around the World
The American standard of living is four times higher than the world average. People in the poorest nations of the
world (e.g., Haiti, Ethiopia) barely survive on per capita incomes that are a tiny fraction of U.S. standards.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicatiors 2015. (World Bank 2013 data based on purchasing power
parity [Atlas Method].)
HISTORICAL COMPARISONS Still another way of digesting the dimensions of the American economy is to
compare today's living standards with those of earlier times. Some of your favorite consumer gadgets (e.g.,
smartphones, 3D TVs, iPads, wifi, Wii consoles) didn't even exist a generation ago. People worked harder and
got fewer goods and services. The living standards Americans now call “poor” resemble the lifestyle of the
middle class in the 1930s. Since 1900 the per capita output of the U.S. economy has risen 500 percent. That
means you're now enjoying six times as many goods and services (and much better quality) than people did back
then. We're so rich that we now spend over a billion dollars a year on closet organizers alone! And we spend
over $60 billion on pet food and supplies—about twice as much as the total output of Congo's 70 million people.
Although many of us still complain that we don't have enough, we enjoy an array of goods and services that
other nations and earlier generations only dreamed about.
What's even more amazing is that our abundance keeps growing. America's real GDP increases by about 3
percent a year. That may not sound like much, but it adds up. With the U.S. population growing by only 1
percent a year, continued economic growth implies more output per person. Like interest accumulating in the
bank, economic growth keeps adding to our standard of living. If real GDP keeps growing 2 percentage points
faster than our population, per capita incomes will double again in approximately 35 years.
There is no certainty that the economy will continue to grow at that speed. From 1929 to 1939, real GDP didn't
grow at all. As a consequence, U.S. living standards fell during the Great Depression. We had another setback in
2008–2009. But those are exceptions from the American norm of persistent growth. In other nations, the
struggle between population growth and economic growth is a persistent source of anxiety. From 2008 to 2012,
output per capita actually declined in Venezuela, Madagascar, the Ivory Coast, and many other already poor
nations.
SOCIAL WELFARE Although the United States is indisputably the world's largest economy, we must not
confuse GDP with broader measures of social welfare. GDP is simply a measure of the volume of goods and
services produced. That material production is just one element of our collective wellbeing. Environmental
health and beauty, family harmony, charitable activity, personal security, friendship networks, social justice,
good health, and religious convictions all affect our sense of wellbeing. Material possessions don't substitute for
any of those other dimensions. In fact, production of material goods can occasionally detract from our social
welfare by increasing pollution, congestion, or social anxiety levels. With more love, fewer crimes, and less
pollution our social welfare might increase even if GDP declined.
Although GDP is an incomplete measure of social welfare, it is still the single best measure of a nation's
economic wellbeing. Way back in 1776 Adam Smith recognized that the wealth of nations was best measured
by output produced rather than by the amount of gold possessed or resources owned. More output in poor
nations will improve health, education, living standards, and even life expectancies. More output in the United
States will not only increase our creature comforts but also enable us to eliminate more diseases and even to
clean up the environment.
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The Mix of Output
In addition to the amount of total output, we care about its content. As the production possibilities curve
illustrated in Chapter 1, there are many possible output combinations for any given level of GDP. In Chapter 1
we examined the different mixes of military and civilian output nations choose. We could also compare the
number of cars produced to the number of homes, schools, or hospitals produced. Clearly the content of total
output is important.
In the broadest terms, the content of output is usually described in terms of its major end uses rather than by
specific products. The major uses of total output include
Household consumption.
Business investment.
Government services.
Exports.
CONSUMER GOODS Consumer goods dominate the U.S. mix of output, accounting for more than twothirds
of total output. Consumer goods include everything from breakfast cereals and textbooks to music downloads
and beach vacations—anything and everything consumers buy.
The vast array of products consumers purchase is classified into three categories: durable goods, nondurable
goods, and services. Consumer durables are products that are expected to last at least three years. They tend to
be bigticket items like cars, appliances, TVs, and furniture. They are generally expensive and often are
purchased on credit. Because of this, consumers tend to postpone buying durables when they are worried about
their incomes. Conversely, consumers tend to go on durables spending sprees when times are good. This
spending pattern makes durable goods output highly cyclical—that is, very sensitive to economic trends.
Nondurables and services are not as cyclical. Nondurables include clothes, food, gasoline, and other staples that
consumers buy frequently. Services are the largest and fastestgrowing component of consumption. At present,
over half of all consumer output consists of medical care, entertainment, utilities, education, and other services.
INVESTMENT GOODS Investment goods are a completely different type of output. Investment goods
include the plant, machinery, and equipment that are produced for use in the business sector. These investment
goods are used
1. To replace wornout equipment and factories, thus maintaining our production possibilities.
2. To increase and improve our stock of capital, thereby expanding our production possibilities.
We also count as investment goods those products that businesses hold as inventory for later sale to consumers.
The economic growth that has lifted our living standards so high was fueled by past investments—the factories,
telecommunications networks, and transportation systems built in the past. To keep raising our living standards,
we have to keep churning out new plant and equipment. This requires us to limit our production of consumer
goods (i.e., save) so scarce resources can be used for investment. This is not a great sacrifice in the United States
since our consumption levels are already so high. In poor nations, however, reducing consumer goods
production entails great sacrifices in the short run. Less than 15 percent of America's GDP today consists of
investment goods (see Figure 2.2).
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FIGURE 2.2
FIGURE 2.2 The Uses of GDPTotal GDP amounted to $18 trillion in 2015. Over twothirds of this output
consisted of private consumer goods and services. The next largest share (20 percent) of output consisted of
public sector goods and services. Investment absorbed 13 percent of GDP. Finally, because imports exceeded
exports, we ended up consuming 4 percent more than we produced.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis
Note that the term investment here refers to real output—plant and equipment produced for the business sector.
This is not the way most people use the term. People often speak, for example, of “investing” in the stock
market. Purchases of corporate stock, however, do not create goods and services. Such financial investments
merely transfer ownership of a corporation from one individual to another. Such financial investments may
enable a corporation to purchase real plant and equipment. Tangible (economic) investment does not occur,
however, until the plant and machinery are actually produced. Only tangible investment is counted in the mix of
output.
GOVERNMENT SERVICES A third component of GDP is government services. Federal, state, and local
governments purchase resources to police the streets, teach classes, write laws, and build highways. The
resources used by the government for these purchases are unavailable for either consumption or investment. The
production of government services currently absorbs onefifth of total output (Figure 2.2).
Notice the emphasis again on the production of real goods and services. The federal government spends nearly
$4 trillion a year. Much of that spending, however, is in the form of income transfers, not resource purchases.
Income transfers are payments to individuals for which no direct service is provided. Social Security benefits,
welfare checks, food stamps, and unemployment benefits are examples of income transfers. Such transfer
payments account for half of all federal spending (see Figure 2.3). This spending is not part of our output of
goods and services. Only that part of federal spending used to acquire resources and produce services is
counted in GDP. In 2015 federal purchases (production) of goods and services accounted for only 8 percent of
total output.
FIGURE 2.3
FIGURE 2.3 Federal Outlays, by TypeThe federal government spent nearly $4 trillion in 2015. Only half of all
this spending was for goods and services (including national defense, health programs, and all other services).
The rest was spent on income transfers (Social Security benefits, government pensions, welfare, unemployment
benefits, etc.) and interest payments. Transfer payments are not counted in GDP.
Source: U.S. Office of Management and Budget
State and local governments use far more of our scarce resources than does the federal government. These are
the governments that build roads; provide schools, police, and firefighters; administer hospitals; and provide
social services. The output of all these state and local governments accounts for roughly 13 percent of total GDP.
In producing this output, they employ four times as many people (16 million) as does the federal government (4
million).
NET EXPORTS Finally, we should note that some of the goods and services we produce each year are shipped
abroad rather than consumed at home. That is to say, we export some of our output to other countries, for
whatever use they care to make of it. Thus GDP—the value of output produced within the United States—can
be larger than the sum of our own consumption, investment, and government purchases if we export some of our
output.
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International trade is not a oneway street. While we export some of our own output, we also import goods and
services from other countries. These imports may be used for consumption (Scotch whiskey, Samsung
smartphones), investment (German ball bearings), or government (French radar screens). Whatever their use,
imports represent goods and services that are used by Americans but are not produced in the United States.
The GDP accounts subtract imports from exports. The difference represents net exports. In 2015 the value of
exports was less than the value of imports. When imports exceed exports, we are using more goods and
services than we are producing. Hence we have to subtract net imports from consumption, investment, and
government services to figure out how much we actually produced. That is why net exports appear as a negative
item in Figure 2.2.
Changing Industry Structure
As we noted earlier, many of the products we consume today did not exist 10 or even 2 years ago. We have also
observed how much the volume of output has grown over time. As the economy has grown, the mix of output
has changed dramatically.
DECLINE IN FARMING The most dramatic change in the mix of output has been the decline in the relative
size of the farm sector. In 1900 farming was the most common occupation in the American economy. As Figure
2.4 illustrates, nearly 4 out of 10 workers were employed in agriculture back then.
FIGURE 2.4
FIGURE 2.4 The Changing Mix of OutputIn the twentieth century the total output of the U.S. economy
increased thirteenfold. As the economy grew, the farm sector shrank and the manufacturing share of total output
declined. Since 1930 the American economy has been predominantly a service economy, with output and job
growth increasingly concentrated in retail trade, education, health care, entertainment, personal and business
services, and government.
Source: U.S. Departments of Commerce and Labor
Today the mix of output is radically different. Between 1900 and 2000 over 25 million people left farms and
sought jobs in the cities. As a result, less than 2 percent of the workforce is now employed in agriculture. And
their number keeps shrinking a bit further every year as new technology makes it possible to grow more food
with fewer workers.
DECLINE OF MANUFACTURING SHARE Most of the farmers displaced by technological advances in the
early 1900s found jobs in the expanding manufacturing sector. The industrial revolution that flourished in the
late 1800s led to a massive increase in manufacturing activity (e.g., steel, transportation systems, automobiles,
airplanes). Between 1860 and 1920, the manufactured share of GDP doubled, reaching a peak at 27 percent.
World War II also created a huge demand for ships, airplanes, trucks, and armaments, requiring an enlarged
manufacturing sector. After World War II, the manufactured share of output declined; it now accounts for less
than 20 percent of total output.
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The relative decline in manufacturing does not mean that the manufacturing sector has actually shrunk. As in
farming, technological advances have made it possible to increase manufacturing output tremendously, even
though employment in this sector has grown only modestly. Just in the last 50 years, manufactured output has
increased fourfold even though manufacturing employment has increased only 20 percent. The same thing is
happening in China and other countries (see News Wire “Manufacturing: Fewer Jobs, More Output”).
GROWTH OF SERVICES The relative decline in manufacturing is due primarily to the rapid expansion of the
service sector. America has become largely a service economy. A hundred years ago less than 25 percent of the
labor force was employed in the service sector; today service industries (including government) generate over 70
percent of total output. Among the fastestgrowing service industries are health care, computer science and
software, financial services, retail trade, business services, and law. According to the U.S. Department of Labor,
this trend will continue; 98 percent of net job growth over the next 10 years will be in service industries.
GROWTH OF TRADE International trade also plays an increasingly important role in how goods are
produced. Roughly oneeighth of the output Americans produce is exported. As noted earlier, an even larger
share of output is imported (hence the negative “net exports” in Figure 2.2).
What is remarkable about these international transactions is how fast they have grown. Advances in
communications and transportation technologies make international trade and investment easier. You can click
on a British clothier's website just as easily as on the site of a U.S. merchant. And consumers in other nations
can easily purchase goods from American cybermerchants. Then FedEx or another overnight delivery service
can move the goods across national borders. As a result, the volume of both imports and exports keeps growing
rapidly. The growth of trade is also fueled by the increased consumption of services (e.g., travel, finance,
movies, computer software) rather than goods. With trade in services, you don't even need overnight delivery.
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NEWS WIRE MANUFACTURING: FEWER JOBS, MORE OUTPUT
U.S. Manufacturing: Output vs. Jobs Since 1975
Since 1975, manufacturing output has more than doubled, while employment in the sector has decreased by 31
percent. While these American job losses are indeed sobering, they are not an indication of declining U.S.
competitiveness. In fact, these statistics reveal that the average American manufacturer is over three times more
productive today than it was in 1975—a sure sign of economic progress.
Veronique de Rugy
Mercatus Center | Jan 24, 2011
NOTE: As more output can be produced with fewer workers, manufacturing employment declines even while
output increases. The displaced workers move into other industries (especially services).
HOW AMERICA PRODUCES
International trade has also affected HOW goods and services are produced. Hundreds of foreignowned firms
(e.g., Toyota, BMW, Shell, Air France) produce goods or services in the United States. Any output they produce
within U.S. borders is counted in America's GDP. By contrast, U.S.owned factors of production employed
elsewhere (e.g., a Nike shoe factory in Malaysia, an Apple factory in China) don't contribute directly to U.S.
output.
Factors of Production
Even without foreign investments, the United States would have ample resources to produce goods and services.
The United States has the third largest population in the world (behind China and India). The United States also
has the world's fourth largest land area (behind Russia, China, and, by a hair, Canada) and profuse natural
resources (e.g., oil, fertile soil, and hydropower).
Abundant labor and natural resources give the United States a decided advantage. But superior resources alone
don't explain America's economic dominance. After all, China has five times as many people as the United
States and equally abundant natural resources. Yet China's annual output is less than twothirds of America's
output.
America's enormous output is made possible by huge investments in physical and human capital. In poorer
countries, production is constrained by low levels of education and a scarcity of plant, equipment, and
technology.
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CAPITAL STOCK In part, America's greater economic strength is explained by the abundance of capital.
America has accumulated a massive stock of capital—over $80 trillion worth of machinery, factories, and
buildings. As a result, American production tends to be very capital intensive. The contrast with laborintensive
production in poorer countries is striking. A Chinese farmer mostly works with his or her hands and crude
implements, whereas an American farmer works with computers, automated irrigation systems, and mechanized
equipment. Ethiopian business managers don't have the computer networks or telecommunications systems that
make American business so efficient. In Cuba few people have access to the Internet.
FACTOR QUALITY The greater productivity—output per worker—of American workers reflects not only
the capital intensity of the production process but also the quality of both capital and labor. America invests each
year not just in more plant and equipment but in better plant and equipment. Today's new computer is faster and
more powerful than yesterday's. Today's laser surgery makes yesterday's surgical procedures look primitive.
Even textbooks get better each year. Such improvements in the quality of capital expand production possibilities.
Labor quality also improves with education and skill training. Indeed, one can invest in human capital much as
one invests in physical capital. Human capital refers to the productive capabilities of labor. In the Stone Age,
one's productive capacity was largely determined by physical strength and endurance. In today's economy,
human capital is largely a product of education, training, and experience. Hence a country can acquire more
human capital even without more bodies.
Over time, the United States has invested heavily in human capital. In 1940 only 1 out of 20 young Americans
graduated from college; today over 35 percent of young people are college graduates. High school graduation
rates have jumped from 38 percent to over 85 percent in the same time period. In some poor countries only one
out of two youths ever attends high school, much less graduates (see the News Wire “Human Capital”). In
certain nations girls are virtually prohibited from getting an education. As a consequence, over 1 billion people
—onesixth of the world's population—are unable to read or even write their own names.
America's tremendous output is thus explained not only by a wealth of resources but by the quality of these
resources as well. The high productivity of the U.S. economy results from using highly educated workers in
capitalintensive production processes.
FACTOR MOBILITY Our continuing ability to produce the goods and services that consumers demand also
depends on our agility in reallocating resources from one industry to another. Every year some industries
expand and others contract. Thousands of new firms are created each year, and almost as many others disappear.
In the process, land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship move from one industry to another in response to
changing demands and technology. In 1974 Federal Express, Apple Computer, Microsoft, Amgen, and Oracle
didn't exist. In 1995 Google and Yahoo hadn't yet been founded. In 2003 Facebook was still a concept, not an
operational networking site. Yet these companies collectively employ over 600,000 people today. Uber didn't
offer car services until 2010: now it employs hundreds of thousands of drivers. These workers came from other
firms and industries that weren't growing as fast.
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NEWS WIRE HUMAN CAPITAL
The Education Gap between Rich and Poor Nations
Virtually all Americans attend high school, and roughly 85 percent graduate. In poor countries relatively few
workers attend high school, and even fewer graduate. Over 60 percent of the girls your age are illiterate in the
poorest nations. This education gap limits their productivity.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2015
NOTE: The high productivity of the American economy is explained in part by the quality of its labor
resources. Workers in poorer, less developed countries get much less education or training.
The Private Sector: Business Types
The factors of production released from some industries and acquired by others are organized into productive
entities we call businesses. A business is an organization that uses factors of production to produce specific
goods or services. Actual production activity takes place in the 30 million business firms that participate in the
U.S. product markets.
Business firms come in all shapes and sizes. A basic distinction is made, however, among three different legal
organizations:
Corporations
Partnerships
Proprietorships
The primary distinction among these three business forms lies in their ownership characteristics. A single
proprietorship is a firm owned by one individual. A partnership is owned by a small number of individuals. A
corporation is typically owned by many—even hundreds of thousands of—individuals, each of whom owns
shares (stock) of the corporation. An important characteristic of corporations is that their owners (stockholders)
are not personally responsible (liable) for the debts or actions of the company. So if a defective product injures
someone, only the corporation—not the stockholders—will be sued. This limited liability makes it easier for
corporations to pool the resources of thousands of individuals.
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CORPORATE AMERICA Because of their limited liability, corporations tend to be much larger than other
businesses. Single proprietorships are typically quite small because few individuals have vast sources of wealth
or credit. The typical proprietorship has less than $20,000 in assets, whereas the average corporation has assets
in excess of $4 million. As a result of their size, corporations dominate market transactions in America,
accounting for more than 80 percent of all business sales.
We can describe who's who in the business community, then, in two very different ways. In terms of numbers,
the single proprietorship is the most common type of business firm in America. Proprietorships are particularly
dominant in agriculture (the family farm), retail trade (the corner grocery store), and services (your dentist). In
terms of size, however, the corporation is the dominant force in the U.S. economy (see Figure 2.5). The four
largest nonfinancial corporations in the country (ExxonMobil, Walmart, Chevron, and Apple) alone have more
assets than all the 25 million proprietorships doing business in the United States. Even in agriculture, where
corporate entities are still comparatively rare, the few agribusiness corporations are so large as to dominate
many thousands of small farms.
FIGURE 2.5
FIGURE 2.5 U.S. Business Firms: Numbers versus SizeProprietorships (individually owned companies) are the
most common form of American business firm. Corporations are so large, however, that they account for most
business sales and assets. Although only 18 percent of all firms are incorporated, corporations control 81 percent
of all sales and 84 percent of all assets.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2012
The Government's Role
Although corporate America dominates the U.S. economy, it does not have the last word on WHAT, HOW, or
FOR WHOM goods are produced. In our mixed economy, the government has a significant voice in all of these
decisions. Even before America became an independent nation, royal charters bestowed the right to produce and
trade specific goods. Even the European discovery of America was dependent on government financing and the
establishment of exclusive rights to whatever treasures were found. Today over 50 federal agencies and
thousands of state and local government entities regulate the production of goods. In the process, they
profoundly affect HOW goods are produced.
PROVIDING A LEGAL FRAMEWORK One of the most basic functions of government is to establish and
enforce the rules of the game. In some bygone era maybe a person's word was sufficient to guarantee delivery or
payment. Businesses today, however, rely more on written contracts. The government gives legitimacy to
contracts by establishing the rules for such pacts and by enforcing their provisions. In the absence of contractual
rights, few companies would be willing to ship goods without prepayment (in cash). Without legally protected
ownership rights, few individuals would buy or build factories. Even the incentive to write textbooks would
disappear if government copyright laws didn't forbid unauthorized downloading or photocopying. By
establishing ownership rights, contract rights, and other rules of the game, the government lays the
foundation for market transactions.
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PROTECTING CONSUMERS Much government regulation is intended to protect the interests of consumers.
One way to do this is to prevent individual business firms from becoming too powerful. In the extreme case, a
single firm might have a monopoly on the production of a specific good. As the sole producer of that good, a
monopolist could dictate the price, the quality, and the quantity of the product. In such a situation, consumers
would likely end up with the short end of the stick—paying too much for too little.
To protect consumers from monopoly exploitation, the government tries to prevent individual firms from
dominating specific markets. Antitrust laws prohibit mergers or acquisitions that threaten competition. The U.S.
Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission also regulate pricing practices, advertising claims, and
other behavior that might put consumers at an unfair disadvantage in product markets.
Government also regulates the safety of many products. Consumers don't have enough expertise to assess the
safety of various medicines, for example. If they relied on trial and error to determine drug safety, they might
not get a second chance. To avoid this calamity, the government requires rigorous testing of new drugs, food
additives, and other products.
PROTECTING LABOR The government also regulates how our labor resources are used in the production
process. As recently as 1920, children between the ages of 10 and 15 were employed in mines, factories, farms,
and private homes. They picked cotton and cleaned shrimp in the South, cut sugar beets and pulled onions in the
Northwest, processed coal in Appalachia, and pressed tobacco leaves in the midAtlantic states. They often
worked six days a week in abusive conditions for a pittance in wages. Private employers got cheap labor, but
society lost valuable resources when so much human capital remained uneducated and physically abused. First
the state legislatures and then the U.S. Congress intervened to protect children from such abuse by limiting or
forbidding the use of child labor and making school attendance mandatory. In poor nations, governments do
much less to limit use of child labor. In Africa, for example, 40 percent of children under age 14 work to survive
or to help support their families.
Government regulations further change HOW goods are produced by setting standards for workplace safety and
even minimum pay, fringe benefits, and overtime provisions. After decades of bloody confrontations, the
government also established the right of workers to organize and set rules for union–management relations.
Unemployment insurance, Social Security benefits, disability insurance, and guarantees for private pension
benefits also protect labor from the vagaries of the marketplace. They have had a profound effect on how much
people work, when they retire, and even how long they live.
PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT In earlier times, producers didn't have to concern themselves with the
impact of their production activities on the environment. The steel mills around Pittsburgh blocked out the sun
with clouds of sulfurous gases that spewed out of their furnaces. Timber companies laid waste to broad swaths
of forestland without regard to animal habitats or ecological balance. Paper mills used adjacent rivers as disposal
sites, and ships at sea routinely dumped their waste overboard. Neither cars nor airplanes were equipped with
controls for noise or air pollution.
In the absence of government intervention, such side effects would be common. Decisions on how to produce
would be based on private costs alone, not on how the environment is affected. However, such externalities—
spillover costs imposed on the broader community—affect our collective wellbeing. To reduce the external
costs of production, the government limits air, water, and noise pollution and regulates environmental use.
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Striking a Balance
All of these government interventions are designed to change HOW goods and services are produced. Such
interventions reflect the conviction that the market alone would not always select the best possible way of
producing goods and services. The market's answer to the HOW question would be based on narrow profitand
loss calculations, not on broader measures of societal wellbeing. To redress this market failure, the government
regulates production behavior.
As noted in Chapter 1, there is no guarantee that government regulation of HOW goods are produced always
makes us better off. Excessive regulation may inhibit production, raise product prices, and limit consumer
choices. In other words, government failure might replace market failure, leaving us no better off and possibly
even worse off.
FOR WHOM AMERICA PRODUCES
However imperfect our answers to the WHAT and HOW questions might be, they cannot obscure how rich
America is. As we have observed, the American economy produces an $18 trillion economic pie. The final
question we have to address is how that pie will be sliced. Will everyone get an equal slice, or will some
Americans be served gluttonous slices while others get only crumbs?
Were the slices of the pie carved by the market mechanism, the slices surely would not be equal. Markets reward
individuals on the basis of their contribution to output. In a market economy, an individual's income depends
on
The quantity and quality of resources owned.
The price that those resources command in the market.
That's what concerned Karl Marx so much. As Marx saw it, the capitalists (owners of capital) had a decided
advantage in this marketdriven distribution. By owning the means of production, capitalists would continue to
accumulate wealth, power, and income. Members of the proletariat would get only enough output to ensure their
survival. Differences in income within the capitalist class or within the working class were of no consequence in
the face of these class divisions. All capitalists were rich, while all workers were poor.
Marx's predictions of how output would be distributed turned out to be wrong in two ways. First, labor's share of
total output has risen greatly over time. Second, differences within the labor and capitalist classes have become
more important than differences between the classes. Many workers are rich, and a good many capitalists are
poor. Moreover, the distinction between workers and capitalists has been blurred by profitsharing plans,
employee ownership, and widespread ownership of corporate stock. Accordingly, in today's economy it is more
useful to examine how the economic pie is distributed across individuals rather than across labor and capitalist
classes.
The Distribution of Income
Figure 2.6 illustrates how uneven the individual slices of the income pie are. Imagine dividing up the population
into five subgroups of equal size, but sorted by income. Thus the top fifth (or quintile) would include that 20
percent of all households with the most income. The bottom fifth would include the 20 percent of households
with the least income. The rest of the population would be spread across the other three quintiles.
FIGURE 2.6
FIGURE 2.6 Slices of the U.S. Income PieThe richest fifth of U.S. households gets half of all the income—a
huge slice of the income pie. By contrast, the poorest fifth gets only a sliver. Should the government do more to
equalize the slices or let the market serve up the pie?
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2014
Figure 2.6 shows that the richest fifth of the population gets half of the income pie. By contrast, the poorest fifth
gets a tiny sliver. The dimensions of this inequality are spelled out in Table 2.4. Both the figure and the table
underscore how unequally the FOR WHOM question is settled in the United States.
TABLE 2.4
TABLE 2.4 Unequal Incomes
The size distribution of income indicates how total income is distributed among income classes. The lowest
income class of our population (the lowest fifth) gets only 3.1 percent of total income while the highest income
class (the highest fifth) gets half of total income.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (2014)
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As shocking as U.S. income inequalities might appear, incomes are distributed even less equally in many other
countries. The following News Wire “Inequality” displays the share of total income received by the top decile
(tenth) of households in various countries. In general, inequalities tend to be larger in poorer countries. As
countries develop, the personal distribution of income tends to become more equal.
Income Mobility
Another important feature of any income distribution is how long people stay in any one position. Being poor
isn't such a hardship if your poverty lasts only a week or even a month. Likewise, unequal slices of the economic
pie aren't so unfair if the slices are redistributed frequently. In that case, everyone would have a chance to be rich
or poor on occasion.
In reality, the slices of the pie are not distributed randomly every year. Some people get large slices every year,
and other people always seem to end up with crumbs. Nevertheless, such permanent inequality is more the
exception than the rule in the U.S. economy. One of the most distinctive features of the U.S. income distribution
is how often people move up and down the income ladder. This kind of income mobility makes lifelong incomes
much less unequal than annual incomes. In many nations, income inequalities are much more permanent.
Income inequalities are more vivid in poor nations than in rich ones.
Source: © Mike Clarke/AFP/Getty Images
Government Redistribution: Taxes and Transfers
Even if income inequality is more severe or more permanent elsewhere, U.S. citizens may feel that the market
fails to generate a “fair” enough distribution in this country. If so, another role for the government is to
redistribute incomes. The mechanisms for reslicing the income pie are taxes and income transfers.
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NEWS WIRE INEQUALITY
Income Share of the Rich
Incomes are distributed much less equally in poor countries than in rich ones. In developing countries the top
tenth of all households often receives 40–50 percent of all income. In the United States and other developed
countries inequality is much less severe.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2015
TAXES Taxes are also a critical mechanism for redistributing market incomes. A progressive tax does this by
imposing higher tax rates on people with larger incomes. Under such a system a rich person pays not only more
taxes but also a larger portion of his or her income. Thus a progressive tax makes aftertax incomes more equal
than beforetax incomes.
The federal income tax is designed to be progressive. Individuals with less than $10,000 of income paid no
income tax in 2015 and might even have received a spendable tax credit from Uncle Sam. Lowincome
individuals paid a 10 percent tax rate and middleincome households confronted an average tax rate of 20
percent. Rich households faced a top federal income tax rate of 39.6 percent. Those differences in tax rates
helped make (aftertax) incomes more equal.
INCOME TRANSFERS Taxes are only half the redistribution story. Equally important is who gets the income
the government collects. The government completes the redistribution process by transferring income to
consumers and providing services. The largest income transfer program is Social Security, which pays over
$800 billion a year to 60 million older or disabled persons. Although rich and poor alike get Social Security
benefits, lowwage workers get more retirement benefits for every dollar of earnings. Hence the benefits of the
Social Security program are distributed in a progressive fashion. Income transfers reserved exclusively for poor
people—welfare benefits, food stamps, Medicaid, and the like—are even more progressive. As a result, the
income transfer system gives lowerincome households more output than the market itself would provide. In
the absence of transfer payments and taxes, the lowest income quintile would get only 1 percent of total income.
The tax transfer system raises their share to 3.1 percent (see Table 2.4). That's still not much of a slice, but it's
more of the income pie than they got in the marketplace. To get a still larger slice, they need more market
income or more governmentled income redistribution.
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POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Can We End Global Poverty?
The United States is the economic powerhouse of the world. As we've seen, the 5 percent of the world's
population that lives within our nation's borders consumes over 20 percent of the world's output. The three
richest Americans—Bill Gates, Warren Buffet, and Paul Allen—have more wealth than the combined total
output of the world's 40 poorest countries (roughly 600 million people!). Even the 40 million officially classified
“poor” people in the United States enjoy living standards that 3 billion inhabitants of Earth can only dream of.
According to the World Bank, 3 billion people scrape by on less than $3 per day. In the poorest nations—where
half the world's population lives—only three of every four people have access to safe water, and less than one of
two have sanitation facilities. Onefourth of these people are undernourished; malnutrition is even higher among
children. Not surprisingly, 12 percent of live births end in a child's death before age five (versus 0.8 percent in
the United States). Illiteracy is the norm for those who survive beyond childhood.
Even America's “poor” look affluent by comparison to impoverished residents of some other countries.
© Marcus Lindstrom/E+/Getty Images, RF
In September 2000 the United Nations adopted a “Millennium Declaration” to reduce global poverty. Given the
enormity of the task, the United Nations didn't vow to eliminate poverty, but instead just to reduce poverty,
illiteracy, child mortality, and HIV/AIDS over a period of 15 years. We didn't achieve all those goals, but made
substantial progress. If the rich nations of the world gave more assistance than the 0.29 percent of GDP they
now offer, that would help. Even doubling aid wouldn't do the job, however. Ultimately the wellbeing of the
world's poor hinges on the development of strong national economies. Only persistent economic growth can end
global poverty. The real millennium challenge is fostering that growth. That's where economic theory can help.
SUMMARY
The answers to the WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions are reflected in the dimensions of the
economy. These answers are the product of market forces and government intervention. LO1
Gross domestic product (GDP) is the basic measure of how much an economy produces. It is the value of
total output. LO1
Real GDP measures the inflationadjusted value of output; nominal GDP, the current dollar value. LO1
The United States produces roughly $18 trillion of output, onefifth of the world's total. American GDP
per capita is four times the world average. LO2
The high level of U.S. per capita GDP reflects the high productivity of American workers. Abundant
capital, education, technology, training, and management all contribute to high productivity. LO3
Over 70 percent of U.S. output consists of services. The service industries continue to grow faster than
goodsproducing industries. LO4
Most of America's output consists of consumer goods and services. Investment goods account for less
than 15 percent of total output. LO4
Proprietorships and partnerships outnumber corporations nearly five to one. Nevertheless, corporate
America produces 80 percent of total output. LO3
Government intervenes in the economy to establish the rules of the (market) game and to correct the
market's answers to the WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions. The risk of government failure spurs
the search for the right mix of market reliance and government regulation. LO4
Incomes are distributed very unequally among households, with households in the highest income class
(quintile) receiving 15 times more income than the average lowincome (quintile) household. Inequality is
even more severe in poor countries. LO5
The progressive income tax system is designed to make aftertax incomes more equal. Taxfinanced
transfer payments such as Social Security and welfare also redistribute a significant amount of income.
LO5
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TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
gross domestic product (GDP)
nominal GDP
real GDP
per capita GDP
economic growth
investment
income transfers
exports
imports
factors of production
capital intensive
productivity
human capital
monopoly
externality
quintile
personal distribution of income
progressive tax
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Americans already enjoy living standards that far exceed world averages. Do we have enough? Should we
even try to produce more? LO2
2. Why do we measure output in value terms rather than in physical terms? For that matter, why do we
bother to measure output at all? LO1
3. Why do people suggest that the United States needs to devote more resources to investment goods? Why
not produce just consumption goods? LO3
4. The U.S. farm population has shrunk by over 25 million people since 1900. Where did they all go? Why
did they move? LO4
5. Rich people have over 15 times as much income as poor people. Is that fair? How should output be
distributed? LO5
6. If taxes were more progressive, would total output be affected? LO5
7. Why do income inequalities diminish as an economy develops? LO5
8. Why is per capita GDP so much higher in the United States than in Mexico? LO3
9. Do we need more or less government intervention to decide WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM? Give
specific examples. LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES What can poor nations do to raise their living standards? LO3
PROBLEMS
1. Draw a production possibilities curve with consumer goods on one axis and investment goods on the other
axis. LO1
1. Identify the opportunity cost of increasing investment from I1 to I2.
2. What will happen to future production possibilities if investment increases now?
3. What will happen to future production possibilities if only consumer goods are produced now?
2. Suppose the following data describe output in two different years: LO1
1. Compute nominal GDP in each year.
2. By what percentage did nominal GDP increase between Year 1 and Year 2?
3. Now compute real GDP in Year 2 by using the prices of Year 1.
4. By what percentage did real GDP increase between Year 1 and Year 2?
3. GDP per capita in the United States was approximately $55,000 in 2015. Use the growth formula to
answer the following questions: LO1
1. What will it be in the year 2020 if GDP per capita grows each year by 0 percent?
2. What will it be in the year 2020 if GDP per capita grows each year by 2 percent?
Growth formula:
present value = this year's GDP per capita
future value = GDP per capita in the future
r = the rate of increase = % growth per year
t = number of years of growth
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4. According to Figure 2.4, LO4
1. Did the quantity of manufactured output increase or decrease between 1900 and 2000?
2. By how much (in percentage terms)?
Hint: Assume that the total output in 1900 = $100
Use the percentage change formula = [(new value − original value) / original value] × 100
3. Did the manufacturing share of GDP rise or fall during that time?
5. Assume that total output is determined by this formula: LO3
1. If the workforce is growing by 1 percent but productivity doesn't improve, how fast can output
increase?
2. If productivity increases by 3 percent and the number of workers increases by 1 percent a year, how
fast will output grow?
6. According to the News Wire “Manufacturing: Fewer Jobs, More Output,” since 1975 in the manufacturing
sector, LO3
1. has output increased or decreased?
2. has employment increased or decreased?
3. has productivity increased or decreased?
7. According to Table 2.4, LO5
1. What is the average income in the United States?
2. What percentage of the average income of people in the highest fifth would have to be taxed away
to bring them down to that average?
8. According to News Wire “Inequality,” what is the average per capita income in nations where the highest
income decile gets LO5
1. over 45 percent of total income?
2. less than 30 percent of total income?
9. Complete the following table and answer the following questions:
What is the ratio of a highincome family's income to a lowincome family's income (a) before taxes and
(b) after taxes? (c) Is this tax progressive? LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES In 2015, the United States devoted about 0.19 percent of its $18 trillion
GDP to development assistance. LO2
1. How much money is that?
2. How much aid does that imply for each of the 3 billion “extremely poor” people in developing
nations?
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Source: © Rudi Van Starrex/Getty Images
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain why people participate in markets.
2. 2 Describe what market demand and supply measure.
3. 3 Depict how and why a market equilibrium is found.
4. 4 Illustrate how and why demand and supply curves sometimes shift.
5. 5 Explain how market shortages and surpluses occur.
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A
few years ago a Florida man tried to sell one of his kidneys on eBay. As his offer explained, he could supply
only one kidney because he needed the other to survive. He wanted the bidding to start out at $25,000, plus
expenses for the surgical removal and shipment of his kidney. He felt confident he could get at least that much
money since thousands of people have potentially fatal kidney diseases.
He was right. The bids for his kidney quickly surpassed $100,000. Clearly there were lots of people with kidney
disease who were willing and able to pay high prices to get a lifesaving transplant.
The seller never got the chance to sell his kidney to the highest bidder. Although organ transplants are perfectly
legal in the United States, the purchase or sale of human organs is not. When eBay learned the pending sale was
illegal, it shut down the man's advertisement.
Despite its illegality, there is clearly a market for human kidneys. That is to say, there are people who are willing
to sell kidneys and others who are willing to buy kidneys. Those are sufficient conditions for the existence of a
market. The market in kidneys happens to be illegal in the United States, but it is still a market, although illegal.
The markets for drugs, prostitution, and nuclear warheads are also illegal, but still reflect the intentions of
potential buyers and sellers.
Fortunately we don't have to venture into the underworld to see how markets work. You can watch markets work
by visiting eBay or other electronic auction sites. Or you can simply go to the mall and watch people shop. In
either location you will observe people deciding whether to buy or sell goods at various prices. That's the
essence of market activity.
The goal in this chapter is to assess how markets actually function. How does the invisible hand of the market
resolve the competing interests of buyers (who want low prices) and sellers (who want high prices)?
Specifically,
What determines the price of a good or service?
How does the price of a product affect its production or consumption?
Why do prices and production levels often change? ■
MARKET PARTICIPANTS
More than 325 million individual consumers, about 30 million business firms, and thousands of government
agencies participate directly in the U.S. economy. Millions of foreigners also participate by buying and selling
goods in American markets.
Goals
All these economic actors participate in the market to achieve specific goals. Consumers strive to maximize their
own happiness; businesses try to maximize profits; government agencies attempt to maximize social welfare.
Foreigners pursue the same goals as consumers, producers, or government agencies. In every case, they strive to
achieve those goals by buying or selling the best possible mix of goods, services, or factors of production.
Constraints
The desire of all market participants to maximize something—profits, private satisfaction, or social welfare—is
not their only common trait. Another element common to all participants is their limited resources. You and I
cannot buy everything we desire; we simply don't have enough income. As a consequence, we must make
choices among available products. We're always hoping to get as much satisfaction as possible for the few
dollars we have to spend. Likewise, business firms and government agencies must decide how best to use their
limited resources to maximize profits or public welfare. This is the scarcity problem we examined in Chapter 1.
It is central to all economic decisions.
Specialization and Exchange
To maximize the returns on our limited resources, we participate in the market, buying and selling various
goods and services. Our decision to participate in these exchanges is prompted by two considerations. First,
most of us are incapable of producing everything we desire to consume. Second, even if we could produce all
our own goods and services, it would still make sense to specialize, producing only one product and trading it
for other desired goods and services.
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Suppose you were capable of growing your own food, stitching your own clothes, building your own shelter,
and even writing your own economics text. Even in this little utopia, it would still make sense to decide how
best to expend your limited time and energy and to rely on others to fill in the gaps. If you were most proficient
at growing food, you would be best off spending your time farming. You could then exchange some of your food
output for the clothes, shelter, and books you desired. In the end, you'd be able to consume more goods than if
you had tried to make everything yourself.
Our economic interactions with others are thus necessitated by two constraints:
Our inability as individuals to produce all the things we desire.
The limited amount of time, energy, and resources we possess for producing those things we could make
for ourselves.
Together these constraints lead us to specialize and interact. Most of the interactions that result take place in the
market.
MARKET INTERACTIONS
Figure 3.1 summarizes the kinds of interactions that occur among market participants. Note, first of all, that we
have identified four separate groups of market participants:
Consumers.
Business firms.
Governments.
Foreigners.
FIGURE 3.1
FIGURE 3.1 Market InteractionsBusiness firms participate in markets by supplying goods and services to
product markets (point A) and purchasing factors of production in factor markets (B).
Individual consumers participate in the marketplace by supplying factors of production such as their own labor
(C) and purchasing final goods and services (D).
Federal, state, and local governments also participate in both factor (E) and product markets (F).
Foreigners participate by supplying imports, purchasing exports (G), and buying and selling resources (H).
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Domestically, the “consumers” rectangle includes all 325 million consumers in the United States. In the
“business firms” box we have grouped all the domestic business enterprises that buy and sell goods and services.
The third participant, “governments,” includes the many separate agencies of the federal government, as well as
state and local governments. Figure 3.1 also illustrates the role of foreigners.
The Two Markets
The easiest way to keep track of all this market activity is to distinguish two basic markets. Figure 3.1 does this
by depicting separate circles (in yellow) for product markets and factor markets.
FACTOR MARKETS In factor markets, factors of production are exchanged. Market participants buy or sell
land, labor, or capital that can be used in the production process. When you go looking for work, for example,
you are making a factor of production—your labor—available to producers. You are offering to sell your time
and talent. The producers will hire you—buy your services in the factor market—if you are offering the skills
they need at a price they are willing to pay.
PRODUCT MARKETS The activity in factor markets is only half the story. At the end of a hard day's work,
consumers go to the grocery store, the mall, or the movies to purchase desired goods and services—that is, to
buy products. In this context, consumers again interact with business firms. This time, however, their roles are
reversed: Consumers are doing the buying, and businesses are doing the selling. This exchange of goods and
services occurs in product markets.
Governments also supply goods and services to product markets. The consumer rarely buys national defense,
schools, or highways directly; instead such purchases are made indirectly through taxes and government
expenditure. In Figure 3.1, the arrows running from governments through product markets to consumers remind
us, however, that all government output is intended “for the people.” In this sense, the government acts as an
intermediary, buying factors of production (e.g., government employees) and providing certain goods and
services consumers desire (e.g., police protection).
In Figure 3.1, the arrow connecting product markets to consumers (point D) emphasizes the fact that consumers,
by definition, do not supply products. When individuals produce goods and services, they do so within the
government or business sector. An individual who is a doctor, a dentist, or an economic consultant functions in
two sectors. When selling services in the market, this person is regarded as a “business”; when away from the
office, he or she is regarded as a “consumer.” This distinction is helpful in emphasizing that the consumer is the
final recipient of all goods and services produced.
A market exists wherever buyers and sellers interact.
Source: © Stephen Chernin/Getty Images News/Getty Images
LOCATING MARKETS Although we refer repeatedly to two kinds of markets, it would be a little foolish to
go off in search of the product and factor markets. Neither a factor market nor a product market is a single,
identifiable structure. The term market simply refers to any place where an economic exchange occurs—where a
buyer and seller interact. The exchange may take place on the street, in a taxicab, over the phone, by mail,
online, or through the classified ads of the newspaper. In some cases, the market used may in fact be quite
distinguishable, as in the case of a retail store, the Chicago Commodity Exchange, or a state employment office.
But whatever it looks like, a market exists wherever and whenever an exchange takes place.
Dollars and Exchange
Sometimes people exchange one good for another directly. On eBay, for example, you might persuade a seller to
accept some old DVDs in payment for the Xbox 360 she is selling. Or you might offer to paint someone's house
in exchange for “free” rent. Such twoway exchanges are called barter.
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The problem with bartered exchanges is that you have to find a seller who wants whatever good you are offering
in payment. This can make shopping an extremely timeconsuming process. Fortunately, most market
transactions are facilitated by using money as a form of payment. If you go shopping for an Xbox, you don't
have to find a seller craving old DVDs; all you have to do is find a seller willing to accept the dollar price you
are willing to pay. Because money facilitates exchanges, nearly every market transaction involves an exchange
of dollars for goods (in product markets) or resources (in factor markets). Money thus plays a critical role in
facilitating market exchanges and the specialization they permit.
Supply and Demand
The two sides of each market transaction are called supply and demand. As noted earlier, we are supplying
resources to the market when we look for a job—that is, when we offer our labor in exchange for income. But
we are demanding goods when we shop in a supermarket—that is, when we are prepared to offer dollars in
exchange for something to eat. Business firms may supply goods and services in product markets at the same
time that they are demanding factors of production in factor markets.
Whether one is on the supply side or the demand side of any particular market transaction depends on the nature
of the exchange, not on the people or institutions involved.
DEMAND
Although the concepts of supply and demand help explain what's happening in the marketplace, we are not yet
ready to summarize the countless transactions that occur daily in both factor and product markets. Recall that
every market transaction involves an exchange and thus some element of both supply and demand. Then just
consider how many exchanges you alone undertake in a single week, not to mention the transactions of the other
325 million or so consumers among us. To keep track of so much action, we need to summarize the activities of
a great many individuals.
Individual Demand
We can begin to understand how market forces work by looking more closely at the behavior of a single market
participant. Let us start with Tom, a senior at Clearview College. Tom has majored in everything from art history
to government in his five years at Clearview. He didn't connect with any of those fields and is on the brink of
academic dismissal. To make matters worse, his parents have threatened to cut him off financially unless he
graduates sometime soon. They want him to take courses that will lead to a job after graduation so they don't
have to keep supporting him.
Tom thinks he has found the perfect solution: web design. Everything associated with the Internet pays big
bucks. Plus, girls seem to think webbies are “cool.” Or at least so Tom thinks. And his parents would definitely
approve. So Tom has enrolled in web design courses.
Unfortunately for Tom, he never developed computer skills. Until he got to Clearview College, he thought
mastering Sony's latest alien attack video game was the pinnacle of electronic wizardry. His parents gave him a
MacBook Pro but he used it only to post on Facebook and to visit gaming message boards. The concept of using
his computer for coursework, much less developing some web content, is completely foreign to him. To
compound his problems, Tom doesn't have a clue about streaming, interfacing, animation, or the other concepts
the web design instructor has outlined in the first lecture.
Given his circumstances, Tom is desperate to find someone who can tutor him in web design. But desperation is
not enough to secure the services of a web architect. In a marketbased economy, you must also be willing to
pay for the things you want. Specifically, a demand exists only if someone is willing and able to pay for the
good—that is, exchange dollars for a good or service in the marketplace. Is Tom willing and able to pay for the
web design tutoring he so obviously needs?
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Let us assume that Tom has some income and is willing to spend some of it to get a tutor. Under these
assumptions, we can claim that Tom is a participant in the market for web design services.
But how much is Tom willing to pay? Surely Tom is not prepared to exchange all his income for help in
mastering web design. After all, Tom could use his income to buy more desirable goods and services. If he spent
all his income on a web tutor, that help would have an extremely high opportunity cost. He would be giving up
the opportunity to spend that income on other goods and services. He might pass his web design class but have
little else. That doesn't sound like a good idea to Tom. Even though he says he would be willing to pay anything
to pass the web design course, he probably has lower prices in mind. Indeed, there are limits to the amount Tom
is willing to pay for any given quantity of web design tutoring. These limits will be determined by how much
income Tom has to spend and how many other goods and services he must forsake to pay for a tutor.
Tom also knows that his grade in web design will depend in part on how much tutoring service he buys. He can
pass the course with only a few hours of design help. If he wants a better grade, however, the cost is going to
escalate quickly.
Naturally Tom wants it all—an A in web design and a ticket to higherpaying jobs. But here again the distinction
between desire and demand is relevant. He may desire to master web design, but his actual proficiency will
depend on how many hours of tutoring he is willing to pay for.
We assume, then, that when Tom starts looking for a web design tutor he has in mind some sort of demand
schedule, like that described in Figure 3.2. According to row A of this schedule, Tom is willing and able to buy
only one hour of tutoring service per semester if he must pay $50 an hour. At such an “outrageous” price he will
learn minimal skills and just pass the course. But that's all Tom is willing to buy at that price.
FIGURE 3.2
FIGURE 3.2 A Demand Schedule and CurveA demand schedule indicates the quantities of a good a consumer
is able and willing to buy at alternative prices (ceteris paribus). The demand schedule indicates that Tom would
buy five hours of web design tutoring per semester if the price were $35 per hour (row D). If tutoring were less
expensive (rows E–I), Tom would purchase a larger quantity.
A demand curve is a graphical illustration of a demand schedule. Each point on the curve refers to a specific
quantity that will be demanded at a given price. If the price of tutoring were $35 per hour, this curve tells us that
Tom would purchase five hours of tutoring per semester (point D). Each point on the curve corresponds to a row
in the above schedule.
At lower prices, Tom would behave differently. According to Figure 3.2, Tom would purchase more tutoring
services if the price per hour were less. At lower prices, he would not have to give up so many other goods and
services for each hour of technical help. The reduced opportunity costs implied by lower service prices increase
the attractiveness of professional help. Indeed, we see from row I of the demand schedule that Tom is willing to
purchase 20 hours per semester—the whole bag of design tricks—if the price of tutoring is as low as $10 per
hour.
Notice that the demand schedule doesn't tell us why Tom is willing to pay these specific prices for various
amounts of tutoring. Tom's expressed willingness to pay for web design tutoring may reflect a desperate need to
finish a web design course, a lot of income to spend, or a relatively small desire for other goods and services. All
the demand schedule tells us is what this consumer is willing and able to buy, for whatever reasons.
Also observe that the demand schedule doesn't tell us how many hours of design help the consumer will actually
buy. Figure 3.2 simply states that Tom is willing and able to pay for one hour of tutoring at $50 per hour, two
hours at $45 per hour, and so on. How much service he purchases will depend on the actual price of web
services in the market. Until we know that price, we cannot tell how much service will be purchased. Hence
demand is an expression of consumer buying intentions, of a willingness to buy, rather than a statement of
actual purchases.
A convenient summary of buying intentions is the demand curve, a graphical illustration of the demand
schedule. The demand curve in Figure 3.2 tells us again that if the price of web design tutoring is $50 per hour
(point A), this consumer is willing to pay for only one hour; if the price is $45 per hour (point B), he will pay for
two hours; if the price is $40 per hour (point C), he will pay for three hours; and so on. Once we know what the
market price of web tutoring actually is, a glance at the demand curve tells us how much service this consumer
will buy.
What the notion of demand emphasizes is that the amount we buy of a good depends on its price. We seldom if
ever decide to buy a certain quantity of a good at whatever price is charged. Instead we enter markets with a set
of desires and a limited amount of money to spend. How much we actually buy of any good will depend on its
price.
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A common feature of demand curves is their downward slope. As the price of a good falls, people tend to
purchase more of it. In Figure 3.2 the quantity of web tutorial services demanded increases (moves rightward
along the horizontal axis) as the price per hour decreases (moves down the vertical axis). This inverse
relationship between price and quantity is so common that we refer to it as the law of demand.
College administrators think the law of demand could be used to curb student drinking. Low retail prices and bar
promotions encourage students to drink more alcohol. As the accompanying News Wire “Law of Demand”
explains, higher prices would reduce the quantity of alcohol demanded.
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NEWS WIRE LAW OF DEMAND
Higher Alcohol Prices and Student Drinking
Raise the price of alcohol substantially, and some college students will not drink or will drink less. That's the
conclusion from a Harvard survey of 22,831 students at 158 colleges. Students faced with a $1 increase above
the average drink price of $2.17 will be 33 percent less likely to drink at all or as much. So raising the price of
alcohol in college communities could significantly lessen student drinking and its associated problems (alcohol
related deaths, property damage, sexual assaults, arrests). This could be done by raising local excise taxes,
eliminating bar promotions, and forbidding allyoucandrink events.
Source: Jenny Williams, Frank Chaloupka, and Henry Wechsler, “Are There Differential Effects of Price
and Policy on College Students' Drinking Intensity?” Copyright Blackwell Publishing.
NOTE: The law of demand predicts that the quantity demanded of any good—even beer and liquor—declines
as its price increases.
Determinants of Demand
The demand curve in Figure 3.2 has only two dimensions—quantity demanded (on the horizontal axis) and price
(on the vertical axis). This seems to imply that the amount of tutorial services demanded depends only on the
price of that service. This is surely not the case. A consumer's willingness and ability to buy a product at various
prices depend on a variety of forces. We call those forces determinants of demand. The determinants of market
demand include
Tastes (desire for this and other goods).
Income (of the consumer).
Other goods (their availability and price).
Expectations (for income, prices, tastes).
Number of buyers.
If Tom didn't have to pass a web design course, he would have no taste (desire) for web page tutoring and thus
no demand. If he had no income, he would not have the ability to pay and thus would still be out of the web
design market. The price and availability of other goods affect the opportunity cost of tutoring services—that is,
what Tom must give up. Expectations for income, grades, graduation prospects, and parental support also
influence his willingness to buy such services.
Ceteris Paribus
If demand is in fact such a multidimensional decision, how can we reduce it to only the two dimensions of price
and quantity? This is the ceteris paribus trick we encountered earlier. To simplify their models of the world,
economists focus on only one or two forces at a time and assume nothing else changes. We know a consumer's
tastes, income, other goods, and expectations all affect the decision to buy web design services. But we focus on
the relationship between quantity demanded and price. That is to say, we want to know what independent
influence price has on consumption decisions. To find out, we must isolate that one influence, price, and assume
that the determinants of demand remain unchanged.
The ceteris paribus assumption is not as farfetched as it may seem. People's tastes (desires) don't change very
quickly. Income tends to be fairly stable from week to week. Even expectations for the future are slow to
change. Accordingly, the price of a good may be the only thing that changes on any given day. In that case, a
change in price may be the only thing that prompts a change in consumer behavior.
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Shifts in Demand
The determinants of demand do change, of course, particularly over time. Accordingly, the demand schedule
and curve remain unchanged only so long as the underlying determinants of demand remain constant. If the
ceteris paribus assumption is violated—if tastes, income, other goods, or expectations change—the ability or
willingness to buy will change. When this happens, the demand curve will shift to a new position. This is
referred to as a shift in demand.
Suppose, for example, that Tom wins $1,000 in the state lottery. This increase in his income would increase his
ability to pay for tutoring services. Figure 3.3 shows the effect of this windfall on Tom's demand. The old
demand curve, D1, is no longer relevant. Tom's lottery winnings enable him to buy more tutoring services at any
price. This is illustrated by the new demand curve, D2. According to this new curve, lucky Tom is now willing
and able to buy 11 hours of tutoring per semester at the price of $35 per hour (point d2). This is a large increase
in demand, as previously (before winning the lottery) he demanded only five hours at that price (point d1).
With his higher income, Tom can buy more tutoring services at every price. Thus the entire demand curve shifts
to the right when income goes up. Both the old (prelottery) and the new (postlottery) demand curves are
illustrated in Figure 3.3.
FIGURE 3.3
FIGURE 3.3 A Shift in DemandA demand curve shows how the quantity demanded changes in response to a
change in price, if all else remains constant. But the determinants of demand may themselves change, causing
the demand curve to shift.
In this case, an increase in income increases demand from D1 to D2. After this shift, Tom demands 11 hours
(d2), rather than 5 (d1), at the price of $35. The quantity demanded at all other prices increases as well.
Income is only one of four basic determinants of demand. Changes in any of the other determinants of demand
would also cause the demand curve to shift. Tom's taste for web design tutoring might increase dramatically, for
example, if his other professors made the quality of personal web pages a critical determinant of course grades.
His taste (desire) for web design services might increase even more if his parents promised to buy him a new car
if he got an A in the course. Whatever its origins, an increase in taste (desire) or expectations also shifts the
demand curve to the right.
Other goods can also shift the demand curve. Hybrid vehicles became more popular when gasoline prices rose.
The demand for gassaving hybrids increased, while demand for gas guzzlers declined. The situation reversed
itself in 2014–2015, when gasoline prices plummeted. Lower gasoline prices made electric vehicles (EVs) less
attractive (see News Wire “Shifts of Demand”). Sales of EVs declined, while sales of SUVs and trucks
increased. The (leftward) shift in demand for EVs was caused by this decrease in the price of a substitute good.
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NEWS WIRE SHIFTS OF DEMAND
Electric Cars Hurt Most Among Renewables on Oil's Slump
(Bloomberg)–Electric cars are likely to be hurt the most by lower oil prices within the renewable energy
industry, according to a report that predicts a limited impact on windand solarpower companies.
The 45 percent plunge in Brent crude oil prices since the end of June also will slow the shift away from fossil
fuels in oil producing nations…
Electric vehicles are likely to be the clearest victim of cheaper oil, since they're less competitive with gasoline
powered cars when oil is cheaper…
“It won't stop growth, but it will have some dampening effect,” said Angus McCrone, senior analyst at
Bloomberg New Energy Finance. “There will be more marginal buyers who are looking at the relative
economics, and if you have lower gasoline prices that tilts the equation.”
If gasoline averages $2.09 a gallon in the United States, electric vehicles may reach 6 percent of the market by
2020, the Londonbased research arm of Bloomberg LP forecasts. That's lower than the 9 percent share they
could command if gasoline cost $3.34 a gallon, BNEF said.
Source: Landberg, Reed. “Electric Cars Hurt Most Among Renewables on Oil's Slump,” Bloomberg.com,
December 22, 2014. Copyright © 2014 Bloomberg L.P. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: Demand decreases (shifts left) when tastes diminish, the price of substitute goods declines, or income or
expectations worsen. What happened here?
Movements versus Shifts
It is important to distinguish shifts of the demand curve from movements along the demand curve. Movements
along a demand curve are a response to price changes for that good. Such movements assume that
determinants of demand are unchanged. By contrast, shifts of the demand curve occur when the determinants
of demand change. When tastes, income, other goods, or expectations are altered, the basic relationship
between price and quantity demanded is changed (i.e., shifts).
For convenience, the distinction between movements along a demand curve and shifts of the demand curve have
their own labels. Specifically, take care to distinguish
Changes in quantity demanded: movements along a given demand curve in response to price changes of
that good (such as from d1 to d2 in Figure 3.3).
Changes in demand: shifts of the demand curve due to changes in tastes, income, other goods, or
expectations (such as from D1 to D2 in Figure 3.3).
The News Wire “Law of Demand” told how higher alcohol prices could reduce college drinking—pushing
students up the demand curve to a smaller quantity demanded. College officials might also try to shift the entire
demand curve leftward: If the penalties for campus drinking were increased, altered expectations might shift the
demand curve to the left, causing students to buy less booze at any given price.
Tom's behavior in the web tutoring market is subject to similar influences. A change in the price of tutoring will
move Tom up or down his demand curve. By contrast, a change in an underlying determinant of demand will
shift his entire demand curve to the left or right.
Market Demand
The same forces that change an individual's consumption behavior also move entire markets. Suppose you
wanted to assess the market demand for web tutoring services at Clearview College. To do that, you'd want to
identify every student's demand for that service. Some students, of course, have no need or desire for
professional web design services and are not willing to pay anything for such tutoring; they do not participate in
the web design market. Other students have a desire for such services but not enough income to pay for them;
they, too, are excluded from the web design market. A large number of students, however, not only have a need
(or desire) for tutoring but also are willing and able to purchase such services.
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What we start with in product markets, then, is many individual demand curves. Then we combine all those
individual demand curves into a single market demand. Suppose you would be willing to buy one hour of
tutoring at a price of $80 per hour. George, who is also desperate to learn web design, would buy two hours at
that price; and I would buy none, since my publisher (McGrawHill) creates a web page for me (try
http://www.mhhe.com/schilleressentials10e). What would our combined (market) demand for hours of design
services be at that price? Our individual inclinations indicate that we would be willing to buy a total of three
hours of tutoring if the price were $80 per hour. Our combined willingness to buy—our collective market
demand—is nothing more than the sum of our individual demands. The same kind of aggregation can be
performed for all the consumers in a particular market. The resulting market demand is determined by the
number of potential buyers and their respective tastes, incomes, other goods, and expectations.
The Market Demand Curve
Figure 3.4 provides a market demand schedule and curve for a situation in which only three consumers
participate in the market. The three individuals who participate in this market obviously differ greatly, as
suggested by their respective demand schedules. Tom has to pass his web design classes or confront college and
parental rejection. He also has a nice allowance (income), so he can afford to buy a lot of tutorial help. His
demand schedule is portrayed in the first column of the table in Figure 3.4 (and is identical to the one we
examined in Figure 3.2). George, as we already noted, is also desperate to acquire some job skills and is willing
to pay relatively high prices for web design tutoring. His demand is summarized in the second column under
“Quantity of Tutoring Demanded.”
FIGURE 3.4
FIGURE 3.4 The Market Demand Schedule and Construction of the Market Demand CurveMarket demand
represents the combined demands of all market participants. To determine the total quantity of tutoring
demanded at any given price, we add up the separate demands of the individual consumers. Row G of this
demand schedule indicates that a total quantity of 39 hours of service per semester will be demanded at a price
of $20 per hour.
The market demand curve illustrates the same information. At a price of $20 per hour, the total quantity of web
design services demanded would be 39 hours per semester (point G): 12 hours demanded by Tom, 22 by George,
and 5 by Lisa. As price declines, the quantity demanded increases (the law of demand).
The third consumer in this market is Lisa. Lisa already knows the nuts and bolts of web design, so she doesn't
have much need for tutorial services. She would like to upgrade her skills, however, especially in animation and
ecommerce applications. But her limited budget precludes paying a lot for help. She will buy some technical
support only if the price falls to $30 per hour. Should tutors cost less, she'd even buy quite a few hours of design
services.
The differing personalities and consumption habits of Tom, George, and Lisa are expressed in their individual
demand schedules and associated curves, as depicted in Figure 3.4. To determine the market demand for tutoring
services from this information, we simply add up these three separate demands. The end result of this
aggregation is, first, a market demand schedule (the last column in the table) and, second, the resultant market
demand curve (the curve in Figure 3.4d). These market summaries describe the various quantities of tutoring
services that Clearview College students are willing and able to purchase each semester at various prices.
Would this many fans show up if concert prices were higher?
Source: © Frank Micelotta/Getty Images Entertainment/Getty Images
The Use of Demand Curves
So why does anybody care what the market demand curve looks like? What's the point of doing all this
arithmetic and drawing so many graphs?
If you were a web designer at Clearview College, you'd certainly like to have the information depicted in Figure
3.4. What the market demand curve tells us is how much tutoring service could be sold at various prices.
Suppose you hoped to sell 30 hours at a price of $30 per hour. According to Figure 3.4d (point E), students will
buy only 22 hours at that price. Hence, you won't attain your sales goal. You could find that out by posting ads
on campus and waiting for a response. It would be a lot easier, however, if you knew in advance what the market
demand curve looked like.
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People who promote music concerts need the same kind of information. They want to fill the stadium with
screaming fans. But fans have limited income and desires for other goods. Accordingly, the number of fans who
will buy concert tickets depends on the price. If the promoter sets the price too high, there will be lots of empty
seats at the concert. If the price is set too low, the promoter may lose potential sales revenue. What the promoter
wants to know is what price will induce the desired quantity demanded. If the promoter could consult a demand
curve, the correct price would be evident.
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SUPPLY
Even if we knew what the demand for every good looked like, we couldn't predict what quantities would be
bought. The demand curve tells us only how much consumers are willing and able to buy at specific prices. We
don't know the price yet, however. To find out what price will be charged, we've got to know something about
the behavior of people who sell goods and services. That is to say, we need to examine the supply side of the
marketplace. The market supply of a good reflects the collective behavior of all firms that are willing and able
to sell that good at various prices.
Determinants of Supply
Let's return to the Clearview campus for a moment. What we need to know now is how much web tutorial
services people are willing and able to provide. Web page design can be fun, but it can also be drudge work,
especially when you're doing it for someone else. Software programs like PhotoShop, Flash, and Muse have
made web page design easier and more creative. But teaching someone else to design web pages is still work. So
few people offer to supply web services just for the fun of it. Web designers do it for money. Specifically, they
do it to earn income that they, in turn, can spend on goods and services they desire.
How much income must be offered to induce web designers to do a job depends on a variety of things. The
determinants of market supply include
Technology.
Factor costs.
Other goods.
Taxes and subsidies.
Expectations.
Number of sellers.
The technology of web design, for example, is always getting easier and more creative. With a program like
PageOut, for example, it's very easy to create a basic web page. A continuous stream of new software programs
(e.g., Fireworks, Dreamweaver) keeps stretching the possibilities for graphics, animation, interactivity, and
content. These technological advances mean that web design services can be supplied more quickly and cheaply.
They also make teaching web design easier. As a result, they induce people to supply more web design services
at every price.
How much tutoring is offered at any given price also depends on the cost of factors of production. If the
software programs needed to create web pages are cheap (or, better yet, free!), web designers can afford to
charge lower prices. If the required software inputs are expensive, however, they will have to charge more
money per hour for their services.
Other goods can also affect the willingness to supply web design services. If you can make more income waiting
tables than you can designing web pages, why would you even boot up the computer? As the prices paid for
other goods and services change, they will influence people's decisions about whether to offer web services.
In the real world, the decision to supply goods and services is also influenced by the long arm of Uncle Sam.
Federal, state, and local governments impose taxes on income earned in the marketplace. When tax rates are
high, people get to keep less of the income they earn. Some people may conclude that tutoring is no longer
worth the hassle and withdraw from the market.
Expectations are also important on the supply side of the market. If web designers expect higher prices, lower
costs, or reduced taxes, they may be more willing to learn new software programs. On the other hand, if they
have poor expectations about the future, they may just find something else to do.
Finally, the number of available web designers will affect the quantity of service offered for sale at various
prices. If there are lots of willing web designers on campus, a large quantity of tutoring services will be
available.
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The Market Supply Curve
Figure 3.5 illustrates the market supply curve of web services at Clearview College. Like market demand, the
market supply curve is the sum of all the individual supplier decisions about how much output to produce at any
given price. The market supply curve slopes upward to the right, indicating that larger quantities will be offered
at higher prices. This basic law of supply reflects the fact that increased output typically entails higher costs
and so will be forthcoming only at higher prices. Higher prices may also increase profits and so entice producers
to supply greater quantities.
FIGURE 3.5
FIGURE 3.5 The Market Supply CurveThe market supply curve indicates the combined sales intentions of all
market participants. If the price of tutoring were $25 per hour (point e), the total quantity of tutoring service
supplied would be 62 hours per semester. This quantity is determined by adding together the supply decisions of
all individual producers.
Note that Figure 3.5 illustrates the market supply. We have not bothered to construct separate supply curves for
each person who is able and willing to supply web services on the Clearview campus. We have skipped that first
step and gone right to the market supply curve. Like the market demand curve, however, the market supply
curve is based on the supply decisions of individual producers. The curve itself is computed by adding up the
quantities each producer is willing and able to supply at every given price. Point f in Figure 3.5 tells us that those
individuals are collectively willing and able to produce 90 hours of tutoring per semester at a price of $30 per
hour. The rest of the points on the supply curve tell us how many hours of tutoring will be offered at other
prices.
None of the points on the market supply curve (Figure 3.5) tell us how much tutoring service is actually being
sold. Market supply is an expression of sellers' intentions, of the ability and willingness to sell, not a
statement of actual sales. My nextdoor neighbor may be willing to sell his 1996 Honda Civic for $6,000, but it
is most unlikely that he will ever find a buyer at that price. Nevertheless, his willingness to sell his car at that
price is part of the market supply of used cars.
Shifts in Supply
As with demand, there is nothing sacred about any given set of supply intentions. Supply curves shift when the
underlying determinants of supply change. Thus we again distinguish
Changes in quantity supplied: movements along a given supply curve.
Changes in supply: shifts of the supply curve.
Our Latin friend ceteris paribus is once again the decisive factor. If the price of tutoring services is the only
thing changing, then we can track changes in quantity supplied along the supply curve in Figure 3.5. But if
ceteris paribus is violated—if technology, factor costs, other goods, taxes, or expectations change—then
changes in supply are illustrated by shifts of the supply curve. The following News Wire “Supply Shift”
illustrates how a hurricane caused a leftward shift in the supply of used cars, raising their prices.
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NEWS WIRE SUPPLY SHIFT
Hurricane Sandy to Raise Prices on Used Cars
The immediate impact of Hurricane Sandy was devastating, and the storm's ripple effects will continue to be felt
in the weeks and months ahead as communities work to recover. One side effect becoming apparent is Sandy's
influence on the used car market.
Source: Andrea Booher/Federal Emergency Management Agency
According to the Detroit Free Press, the destruction of some 250,000 vehicles has led to a shortage that could
affect latemodel used vehicle prices nationwide. The National Auto Dealers Association estimates that prices
could increase 0.5% to 1.5%. That may not seem like much ($50–$175 per vehicle), but Edmunds.com suggests
that in the short term, prices could jump $700 to $1,000.
Source: George Kennedy, Autoblog, November 10, 2012. © 2012 AOL Inc. All rights reserved
NOTE: If an underlying determinant of supply changes, the entire supply curve shifts. A hurricane reduced the
available supply of used cars, causing their prices to spike.
EQUILIBRIUM
We now have the tools to determine the price and quantity of web tutoring services being sold at Clearview
College. The market supply curve expresses the ability and willingness of producers to sell web services at
various prices. The market demand curve illustrates the ability and willingness of Tom, George, and Lisa to buy
web services at those same prices. When we put the two curves together, we see that only one price and
quantity are compatible with the existing intentions of both buyers and sellers. This equilibrium price occurs
at the intersection of the two curves in Figure 3.6. Once it is established, web tutoring services will cost $20 per
hour. At that price, campus web designers will sell a total of 39 hours of tutoring service per semester—exactly
the same amount that students wish to buy at that price.
Market Clearing
An equilibrium doesn't imply that everyone is happy with the prevailing price or quantity. Notice in Figure 3.6,
for example, that some students who want to buy web tutoring don't get any. These wouldbe buyers are arrayed
along the demand curve below the equilibrium. Because the price they are willing to pay is less than the
equilibrium price, they don't get any tutoring.
FIGURE 3.6
FIGURE 3.6 Market EquilibriumOnly at equilibrium is the quantity demanded equal to the quantity supplied. In
this case, the equilibrium price is $20 per hour, and 39 hours is the equilibrium quantity.
At aboveequilibrium prices, a market surplus exists—the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded. At
prices below equilibrium, a market shortage exists.
The intersection of the demand and supply curves determines the equilibrium price and output in this market.
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Likewise, there are wouldbe sellers in the market who don't sell as much tutoring services as they might like.
These people are arrayed along the supply curve above the equilibrium. Because they insist on being paid a price
that is higher than the equilibrium price, they don't actually sell anything.
Although not everyone gets full satisfaction from the market equilibrium, that unique outcome is efficient. The
equilibrium price and quantity reflect a compromise between buyers and sellers. No other compromise yields
a quantity demanded that is exactly equal to the quantity supplied.
THE INVISIBLE HAND The equilibrium price is not determined by any single individual. Rather it is
determined by the collective behavior of many buyers and sellers, each acting out his or her own demand or
supply schedule. It is this kind of impersonal price determination that gave rise to Adam Smith's characterization
of the market mechanism as the “invisible hand.” In attempting to explain how the market mechanism works,
the famed eighteenthcentury economist noted a certain feature of market prices. The market behaves as if some
unseen force (the invisible hand) were examining each individual's supply or demand schedule, then selecting a
price that ensured an equilibrium. In practice, the process of price determination is not so mysterious; rather, it is
a simple one of trial and error.
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Market Shortage
Suppose for the moment that someone were to spread the word on the Clearview campus that tutors were
available at only $15 per hour. At that price Tom, George, and Lisa would be standing in line to get help with
their web classes, but campus web designers would not be willing to supply the quantity desired at that price. As
Figure 3.6 confirms, at $15 per hour, the quantity demanded (47 hours per semester) would exceed the quantity
supplied (20 hours per semester). In this situation, we speak of a market shortage—that is, an excess of
quantity demanded over quantity supplied. At a price of $15 an hour, the shortage amounts to 27 hours of web
service.
When a market shortage exists, not all consumer demands can be satisfied. Some people who are willing to buy
tutoring services at the going price ($15) will not be able to do so. To assure themselves of good grades, Tom,
George, Lisa, or some other consumer may offer to pay a higher price, thus initiating a move up the demand
curve of Figure 3.6. The higher prices offered will in turn induce other enterprising students to offer more web
tutoring, thus ensuring an upward movement along the market supply curve. Thus a higher price tends to call
forth a greater quantity supplied, as reflected in the upwardsloping supply curve. Notice, again, that the desire
to tutor web design has not changed: only the quantity supplied has responded to a change in price.
The accompanying News Wire “Market Shortage” illustrates what happens when tickets to special events are
priced below equilibrium. In this case, it was the visit of Pope Francis to New York City in September 2015.
Millions of Catholics and others wanted get a glimpse of the Pope. But there was limited room along the parade
route and in Central Park where the Pope would speak. So, how to accommodate the throngs who wanted to see
the Pope? The church decided to distribute 40,000 pairs of tickets to the faithful, in a sort of lottery. The lucky
winners got tickets for free. The losers? They were willing to pay for those tickets. So, a market in papal tickets
arose instantaneously, with “free” tickets priced as high as $2,500. The “scalpers” who were reselling tickets
were blessed with huge profits. Had the tickets been priced at the market equilibrium initially, there wouldn't
have been such an opportunity for scalping.
NEWS WIRE MARKET SHORTAGE
Scalpers Want Small Fortune for Tickets to See the Pope in NYC
Maybe the 11th commandment should be Thou shalt not scalp.
Free tickets to Pope Francis' procession through Central Park on Sept 25 are being hawked online for as much as
$3,000 a pair.
“Once in a lifetime–see Pope Francis,” proclaimed one sinful seller on Craigslist. Price: $2,500…
Source: © Giulio Napolitano/Shutterstock; RF
Church officials urged resellers to repent. “It certainly goes against everything that Pope Francis stands for,”
fumed Joseph Zwilling, spokesman for the Archdiocese of New York.
About 93,000 New Yorkers applied for the 40,000 pairs of tickets for the procession, where the Pontiff will ride
the Popemobile through the park greeting New Yorkers between 60th and 72nd Sts. at around 5pm.
The city began notifying lucky winners of the park tickets on Thursday, and will continue sending notifications
through Monday.
The free tickets were simply emailed in a PDF to winners, with no ID required, making them particularly easy to
sell.
Sellers and their crass ads soon began to multiply like loaves and fishes.
—Amber Jamieson
Source: Jamieson, Amber, “Scalpers Want Small Fortune For Tickets To See The Pope In NYC,” from
New York Post, September 12, 2015. Copyright © 2015 New York Post. All rights reserved. Used by
permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States. The printing, copying,
redistribution, or retransmission of this Content without express written permission is prohibited.
NOTE: A belowequilibrium price creates a market shortage. When that happens, another method of
distributing tickets—like scalping or time in line—must be used to determine who gets the available tickets.
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NEWS WIRE MARKET SHORTAGE
Apple iPhone 6 Plus Sells Out: Shipping Delays Expected
Apple was caught unaware when its flagship iPhone 6 experienced the biggest ever presale launch, causing the
larger 5.5in iPhone 6 Plus to go out of stock within hours after the preorders went live through the Apple
Online Store and other retailers.
Shipping dates for the 4.7in models seem to have been pushed back from seven to 20 days, while the larger 5.5in
variant's shipping dates were pushed back by nearly a month. Hardcore iPhone fans can still find preorders for
an iPhone 6 through black markets such as eBay or Craigslist via auction sales.
Source: Vinod Yalburgi, International Business Times, September 13, 2014.
NOTE: If price is below equilibrium, the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied. The willingness to
pay an advertised (list) price $199 for an iPhone 6 or $299 for the iPhone 6 Plus (on a 2year carrier contract)
didn't ensure its purchase.
A similar but less dramatic situation occurred when the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were released in September 2014.
At the initial list price of $199 for the 16 GB model of the iPhone 6 and $299 for the iPhone 6 Plus, the quantity
demanded greatly exceeded the quantity supplied (see the accompanying News Wire “Market Shortage”). With
sales at the rate of 34,000 phones per hour, Apple simply couldn't supply phones fast enough. To get an iPhone 6
or 6 Plus, people had to spend hours in line or pay a premium price in resale markets like eBay.
Market Surplus
A very different sequence of events occurs when a market surplus exists. Suppose for the moment that the web
designers at Clearview College believed tutoring services could be sold for $25 per hour rather than the
equilibrium price of $20. From the demand and supply schedules depicted in Figure 3.6, we can foresee the
consequences. At $25 per hour, campus web designers would be offering more web tutoring services (point y)
than Tom, George, and Lisa would be willing to buy at that price (point x). A market surplus of web services
would exist, in that more tutoring was being offered for sale (supplied) than students cared to purchase at the
available price.
As Figure 3.6 indicates, at a price of $25 per hour, a market surplus of 32 hours per semester exists. Under these
circumstances, campus web designers would be spending many idle hours at their computers, waiting for
customers to appear. Their waiting will be in vain because the quantity of tutoring demanded will not increase
until the price of tutoring falls. That is the clear message of the demand curve. The tendency of quantity
demanded to increase as price falls is illustrated in Figure 3.6 by a movement along the demand curve from
point x to lower prices and greater quantity demanded. As we move down the market demand curve, the desire
for tutoring does not change, but the quantity of people who are able and willing to buy increases. Web
designers at Clearview would have to reduce their price from $25 (point y) to $20 per hour in order to attract
enough buyers.
U2 learned the difference between market shortage and surplus the hard way. Cheap tickets ($28.50) for its 1992
concerts not only filled up every concert venue but left thousands of fans clamoring for entry. The group began
another tour in April 1997, with scheduled concerts in 80 cities over a period of 14 months. This time around,
however, U2 was charging as much as $52.50 a ticket—nearly double the 1992 price. By the time it got to the
second city, the group was playing in stadiums with lots of empty seats. The apparent market surplus led critics
to label the 1997 PopMart tour a disaster. For its 2009, 360° Tour, U2 offered festival seating for only $30 and
sold out every performance. By this process of trial and error, U2 ultimately located the equilibrium price for its
concerts.
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What we observe, then, is that whenever the market price is set above or below the equilibrium price, either a
market surplus or a market shortage will emerge. To overcome a surplus or shortage, buyers and sellers will
change their behavior. Only at the equilibrium price will no further adjustments be required.
Business firms can discover equilibrium market prices by trial and error. If they find that consumer purchases
are not keeping up with production, they may conclude that price is above the equilibrium. To get rid of their
accumulated inventory, they will have to lower their prices (by a grand endofyear sale, perhaps). In the happy
situation where consumer purchases are outpacing production, a firm might conclude that its price was a trifle
too low and give it a nudge upward. In either case, the equilibrium price can be established after a few trials in
the marketplace.
Changes in Equilibrium
The collective actions of buyers and sellers will quickly establish an equilibrium price for any product. No
equilibrium price is permanent, however. The equilibrium price established in the Clearview College web
services market, for example, was the unique outcome of specific demand and supply schedules. Those
schedules are valid for only a certain time and place. They will rule the market only so long as the assumption of
ceteris paribus holds.
In reality, tastes, incomes, the price and availability of other goods, or expectations could change at any time.
When this happens, ceteris paribus will be violated, and the demand curve will have to be redrawn. Such a shift
of the demand curve will lead to a new equilibrium price and quantity. Indeed, the equilibrium price will
change whenever the supply or demand curve shifts.
DEMAND SHIFTS We can illustrate how equilibrium prices change by taking one last look at the Clearview
College web services market. Our original supply and demand curves, together with the resulting equilibrium
point (point E1), are depicted in Figure 3.7. Now suppose that the professors at Clearview begin requiring more
technical expertise in their web design courses. These increased course requirements will affect market demand.
Tom, George, and Lisa will suddenly be willing to buy more web tutoring at every price than they were before.
That is to say, the demand for web services will increase. We represent this increased demand by a rightward
shift of the market demand curve, as illustrated in Figure 3.7.
FIGURE 3.7
FIGURE 3.7 A New EquilibriumA rightward shift of the demand curve indicates that consumers are willing and
able to buy a larger quantity at every price. As a consequence, a new equilibrium is established (point E2), at a
higher price and greater quantity. A shift of the demand curve occurs only when the assumption of ceteris
paribus is violated—when one of the determinants of demand changes.
The equilibrium would also be altered if the determinants of supply changed, causing a shift of the market
supply curve.
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Note that the new demand curve intersects the (unchanged) market supply curve at a new price (point E2); the
equilibrium price is now $30 per hour. This new equilibrium price will persist until either the demand curve or
the supply curve shifts again.
SUPPLY AND DEMAND SHIFTS Even more dramatic price changes may occur when both demand and
supply shift. Suppose the demand for tutoring increased at the same time supply decreased. With demand
shifting right and supply shifting left, the price of tutoring would jump.
The kinds of price changes described here are quite common. A few moments in a stockbroker's office or a
glance through the stock pages of the daily newspaper should be testimony enough to the fluid character of
market prices. If thousands of stockholders decide to sell Google shares tomorrow, you can be sure that the
market price of that stock will drop. Notice how often other prices—in the grocery store, in the music store, or at
the gas station—change. Then determine whether it was supply, demand, or both curves that shifted.
DISEQUILIBRIUM PRICING
The ability of the market to achieve an equilibrium price and quantity is evident. Nevertheless, people are often
unhappy with those outcomes. At Clearview College, the students buying tutoring services feel that the price of
such services is too high. On the other hand, campus web designers may feel that they are getting paid too little
for their tutorial services.
Price Ceilings
Sometimes consumers are able to convince the government to intervene on their behalf by setting a limit on
prices. In many cities, for example, poor people and their advocates have convinced local governments that rents
are too high. High rents, they argue, make housing prohibitively expensive for the poor, leaving them homeless
or living in crowded, unsafe quarters. They ask government to impose a limit on rents in order to make housing
affordable for everyone. Two hundred local governments—including New York City, Boston, Washington, DC,
and San Francisco—have responded with rent controls. In all cases, rent controls are a price ceiling—an upper
limit imposed on the price of a good or service.
Rent controls have a very visible effect in making housing more affordable. But such controls are disequilibrium
prices and will change housing decisions in less visible and unintended ways. Figure 3.8 illustrates the problem.
In the absence of government intervention, the quantity of housing consumed (qe) and the prevailing rent (pe)
would be established by the intersection of market supply and demand curves (point E). Not everyone would be
housed to his or her satisfaction in this equilibrium. Some of those people on the low end of the demand curve
(below pe) simply do not have enough income to pay the equilibrium rent pe. They may be living with relatives
or roommates they would rather not know. Or in extreme cases, they may even be homeless.
FIGURE 3.8
FIGURE 3.8 Price Ceilings Create ShortagesMany cities impose rent controls to keep housing affordable.
Consumers respond to the belowequilibrium price ceiling (pc) by demanding more housing (qd vs. qe). But the
quantity of housing supplied diminishes as landlords convert buildings to other uses (e.g., condos) or simply let
rental units deteriorate. New construction also slows. The result is a housing shortage (qd − qs) and an actual
reduction in available housing (qe − qs).
To remedy this situation, the city government imposes a rent ceiling of pc. This lower price seemingly makes
housing more affordable for everyone, including the poor. At the controlled rent pc, people are willing and able
to consume a lot more housing: The quantity demanded increases from qe to qd at point A.
But what about the quantity of housing supplied? Rent controls do not increase the number of housing units
available. On the contrary, price controls tend to have the opposite effect. Notice in Figure 3.8 how the quantity
supplied falls from qe to qs when the rent ceiling is enacted. When the quantity supplied slides down the supply
curve from point E to point B, less housing is available than there was before. Thus price ceilings have three
predictable effects; they
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Increase the quantity demanded.
Decrease the quantity supplied.
Create a market shortage.
You may well wonder where the “lost” housing went. The houses did not disappear. Some landlords simply
decided that renting their units was no longer worth the effort. They chose, instead, to sell the units, convert
them to condominiums, or even live in them themselves. Other landlords stopped maintaining their buildings,
letting the units deteriorate. The rate of new construction slowed too, as builders decided that rent control made
new construction less profitable. Slowly but surely the quantity of housing declines from qe to qs. Hence,
imposing rent controls to make housing more affordable for some means there will be less housing for all.
Figure 3.8 illustrates another problem. The rent ceiling pc has created a housing shortage—a gap between the
quantity demanded (qd) and the quantity supplied (qs). Who will get the increasingly scarce housing? The
market would have settled this FOR WHOM question by permitting rents to rise and allocating available units to
those consumers willing and able to pay the rent pe. Now, however, rents cannot rise, and we have lots of people
clamoring for housing that is not available. A different method of distributing goods must be found. Vacant units
will go to those who learn of them first, patiently wait on waiting lists, or offer a gratuity to the landlord or
renting agent. In New York City, where rent control has been the law for 80 years, people “sell” their rent
controlled apartments when they move elsewhere.
Price Floors
Artificially high (aboveequilibrium) prices create similar problems in the marketplace. A price floor is a
minimum price imposed by the government for a good or service. The objective is to raise the price of the good
and create more income for the seller. Federal minimum wage laws, for example, forbid most employers from
paying less than $7.25 an hour for labor.
Price floors are also common in the farm sector. To stabilize farmers' incomes, the government offers price
guarantees for certain crops. The government sets a price guarantee of 18.75 cents per pound for domestically
grown cane sugar. If the market price of sugar falls below 18.75 cents, the government promises to buy at the
guaranteed price. Hence farmers know they can sell their sugar for 18.75 cents per pound, regardless of market
demand.
Figure 3.9 illustrates the consequences of this price floor. The price guarantee (18.75¢) lies above the
equilibrium price pe (otherwise it would have no effect). At that higher price, farmers supply more sugar (qs
versus qe). However, consumers are not willing to buy that much sugar: at that price they demand only the
quantity qd. Hence the price floor has three predictable effects: It
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Increases the quantity supplied.
Reduces the quantity demanded.
Creates a market surplus.
FIGURE 3.9
FIGURE 3.9 Price Floors Create SurplusThe U.S. Department of Agriculture sets a minimum price for sugar at
18.75 cents. If the market price drops below 18.75 cents, the government will buy the resulting surplus.
Farmers respond by producing the quantity qs. Consumers would purchase the quantity qs, however, only if the
market price dropped to pm (point a on the demand curve). The government thus has to purchase and store the
surplus (qs − qd).
In 2015 the governmentguaranteed price (18.75¢) was 6 cents above the world price. That may not sound like a
big difference, but it amounts to over $1 billion a year for U.S. consumers. At that higher price U.S. cane and
beet sugar growers are willing to supply far more sugar than consumers demand. To prevent such a market
surplus, the federal government sets limits on sugar production—and decides who gets to grow it. This is a
classic case of government failure: society ends up with the wrong mix of output (too much sugar), an
increased tax burden (to pay for the surplus), an altered distribution of income (enriched sugar growers)—and a
lot of political favoritism.
Laissez Faire
The apparent inefficiencies of price ceilings and floors imply that market outcomes are best left alone. This is a
conclusion reached long ago by Adam Smith, the founder of modern economic theory. In 1776 he advocated a
policy of laissez faire—literally, “leave it alone.” As he saw it, the market mechanism was an efficient
procedure for allocating resources and distributing incomes. The government should set and enforce the rules of
the marketplace, but otherwise not interfere. Interference with the market—through price ceilings, floors, or
other regulation—was likely to cause more problems than it could hope to solve.
The policy of laissez faire is motivated not only by the potential pitfalls of government intervention but also by
the recognition of how well the market mechanism can work. Recall our visit to Clearview College, where the
price and quantity of tutoring services had to be established. There was no central agency that set the price of
tutoring service or determined how much tutoring service would be provided at Clearview College. Instead both
the price of web services and its quantity were determined by the market mechanism—the interactions of many
independent (decentralized) buyers and sellers.
WHAT, HOW, FOR WHOM Notice how the market mechanism resolved the basic economic questions of
WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM. The WHAT question refers to how much web tutoring to include in society's
mix of output. The answer at Clearview College was 39 hours per semester. This decision was not reached in a
referendum but instead in the market equilibrium (see Figure 3.6). In the same way, but on a larger scale,
millions of consumers and a handful of auto producers decide to include 17 million cars and trucks in each
year's mix of output.
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The market mechanism will also determine HOW these goods are produced. Profitseeking producers will strive
to produce web services and automobiles in the most efficient way. They will use market prices to decide not
only WHAT to produce but also what resources to use in the production process.
Finally, the invisible hand of the market will determine who gets the goods produced. At Clearview College,
who got tutorial help in web design? Only those students who were willing and able to pay $20 per hour for that
service. FOR WHOM are all those automobiles produced each year? The answer is the same: Consumers who
are willing and able to pay the market price for a new car.
OPTIMAL, NOT PERFECT Not everyone is happy with these answers, of course. Tom would like to pay
only $10 an hour for web tutoring. And some of the Clearview students do not have enough income to buy any
assistance. They think it is unfair that they have to master web design on their own while richer students can
have someone tutor them. Students who cannot afford cars are even less happy with the market's answer to the
FOR WHOM question.
Although the outcomes of the marketplace are not perfect, they are often optimal. Optimal outcomes are the best
possible given the level and distribution of incomes and scarce resources. In other words, we expect the choices
made in the marketplace to be the best possible choices for each participant. Why do we draw such a
conclusion? Because Tom and George and everyone else in our little Clearview College drama had (and
continue to have) absolute freedom to make their own purchase and consumption decisions. And also because
we assume that sooner or later they will make the choices they find most satisfying. The results are thus optimal
in the sense that everyone has done as well as can be expected, given his or her income and talents.
The optimality of market outcomes provides a powerful argument for laissez faire. In essence, the laissez faire
doctrine recognizes that decentralized markets not only work but also give individuals the opportunity to
maximize their satisfaction. In this context, government interference is seen as a threat to the attainment of the
“right” mix of output and other economic goals. Since its development by Adam Smith in 1776, the laissez faire
doctrine has had a profound impact on the way the economy functions and what government does (or doesn't
do).
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Did Gas Rationing Help or Hurt New Jersey Motorists?
Hurricane Sandy was the largest Atlantic storm on record. When it slammed into New Jersey on October 29,
2012, it destroyed thousands of homes, knocked out electricity for two million homes, flooded highways,
damaged port facilities, and killed 37 people.
The gasoline market in New Jersey was particularly hard hit by Superstorm Sandy. Onethird of the fuel
terminals in New Jersey were closed down due to storm damage, cutting off wholesale gasoline supplies.
Damage to oceanside ports, highways, and bridges cut off the tankers and trucks that normally brought in
gasoline. Worse yet, retail gas stations that had gasoline in their storage tanks couldn't pump it out because they
had no electricity. Over 60 percent of the gas stations in New Jersey were inoperable in the wake of Sandy. At
stations that were open, motorists lined up for miles to fill their gas tanks and gas cans.
Source: © Brendan Smialowski/AFP/Getty Images
Governor Christie responded to this crisis by imposing gas rationing in northern New Jersey (see News Wire
“Price Controls”). He also declared that gas stations could not charge a price that was more than 10 percent
above prehurricane levels. Those who did would be charged with price gouging and subjected to both civil and
criminal penalties.
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NEWS WIRE PRICE CONTROLS
Gov. Christie Signs Order to Ration Gas in 12 NJ Counties
New Jersey's gas crunch in the wake of Hurricane Sandy has become so severe that state officials are
implementing gas rationing for passenger vehicles in the counties hardest hit by the storm.
Gov. Chris Christie signed an executive order today announcing a state of energy emergency and instituting gas
rationing for the purchase of fuel by motorists in 12 counties, starting Saturday at noon.
Calling the fuel supply in the state a “shortage” that could endanger public health, safety, and welfare, the
rationing will take place in Bergen, Essex, Hudson, Hunterdon, Middlesex, Morris, Monmouth, Passaic,
Somerset, Sussex Union, and Warren counties.
Source: The StarLedger, November 2, 2012. © 2012 The StarLedger. All rights reserved.
NOTE: The intent of price controls is to distribute scarce supplies fairly. But price controls create market
shortages and delay market adjustments.
Although the price controls introduced by the governor seemed like a fair way to ration available gasoline, we
have to consider how an unregulated (free) market would have responded to Sandy. The damage inflicted by
Sandy caused a leftward shift of the market supply curve. Such a shift would normally cause a significant price
increase. While no consumer wants to pay more for gasoline, we have to ask how that higher price would have
affected market behavior.
On the demand side, the higher price would have reduced the quantity demanded. Higher prices cause
consumers to reevaluate their consumption decisions. Do they really have to get to the grocery store today? Or
can they wait a day or two? Higher prices induce consumers to forgo less important trips, reducing the quantity
demanded. The market price allocates available gasoline to its highestvalued uses.
On the supply side, there would be even more visible effects. Price controls reduce the incentive for truckers in
other states to bring more gasoline to New Jersey. At higher prices, the quantity supplied would increase,
moving us up the market supply curve. That increase in the quantity of gasoline supplied would have brought
relief to New Jersey motorists faster. Price controls slow the market adjustment process.
SUMMARY
Consumers, business firms, government agencies, and foreigners participate in the marketplace by
offering to buy or sell goods and services, or factors of production. Participation is motivated by the desire
to maximize utility (consumers), profits (business firms), or the general welfare (government agencies).
LO1
All interactions in the marketplace involve the exchange of either factors of production or finished
products. Although the actual exchanges can take place anywhere, we say that they take place in product
markets or factor markets, depending on what is being exchanged. LO1
People who are willing and able to buy a particular good at some price are part of the market demand for
that product. All those who are willing and able to sell that good at some price are part of the market
supply. Total market demand or supply is the sum of individual demands or supplies. LO2
Supply and demand curves illustrate how the quantity demanded or supplied changes in response to a
change in the price of that good. Demand curves slope downward; supply curves slope upward. LO2
The determinants of market demand include the number of potential buyers and their respective tastes
(desires), incomes, other goods, and expectations. If any of these determinants change, the demand curve
shifts. Movements along a demand curve are induced only by a change in the price of that good. LO4
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The determinants of market supply include technology, factor costs, other goods, taxes, expectations, and
the number of sellers. Supply shifts when these underlying determinants change. LO4
The quantity of goods or resources actually exchanged in each market depends on the behavior of all
buyers and sellers, as summarized in market supply and demand curves. At the point where the two curves
intersect, an equilibrium price—the price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied—
will be established. LO3
A distinctive feature of the market equilibrium is that it is the only price–quantity combination that is
acceptable to buyers and sellers alike. At higher prices, sellers supply more than buyers are willing to
purchase (a market surplus); at lower prices, the amount demanded exceeds the quantity supplied (a
market shortage). Only the equilibrium price clears the market. LO3
Price ceilings and floors are disequilibrium prices imposed on the marketplace. Such price controls create
an imbalance between quantities demanded and supplied. LO5
The market mechanism is a device for establishing prices and product and resource flows. As such, it may
be used to answer the basic economic questions of WHAT to produce, HOW to produce it, and FOR
WHOM. Its apparent efficiency prompts the call for laissez faire—a policy of government
nonintervention in the marketplace. LO3
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
market
factor market
product market
barter
supply
demand
opportunity cost
demand schedule
demand curve
law of demand
ceteris paribus
shift in demand
market demand
market supply
law of supply
equilibrium price
market shortage
market surplus
price ceiling or service
price floor
government failure
laissez faire
market mechanism
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What does the supply and demand for human kidneys look like? If a market in kidneys were legal, who
would get them? How does a law prohibiting kidney sales affect the quantity of kidney transplants or their
distribution? LO2
2. In the web tutoring market, what forces might cause LO4
1. A rightward shift of demand?
2. A leftward shift of demand?
3. A rightward shift of supply?
4. A leftward shift of supply?
5. An increase in the equilibrium price?
3. Did the price of tuition at your school change this year? What might have caused that? LO3
4. Illustrate the market shortage for tickets to the 2012 Sandy benefit concert (see News Wire “Market
Shortage”). Why were the tickets priced so low initially? LO5
5. When concert tickets are priced below equilibrium, who gets them? Is this distribution of tickets fairer
than a pure market distribution? Is it more efficient? Who gains or loses if all the tickets are resold
(scalped) at the marketclearing price? LO5
6. Is there a shortage of oncampus parking at your school? How might the shortage be resolved? LO5
7. If departing tenants sell access to rentcontrolled apartments, who is likely to end up with the apartments?
How else might scarce rentcontrolled apartments be distributed? LO5
8. If rent controls are so counterproductive, why do cities impose them? How else might the housing
problems of poor people be solved? LO5
9. Why did Apple set the initial price of the iPhone 6 below equilibrium (see the News Wire “Market
Shortage.” Should Apple have immediately raised the price? LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Was the gas rationing in New Jersey the fairest response to the gasoline
crisis? Who got the available gasoline? Who would have gotten it in the absence of price controls? LO5
PROBLEMS
1. Using the “new demand” in Figure 3.7 as a guide, determine the size of the market surplus or shortage that
would exist at a price of (a) $40 (b) $20 LO5
2. Based on the News Wire “Supply Shift,”
1. what is the initial (prehurricane) equilibrium price?
2. how large is the prehurricane shortage?
3. what is the posthurricane equilibrium price?
4. what is the prehurricane equilibrium quantity?
5. what is the posthurricane equilibrium quantity?
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6. how large is the posthurricane shortage at the prehurricane equilibrium price? LO3, LO5
3. According to the News Wire “Market Shortage,” LO5
1. How large was the market shortage at the Churchset price of $0?
2. If the Church had sold the tickets for $100, how would have quantity demanded changed?
(increased, decreased, not changed)
3. If the Church sold the tickets for $100, would the market shortage been larger or smaller?
4. If the Church sold the tickets for the equilibrium price, would a market shortage exist?
4. In September 2014 Apple was selling a gold version of the 128GB iPhone 6 for $949. Two days later that
phone was advertised on eBay for a starting bid of $1,625.
1. Was this evidence of A: market shortage or B: market surplus?
2. graph this situation LO5
5. Given the following data, (a) complete the following table; (b) construct market supply and demand
curves; (c) identify the equilibrium price; and (d) identify the amount of shortage or surplus that would
exist at a price of $4. LO2
6. If a product becomes more popular,
1. Which curve will shift?
2. Along which curve will price and quantity move?
At the new equilibrium price, will
3. price
4. quantity
be higher or lower? LO4
7. Which curve shifts, and in what direction, when the following events occur in the domestic car market?
1. The U.S. economy falls into a recession.
2. U.S. autoworkers go on strike.
3. Imported cars become more expensive.
4. The price of gasoline increases. LO4
8. Assume the following data describe the gasoline market:
1. Graph the demand and supply curves.
2. What is the equilibrium price?
3. If supply at every price is reduced by 6 gallons, what will the new equilibrium price be? LO3
4. If the government freezes the price of gasoline at its initial equilibrium price, how much of a surplus
or shortage will exist when supply is reduced as described in part c.?
9. Using the News Wire “Law of Demand,” answer the following questions:
1. According to the News Wire, what would be the response of students to a tax on alcohol that raises
the price of alcoholic drinks by $1?
2. Graph the response of students to higher alcohol prices. LO2
10. 1. Graph the outcomes in the used car market (News Wire “Supply Shift”) if the government had put a
ceiling of $20,000 on usedcar prices after Hurricane Sandy.
2. How large would the resulting market shortage be? LO5
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Illustrate on a graph the impact on the New Jersey gasoline market of LO4
1. Hurricane Sandy.
2. The governor's price controls.
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Source: © Best View Stock/Getty Images, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain why demand curves slope downward.
2. 2 Describe what the price elasticity of demand measures.
3. 3 Depict the relationship of price elasticity, price, and total revenue.
4. 4 Recite the factors that influence the degree of price elasticity.
5. 5 Discuss how advertising affects consumer demand.
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“S
hop until you drop” is apparently a way of life for many Americans. The average American (man, woman, or
child) spends a whopping $40,000 per year on consumer goods and services. This adds up at the cash register to
a consumption bill of over $12 trillion a year.
A major concern of microeconomics is to explain this shopping frenzy. What drives us to department stores,
grocery stores, and every big sale in town? More specifically,
How do we decide how much of any good to buy?
How does a change in a product's price affect the quantity we purchase or the amount of money we spend
on it?
What factors other than price affect our consumption decisions?
The law of demand, first encountered in Chapter 3, gives us some clues for answering these questions. But we
need to look beyond that law to fashion more complete answers. Knowing that demand curves are downward
sloping is important, but that knowledge won't get us far in the real world. In the real world, producers need to
know the exact quantities demanded at various prices. Producers also need to know what forces will shift
consumer demand.
The specifics of consumer demand are also important to public policy decisions. Suppose a city wants to relieve
highway congestion and encourage more people to use public transit. Will public appeals be effective in
changing commuter behavior? Probably not. But a change in relative prices might do the trick. Experience
shows that raising the price of private auto use (e.g., higher parking fees, bridge tolls) and lowering transit fares
are effective in changing commuters' behavior. Economists try to predict just how much prices should be altered
to elicit the desired response.
Your school worries about the details of consumer demand as well. If tuition goes up again, some students will
go elsewhere. Other students may take fewer courses. As enrollment begins to drop, school administrators may
ask economics professors for some advice on tuition pricing. Their advice will be based on studies of consumer
demand. ■
PATTERNS OF CONSUMPTION
A good way to start a study of consumer demand is to observe how consumers spend their incomes. Figure 4.1
provides a quick summary. Note that close to half of all consumer spending is for food and shelter. Out of the
typical consumer dollar, 34 cents is devoted to housing—everything from rent and repairs to utility bills and
grass seed. Another 13 cents is spent on food, including groceries and trips to McDonald's. We also spend a lot
on cars; transportation expenditures (car payments, maintenance, gasoline, insurance) eat up 18 cents of the
typical consumer dollar.
FIGURE 4.1
FIGURE 4.1 How the Consumer Dollar Is SpentConsumers spend their incomes on a vast array of goods and
services. This figure summarizes those consumption decisions by showing how the average consumer dollar is
spent. The goal of economic theory is to explain and predict these consumption choices.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 2013. Consumer Expenditure Survey.
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Taken together, housing, transportation, food, and health expenditures account for 70 percent of the typical
household budget. Most people regard these items as the “basic essentials.” However, there is no rule that says
13 cents of every consumer dollar must be spent on food or that 34 percent of one's budget is “needed” for
shelter. What Figure 4.1 depicts is how the average consumer has chosen to spend his or her income. We could
choose to spend our incomes in other ways.
A closer examination of consumer patterns reveals that we do in fact change our habits on occasion. In the last
10 years, our annual consumption of red meat has declined from 125 pounds per person to 115 pounds. In the
same time, our consumption of chicken has increased from 47 pounds to 70 pounds. We now consume less
coffee, whiskey, beer, and eggs but more wine, asparagus, and ice cream compared to 10 years ago.
Smartphones and computer tablets are regarded as essentials today, even though no one had these products 15
years ago. What prompted these changes in consumption patterns?
Some changes in consumption are more sudden. In the recession of 2008–2009, Americans abruptly stopped
buying new cars. Does that mean that cars were no longer essential? When oil prices rose sharply in 2011,
people drove their cars less. Does that mean they liked driving less? Or did changes in income and prices alter
consumer behavior?
DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND
In seeking explanations for consumer behavior, we have to recognize that economics doesn't have all the
answers. But it does offer a unique perspective that sets it apart from other fields of study.
The Sociopsychiatric Explanation
Consider first the explanations of consumer behavior offered by other fields of study. Psychiatrists and
psychologists have had a virtual field day formulating such explanations. The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939) was among the first to describe us as bundles of subconscious (and unconscious) fears,
complexes, and anxieties. From a Freudian perspective, we strive for everhigher levels of consumption to
satisfy basic drives for security, sex, and ego gratification. Like the most primitive of people, we clothe and
adorn ourselves in ways that assert our identity and worth. We eat and smoke too much because we need the oral
gratification and security associated with the mother's breast. Selfindulgence, in general, creates in our minds
the safety and satisfactions of childhood. Oversized homes and cars provide us with a source of warmth and
security remembered from the womb. On the other hand, we often buy and consume some things we expressly
don't desire, just to assert our rebellious feelings against our parents (or parent substitutes). In Freud's view, it is
the constant interplay of id, ego, and superego drives that motivates us to buy, buy, buy.
Sociologists offer additional explanations for our consumption behavior. They emphasize our yearning to stand
above the crowd, to receive recognition from the masses. For people with exceptional talents, such recognition
may come easily. But for the ordinary person, recognition may depend on conspicuous consumption. Owning a
larger car, wearing the newest fashion, and taking an exotic vacation become expressions of identity that
provoke recognition, even social envy. Thus we strive for higher levels of consumption—so as to surpass the
Joneses, rather than just keep up with them.
Not all consumption is motivated by ego or status concerns, of course. Some food is consumed for the sake of
selfpreservation, some clothing is chosen because it provides warmth, and some housing simply offers shelter.
The typical American consumer has more than enough income to satisfy these basic needs, however. In today's
economy, consumers have a lot of discretionary income that can be used to satisfy psychological or sociological
longings. As a result, single women are able to spend a lot of money on clothing and pets, while men spend
freely on entertainment, food, and drink (see the accompanying News Wire “Consumption Patterns”). As for
teenagers, they show off their affluence with purchases of electronic goods, cars, and clothes (see Figure 4.2).
FIGURE 4.2
FIGURE 4.2 Affluent TeenagersTeenagers spend over $300 billion a year. Much of this spending is for cars,
stereos, and other durables. The percentage of U.S. teenagers owning certain items is shown here.
Source: © 2009 TRU, www.truinsight.com.
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NEWS WIRE CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
Men versus Women: How They Spend
Are men really different from women? If spending habits are any clue, males do differ from females. That's the
conclusion one would draw from the latest Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) survey of consumer expenditures.
Here's what BLS found out about the spending habits of young (under age 25) men and women who are living
on their own.
Common Traits
Young men have a lot more income to spend ($16,253) than do young women ($13,520). Both sexes go
deep into debt, however, by spending upwards of $6,000 more than their incomes.
Neither sex spends much on charity, reading, or health care.
Distinctive Traits
Young men spend much more ($2,048) at fastfood outlets, restaurants, and carryouts than do young
women ($1,321).
Men spend twice as much on alcoholic beverages and smoking.
Men spend nearly twice as much as women do on television, cars, and stereo equipment.
Young women spend a lot more money on education, clothing, pets, and personal care items.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013 Consumer Expenditure Survey.
NOTE: Consumer patterns vary by gender, age, and other characteristics. Economists try to isolate the common
influences on consumer behavior.
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The Economic Explanation
Although psychiatrists and sociologists offer many reasons for these various consumption patterns, their
explanations all fall a bit short. At best, sociopsychiatric theories tell us why teenagers, men, and women desire
certain goods and services. They don't explain which goods will actually be purchased. Desire is only the first
step in the consumption process. To acquire goods and services, one must be willing and able to pay for one's
wants. Producers won't give you their goods just because you want to satisfy your Freudian desires. They want
money in exchange for their goods. Hence prices and income are just as relevant to consumption decisions as
are more basic desires and preferences.
You may desire this car, but are you able and willing to buy it?
Source: © Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography/Alamy
In explaining consumer behavior, then, economists focus on the demand for goods and services. To say that
someone demands a particular good means that he or she is able and willing to buy it at some price(s). In the
marketplace, money talks: The willingness and ability to pay are critical. Many people with a strong desire for a
Maserati (see photo) have neither the ability nor the willingness to actually buy it; they do not demand
Maseratis. Similarly, there are many rich people who are willing and able to buy goods they only remotely
desire; they demand all kinds of goods and services.
What determines a person's willingness and ability to buy specific goods? As we saw in Chapter 3, economists
have identified four different influences on consumer demand: tastes, income, expectations, and the prices of
other goods. Note again that desire (tastes) is only one determinant of demand. Other determinants of demand
(income, expectations, and other goods) also influence whether a person will be willing and able to buy a certain
good at a specific price.
As we observed in Chapter 3, the market demand for a good is simply the sum of all individual consumer
demands. Hence the market demand for a specific product is determined by
Tastes (desire for this and other goods).
Income (of consumers).
Expectations (for income, prices, tastes).
Other goods (their availability and price).
The number of consumers in the market.
In the remainder of this chapter we shall see how these determinants of demand give the demand curve its
downward slope. Our objective is not only to explain consumer behavior but also to see (and predict) how
consumption patterns change in response to changes in the price of a good or service or to changes in the
underlying determinants of demand.
THE DEMAND CURVE
Utility Theory
The starting point for an economic analysis of demand is straightforward. Economists accept consumer tastes as
the outcome of sociopsychiatric and cultural influences. They don't look beneath the surface to see how those
tastes originated. Economists simply note the existence of certain tastes (desires) and then look to see how those
tastes affect consumption decisions. We assume that the more pleasure a product gives us, the higher the price
we would be willing to pay for it. If gobbling buttered popcorn at the movies really pleases you, you're likely to
be willing to pay dearly for it. If you have no great taste or desire for popcorn, the theater might have to give it
away before you'd eat it.
TOTAL VERSUS MARGINAL UTILITY Economists use the term utility to refer to the expected pleasure,
or satisfaction, obtained from goods and services. Total utility refers to the amount of satisfaction obtained from
your entire consumption of a product. By contrast, marginal utility refers to the amount of satisfaction you get
from consuming the last (i.e., marginal) unit of a product.
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DIMINISHING MARGINAL UTILITY The concepts of total and marginal utility explain not only why we
buy popcorn at the movies but also why we stop eating it at some point. Even people who love popcorn (i.e.,
derive great total utility from it), and can afford it, don't eat endless quantities of popcorn. Why not? Presumably
because the thrill diminishes with each mouthful. The first box of popcorn may bring gratification, but the
second or third box is likely to bring a stomachache. We express this change in perception by noting that the
marginal utility of the first box of popcorn is higher than the additional or marginal utility derived from the
second box.
The behavior of popcorn connoisseurs is not that unusual. Generally speaking, the amount of additional utility
we obtain from a product declines as we continue to consume larger quantities of it. The third slice of pizza is
not as desirable as the first, the sixth soda not so satisfying as the fifth, and so forth. Indeed, this phenomenon of
diminishing marginal utility is so commonplace that economists have fashioned a law around it. This law of
diminishing marginal utility states that each successive unit of a good consumed yields less additional utility.
The law of diminishing marginal utility does not say that we won't like the third box of popcorn, the second
pizza, or the sixth soda; it just says we won't like them as much as the ones we've already consumed. Note also
that time is important here: If the first pizza was eaten last year, the second pizza, eaten now, may taste just as
good. The law of diminishing marginal utility applies to short time periods.
The expectation of diminishing marginal utility is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The graph on the left depicts the total
utility obtained from eating popcorn. Notice that total utility continues to rise as we consume the first five boxes
of popcorn. But total utility increases by smaller and smaller increments. Each successive step of the total utility
curve in Figure 4.3 is a little shorter.
FIGURE 4.3
FIGURE 4.3 Total versus Marginal UtilityThe total utility (a) derived from consuming a product comes from
the marginal utilities of each successive unit. The total utility curve shows how each of the first five boxes of
popcorn contributes to total utility. Note that each successive step is smaller. This reflects the law of diminishing
marginal utility.
The sixth box of popcorn causes the total utility steps to descend; the sixth box actually reduces total utility. This
means that the sixth box has negative marginal utility.
The marginal utility curve (b) shows the change in total utility with each additional unit. It is derived from the
total utility curve. Marginal utility here is positive but diminishing for the first five boxes. For the sixth box,
marginal utility is negative.
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The height of each step of the total utility curve in Figure 4.3 represents marginal utility—the increments to total
utility. The graph on the right in Figure 4.3 illustrates these marginal increments—the height of each step of the
total utility curve (left graph). This graph shows more clearly how marginal utility diminishes.
Do not confuse diminishing marginal utility with dislike. Figure 4.3 doesn't imply that the second box of
popcorn isn't desirable. It only says that the second box isn't as satisfying as the first. It still tastes good,
however. How do we know? Because its marginal utility is positive (right graph), and therefore total utility (left
graph) rises when the second box is consumed. So long as marginal utility is positive, total utility must be
increasing.
You can have too much of a good thing. No matter how much we like a product, marginal utility is likely to
diminish as we consume more of it.
Source: Lillian Dougherty
The situation changes abruptly with the sixth box of popcorn. According to Figure 4.3, the good sensations
associated with popcorn consumption are completely forgotten by the time the sixth box arrives. Nausea and
stomach cramps dominate. Indeed, the sixth box is absolutely distasteful, as reflected in the downturn of total
utility and the negative value for marginal utility. We were happier—in possession of more total utility—with
only five boxes of popcorn. The sixth box—yielding negative marginal utility—has reduced total satisfaction.
This is the kind of sensation you'd also experience if you ate too much pizza (see the accompanying cartoon).
Marginal utility explains not only why we stop eating before we explode but also why we pay so little for
drinking water. Water has a high total utility: we would die without it. But its marginal utility is low, so we're
not willing to pay much for another glass of it.
Not all goods approach zero (much less negative) marginal utility. Yet the more general principle of diminishing
marginal utility is experienced daily. That is to say, additional quantities of a good eventually yield increasingly
smaller increments of satisfaction. Total utility continues to rise, but at an ever slower rate as more of a good is
consumed. There are exceptions to the law of diminishing marginal utility, but not many. (Can you think of
any?)
Price and Quantity
Marginal utility is essentially a measure of how much we desire particular goods. But which ones will we buy?
Clearly, we don't always buy the products we most desire. Price is often a problem. All too often we have to
settle for goods that yield less marginal utility simply because they are less expensive. This explains why most
people don't drive Porsches. Our desire (“taste”) for a Porsche may be great, but its price is even greater. The
challenge for most people is to somehow reconcile our tastes with our bank balances.
In deciding whether to buy something, our immediate focus is typically on a single variable—namely price.
Assume that a person's tastes, income, and expectations are set in stone and that the prices of other goods are
fixed as well. This is the ceteris paribus assumption we first encountered in Chapter 1. It doesn't mean that other
influences on consumer behavior are unimportant. Rather, the ceteris paribus simply allows us to focus on one
variable at a time. In this case, we are focusing on price. What we want to know is how high a price a
consumer is willing to pay for another unit of a product.
The concepts of marginal utility and ceteris paribus enable us to answer this question. The more marginal utility
a good delivers, the more you're willing to pay for it. But marginal utility diminishes as increasing quantities of a
product are consumed. Hence you won't be willing to pay so much for additional quantities of the same good.
The moviegoer who is willing to pay 50 cents for that first mouthwatering ounce of buttered popcorn may not be
willing to pay so much for a second or third ounce. The same is true for the second pizza, the sixth soda, and so
forth. With given income, taste, expectations, and prices of other goods and services, people are willing to buy
additional quantities of a good only if its price falls. In other words, as the marginal utility of a good
diminishes, so does our willingness to pay.
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This inverse relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and its price is referred to as the law of
demand. Figure 4.4 illustrates this relationship again for the case of popcorn. Notice that the demand curve
slopes downward: More popcorn is purchased at lower prices.
FIGURE 4.4
FIGURE 4.4 A Demand Schedule and CurveBecause marginal utility diminishes, consumers are willing to buy
larger quantities of a good only at lower prices. This demand schedule and curve illustrate the specific quantities
demanded at alternative prices.
Notice that points A through J on the curve correspond to the rows of the demand schedule. If popcorn sold for
25 cents per ounce, this consumer would buy 12 ounces per show (point F). More popcorn would be demanded
only if the price were reduced (points G–J).
The law of demand and the law of diminishing marginal utility tell us nothing about why we crave popcorn or
why our cravings subside. That's the job of psychiatrists, sociologists, and physiologists. The laws of economics
simply describe our market behavior.
PRICE ELASTICITY
The theory of demand helps explain consumer behavior. Often, however, much more specific information is
desired. Imagine you owned a theater and were actually worried about popcorn sales. Knowing that the demand
curve is downwardsloping wouldn't tell you a whole lot about what price to charge. What you'd really want to
know is how much popcorn sales would change if you raised or lowered the price.
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NEWS WIRE PRICE ELASTICITY
Price Cut on MacBook Air Jumpstarts Sales
Last April Apple surprised the marketplace by cutting the price of the MacBook Air at the same time it was
announcing improvements to it. The price of the entrylevel, 11inch version was cut from $999 to $899. Since
then, MacBook Air sales have accelerated significantly. Apple says unit sales are up 21 percent over last year
and sales revenue has increased to $6.6 billion. That is a huge departure from the downward trend in desktop
sales most manufacturers are experiencing.
Apple
Source: © Norman Kin Hang Chan/123RF, RF
Source: News accounts from April 2015.
NOTE: According to the law of demand, quantity demanded increases when price falls. The price elasticity of
demand measures how price sensitive consumers are.
Airlines want the same kind of hard data. Airlines know that around Christmas they can charge full fares and
still fill all their planes. After the holidays, however, people have less desire to travel. To fill planes in February,
the airlines must offer discount fares. But how far should they lower ticket prices? That depends on how much
passenger traffic changes in response to reduced fares.
Apple Computer confronted a similar problem in June 2007. Apple was launching the very first iPhone at a price
of $599. The product was an instant hit. But Apple wanted even greater sales. So it cut the price to $399 two
months later, and unit sales skyrocketed from 9,000 iPhones a day to 27,000 a day. The desire for iPhones hadn't
changed, but the price had. In 2014 Apple again used price cuts to accelerate the pace of sales, this time for the
MacBook Air (see News Wire “Price Elasticity”).
The central question in all these decisions is the response of quantity demanded to a change in price. The
response of consumers to a change in price is measured by the price elasticity of demand. Specifically, the
price elasticity of demand refers to the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage
change in price:
Suppose we increased the price of popcorn by 20 percent. We know from the law of demand that the quantity of
popcorn demanded will fall. But we need to observe market behavior to see how far sales drop. Suppose that
unit sales (quantity demanded) fall by 10 percent. We could then compute the price elasticity of demand as
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Since price and quantity demanded always move in opposite directions (the law of demand), E is a negative
value (−0.5 in this case). For convenience, however, we use the absolute value of E (without the minus sign).
What we learn here is that popcorn sales decline at half (0.5) the rate of price increases. Moviegoers cut back
grudgingly on popcorn consumption when popcorn prices rise.
Elastic versus Inelastic Demand
We characterize the demand for various goods in one of three ways: elastic, inelastic, or unitary elastic. If E is
larger than 1, we say demand is elastic: Consumer response is large relative to the change in price.
If E is less than 1, we say demand is inelastic. This is the case with popcorn, where E is only 0.5. If demand is
inelastic, consumers aren't very responsive to price changes.
If E is equal to 1, demand is unitary elastic. In this case, the percentage change in quantity demanded is exactly
equal to the percentage change in price.
Consider the case of smoking. Many smokers claim they would “pay anything” for a cigarette if they ran out.
But would they? Would they continue to smoke just as many cigarettes if prices doubled or tripled? Research
suggests not: Higher cigarette prices do curb smoking. There is at least some elasticity in the demand for
cigarettes. But the elasticity of demand is low; Table 4.1 indicates that the elasticity of cigarette demand is only
0.4. As a result, the tripling of the federal tax on cigarettes in 2009 had only a modest effect on adult smoking,
as the News Wire “Price Elasticity of Demand” explains.
TABLE 4.1
TABLE 4.1 Elasticity Estimates
Price elasticities vary greatly. When the price of gasoline increases, consumers reduce their consumption only
slightly: Demand for gasoline is inelastic. When the price of fish increases, however, consumers cut back their
consumption substantially: Demand for fish is elastic. These differences reflect the availability of immediate
substitutes, the prices of the goods, and the amount of time available for changing behavior.
Sources: Compiled from Hendrick S. Houthakker and Lester D. Taylor, Consumer Demand in the United States,
1929–1970 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966); F. W. Bell, “The Pope and Price of Fish,”
American Economic Review, December 1968; and Michael Ward, “Product Substitutability and Competition in
LongDistance Telecommunications,” Economic Inquiry, October 1999.
Although the average adult smoker is not very responsive to changes in cigarette prices, teen smokers apparently
are: Teen smoking drops by almost 7 percent when cigarette prices increase by 10 percent. Thus the price
elasticity of teen demand for smoking is
Hence higher cigarette prices can be an effective policy tool for curbing teen smoking. The decline in teen
smoking after the 2009 tax increase confirms this expectation.
According to Table 4.1, the demand for airline travel is even more price elastic. Whenever a fare cut is
announced, the airlines get swamped with telephone inquiries. If fares are discounted by 25 percent, the number
of passengers may increase by as much as 60 percent. As Table 4.1 shows, the elasticity of airline demand is 2.4,
meaning that the percentage change in quantity demanded (60 percent) will be 2.4 times larger than the price cut
(25 percent). The price elasticity of demand for the MacBook Air wasn't that large in 2014, according to the
News Wire “Price Elasticity” but MacBook Air sales still increased a lot in response to Apple's price cut on the
laptop.
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NEWS WIRE PRICE ELASTICITY OF DEMAND
Smokers Gasping at Obama's Tax Hike
Washington, D.C. Yesterday President Obama signed a law that triples the federal excise tax on cigarettes. The
new law hikes the cigarette tax from 39 cents per pack to $1.01 per pack, effective March 31. That's the biggest
cigarette tax hike ever. It increases the price of a 10pack carton of Marlboros by $10.10. Cigar smokers are hit
with an even heftier tax hike: the maximum tax on a cigar jumps from 4.9 cents to a whopping 40.26 cents.
These higher taxes will hit smokers hard. A packaday smoker will be paying Uncle Sam an extra $226 a year
in excise taxes. All told, the tax is projected to bring in over $35 billion over the next five years. Smokers say
this isn't fair, especially in light of president Obama's campaign pledge not to raise taxes on any family making
less than $250,000 a year. 96 percent of smokers fall into that category and one in four smokers are officially
classified as poor. So, the tax hikes will hurt.
Mathew McKenna, of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, says the news isn't all bad. A ten percent
price increase tends to reduce cigarette consumption by about 4 percent. He expects the Obama tax hike to
convince at least 1 million of the nation's 45 million adult smokers to kick the habit.
Source: News accounts of February 5, 2009
NOTE: Higher prices reduce quantity demanded. How much? It depends on the price elasticity of demand.
Price Elasticity and Total Revenue
The concept of price elasticity refutes the popular misconception that producers charge the highest price
possible. Except in the rare case of completely inelastic demand (E = 0), this notion makes no sense. Indeed,
higher prices may actually reduce total sales revenue.
The total revenue of a seller is the amount of money received from product sales. It is determined by the
quantity of the product sold and the price at which it is sold. Specifically,
If the price of popcorn is 25 cents per ounce and 12 ounces are sold (point F in Figure 4.5), total revenue equals
$3.00 per show. This total revenue is illustrated by the shaded rectangle in Figure 4.5. (Recall that the area of a
rectangle is equal to its height, p, times its width, q.)
FIGURE 4.5
FIGURE 4.5 Elasticity and Total RevenueTotal revenue is equal to the price of the product times the quantity
sold. It is illustrated by the area of the rectangle formed by p × q. The shaded rectangle illustrates total revenue
($3.00) at a price of 25 cents and a quantity demanded of 12 ounces.
When price is reduced to 20 cents, the rectangle and total revenue expand (see the dashed lines connected to
point G) because demand is elastic (E > 1) in that price range.
Price cuts reduce total revenue only if demand is inelastic (E < 1), as it is here for prices below 20 cents
(compare the total revenue at points G and H).
EFFECT OF A PRICE CUT Now consider what happens to total revenue when the price of popcorn is
reduced. Will total revenue decline along with the price? Maybe not. Remember the law of demand: As price
falls, the quantity demanded increases. Hence total revenue might actually increase when the price of popcorn is
reduced. Whether it does or not depends on how much quantity demanded goes up when price goes down. This
brings us back to the concept of elasticity.
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Suppose we reduce popcorn prices from 25 cents to only 20 cents per ounce. What happens to total revenue? We
know from Figure 4.5 that total revenue at point F was $3.00. When the price drops to 20 cents, unit sales
increase significantly (to 16 ounces). In fact, they increase so much that total revenue actually increases as well.
Total revenue at point G ($3.20) is larger than at point F ($3.00). Because total revenue rose when price fell,
demand must be elastic in this price range. (See the last column in Table 4.2.)
TABLE 4.2
TABLE 4.2 Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue
The impact of higher prices on total revenue depends on the price elasticity of demand. Higher prices result in
higher total revenue only if demand is inelastic. If demand is elastic, higher prices result in lower revenues.
Total revenue can't continue rising as price falls. At the extreme, price would fall to zero, and there would be no
revenue. So somewhere along the demand curve falling prices will begin to pinch total revenue. In Figure 4.5
this happens when the price of popcorn drops from 20 cents to 15 cents. Unit sales again increase (from 16 to 20
ounces) but not enough to compensate for the price decline. As a result, total revenue at point H ($3.00) is less
than at point G ($3.20). Total revenue falls in this case because the consumer response to a price reduction is
small compared to the size of the price cut. In other words, demand is price inelastic. Thus we can conclude that
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A price cut reduces total revenue if demand is inelastic (E < 1).
A price cut increases total revenue if demand is elastic (E > 1).
A price cut does not change total revenue if demand is unitary elastic (E = 1).
Table 4.2 summarizes these responses as well as responses to price increases.
Once we know the price elasticity of demand, we can predict how consumers will respond to changing prices.
We can also predict what will happen to total revenue when a seller raises or lowers the price. Presumably
Starbucks performed these calculations before increasing coffee prices in 2014 (see the following News Wire
“Price, Sales, and Total Revenue”).
Determinants of Price Elasticity
Table 4.1 indicates the actual price elasticity for a variety of familiar goods and services. These large differences
in elasticity are explained by several factors.
NECESSITIES VERSUS LUXURIES Some goods are so critical to our everyday life that we regard them as
necessities. A hairbrush, toothpaste, and perhaps textbooks might fall into this category. Our taste for such goods
is so strong that we can't imagine getting along without them. As a result, we don't change our consumption of
necessities much when the price increases; demand for necessities is relatively inelastic.
A luxury good, by contrast, is something we'd like to have but aren't likely to buy unless our income jumps or
the price declines sharply; vacation travel, new cars, and 3D television sets are examples. We want them, but we
can get by without them. Thus demand for luxury goods is relatively elastic.
AVAILABILITY OF SUBSTITUTES Our notion of what goods are necessities is also influenced by the
availability of substitute goods. The high elasticity of demand for fish recorded in Table 4.1 reflects the fact that
consumers can always eat tofu, chicken, beef, or pork if fish prices rise. On the other hand, most coffee drinkers
cannot imagine any substitute for a cup of coffee. As a consequence, when coffee prices rise, consumers do not
reduce their purchases very much at all. Likewise, the low elasticity of demand for gasoline reflects the fact that
most cars can't run on alternative fuels. In general, the greater the availability of substitutes, the higher the
price elasticity of demand. This is a principle that San Francisco learned when it introduced a “butt tax” of 20
cents per pack of cigarettes in 2009 (see the accompanying News Wire “Substitute Goods”). Incity sales
declined as smokers turned to adjoining states and cities, Indian reservations, and the Internet for their cigarette
purchases. There were lots of substitutes for cigarettes sold (and taxed) in San Francisco.
NEWS WIRE PRICE, SALES, AND TOTAL REVENUE
Starbucks Customers Shrug Off Price Hike
Starbucks announced new price hikes, effective June 24. The price of coffees and lattes will increase 5–20 cents
per cup, depending on size, while the price of beans will jump from $8.99 to $9.99 for a 12ounce bag. Analysts
think it's a good move for Starbucks. Past price hikes haven't made a dent in customer visits. The company says
the average customer now spends $4.25 per visit. The new price hike will raise that spend to $4.30, or about 1
percent. CEO Howard Schultz expects revenue growth to accelerate in the coming year.
Source: © Deposit Photos / Glow images, RF
Source: News accounts of JuneJuly 2014
NOTE: The impact of a price increase on unit sales and total revenue depends on the price elasticity of demand.
Starbucks was counting on inelastic demand when it increased its prices in 2014.
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NEWS WIRE SUBSTITUTE GOODS
San Francisco: The Butts Stop Here
San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom says there are far too many butts in the City by the Bay. Not human butts,
of course, but cigarette butts. Picking up the discarded butts costs the city $6 million a year. To make careless
smokers pay these cleanup costs, he levied a tax of 20 cents on every pack of cigarettes sold in the city, effective
October 2009. With 30 million packs being sold in the city annually, the 20 cent “fee” looked high enough to
cover the costs of the butt cleanup ($6 million).
Mayor Gavin shouldn't count those chickens before they hatch. The only way the new 20 cent fee can generate
$6 million a year is if San Franciscans continue to purchase 30 million packs per year. That just isn't going to
happen. The law of demand is more powerful than the laws of San Francisco, and the law of demand clearly
states that the quantity demanded goes down when price goes up. Finding substitute goods for San Francisco
cigarettes is easy. Buy a carton of cigarettes in the neighboring communities of Daly City, Oakland, or Sausalito
and you save $2.00. Buy cigarettes online from an Indian reservation (which does not pay federal or state taxes)
and save even more. As a quick search on Google or Yahoo will confirm, over 2,000 websites offer to facilitate
those untaxed shipments. So untaxed substitutes for San Francisco cigarettes are literally only a click away.
Mayor Gavin should have consulted New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, who saw incity cigarette sales
plunge by 50 percent when he raised that city's tax in 2002.
—Bradley Schiller
Source: “San Francisco: The Butts Stop Here” by Bradley Schiller. McGrawHill News Flash, August
2009.
NOTE: Demand for cigarettes in general is inelastic. However, demand for San Francisco's cigarettes is elastic
because smokers can purchase cigarettes elsewhere.
PRICE RELATIVE TO INCOME Another important determinant of elasticity is the price of the good itself. If
the price of a product is very high in relation to the consumer's income, then price changes will be important.
Airline travel and new cars, for example, are quite expensive, so even a small percentage change in their prices
can have a big impact on a consumer's budget (and consumption decisions). The demand for such bigticket
items tends to be elastic. By contrast, coffee is so cheap for most people that even a large percentage change in
price doesn't affect consumer behavior much. Starbucks loves that math.
Other Changes in Consumer Behavior
We stated at the outset of this discussion that we were going to focus on the price of a product and its quantity
demanded. So we ignored everything else. It's time, however, to consider other influences on consumer
behavior.
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SUBSTITUTE GOODS When Hurricane Sandy sent gasoline prices higher in November 2012, consumers cut
back on their driving. So how did they get around? In part, they simply traveled less, but they also made more
use of public transportation like buses, subways, and trains. Thus public transportation became a substitute for
higher gas prices and private transportation. The demand for substitute goods increases (shifts to the right)
when the price of a product goes up. When movie theater prices go up, the demand for streaming movies (e.g.,
Netflix) and DVDs increases. When airfares go down, the demand for bus and rail travel decreases. When
Starbucks raised its prices in 2014, demand for Dunkin Donuts coffee increased.
COMPLEMENTARY GOODS Plunging oil prices in 2015 had a very different effect. When gasoline prices
dropped below $2 a gallon in early 2015, people drove more and bought more gas (the law of demand). But they
also bought more trucks and gasguzzling SUVs. The demand for pickup trucks and SUVs increased when
gasoline prices decreased. Light trucks and gasoline are complementary goods, not substitute goods. If the
demand for another good moves in the opposite direction (up or down) of the price of a product, the two goods
are complements (e.g., gas prices go down, truck demand goes up). Hybrid and electric cars didn't fare so well
when gasoline prices fell in 2014–2015. As the accompanying News Wire “Truck Sales Rise and Hybrid Sales
Fall as Gas Prices Drop” affirms, the demand for hybrid cars fell when gasoline prices fell. When the demand for
one product moves in the same direction as the price of another good, the goods are substitutes (e.g., gas prices
go down, hybrid demand goes down).
NEWS WIRE TRUCK SALES RISE AND HYBRID SALES FALL AS GAS PRICES DROP
Between declining gas prices and an improving economy, fullsize pickup sales in the United States are up 6.5
percent yeartodate and represent the bestselling vehicle line in twothirds of U.S. states, according to TrueCar.
And the economy is a rising tide of sorts for most vehicle sectors, as gaspowered vehicle prices are up $770
during the past year.
Source: © Deposit Photos/Glow images, RF
Things are less rosy for hybrids though, with official prices changed little from last year. In fact, the Toyota
Prius remains the country's most popular hybrid, by far, but it now comes with about $2,300 worth of incentives,
on average. Through September, sales among the four Prius models are down 11 percent from a year earlier, to
about 165,500 units. Standard Prius liftback sales have plunged 16 percent.
Overall, hybrid, plugin hybrid, and electricvehicle sales are down about 5 percent this year, while sales of
pickups and SUVs have, uh, picked up by almost 20 percent, according to a recent National Public Radio report.
According to AAA, gas prices are averaging an even $3, down from $3.28 a year ago.
—Danny King
Source: Danny King, Autoblog, November 1, 2014. © 2014 AOL Inc. All rights reserved.
NOTE: Changes in the price of one good will affect the demand for other goods. Lower gasoline prices increase
the demand for pickup trucks and SUVs (complementary goods) and decrease the demand for hybrids (a
substitute good).
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The important thing to notice here is that a change in the price of one product will affect not only the quantity
of that product demanded (as measured by price elasticity) but also the demand for other goods (substitute
goods and complementary goods). This is why auto manufacturers worry a lot about gasoline prices and record
companies worry about the price of music downloads.
Changes in Income
Auto manufacturers and record companies would worry less if consumers had more money to spend. As we
observed earlier, income is a determinant of demand. Our analysis of the demand curve was based on the ceteris
paribus assumption that only one thing was changing—namely, price. This assumption allowed us to observe
how price changes propel consumers up and down the demand curve, altering both unit sales and total revenue.
The picture would look different if incomes were to change. If our incomes increased, we could buy more
products at every price. We illustrate income changes with shifts of the demand curve rather than movements
along it (due to changes in price). When the economy falls into a recession and people are losing jobs and
income, demand for most products—especially bigticket items like cars, vacations, and new homes—declines
(shifts left). In more prosperous times, cash registers keep humming.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Does Advertising Change Our Behavior?
Marketing people have been quick to recognize the importance of demand curve shifts. Producers can't change
consumer incomes, but what about the other determinants of demand? Wasn't tastes one of those determinants?
A whole new range of profit opportunities suddenly appears. If producers can change consumers' tastes, they can
shift the demand curve and sell more output at higher prices. How will they do this? By advertising. As noted
earlier, psychiatrists see us as complex bundles of basic drives, anxieties, and layers of consciousness. They
presume that we enter the market with confused senses of guilt, insecurity, and ambition. Economists, on the
other hand, regard the consumer as the rational Homo economicus, aware of his or her wants and knowledgeable
about how to satisfy them. In reality, however, we do not always know what we want or which products will
satisfy us. This uncertainty creates a vacuum into which the advertising industry has eagerly stepped.
The efforts of producers to persuade us to buy, buy, buy are as close as the nearest television, radio, magazine,
web page, or billboard. American producers now spend over $200 billion per year to change our tastes. This
spending works out to over $400 per consumer, the highest per capita advertising rates in the world. Much of
this advertising (including product labeling) is intended to provide information about existing products or to
bring new products to our attention. A great deal of advertising, however, is also designed to exploit our senses
and lack of knowledge. Recognizing that we are guiltridden, insecure, and sexhungry, advertisers offer us
pictures and promises of exoneration, recognition, and love: All we have to do is buy the right product.
One of the favorite targets of advertisers is our sense of insecurity. Brand images are developed to give
consumers a sense of identity. Smoke a Marlboro cigarette, and you're a virile cowboy. Drink the right beer or
vodka, and you'll be a social success. Use the right perfume, and you'll be irresistibly sexy. Wear Brand X jeans,
and you'll be way cool. Or at least that's what advertisers want you to believe.
ARE WANTS CREATED? Advertising cannot be blamed for all of our “foolish” consumption. Even members
of the most primitive tribes, uncontaminated by the seductions of advertising, adorn themselves with rings,
bracelets, and pendants. Furthermore, advertising has grown to massive proportions only in the last 50 years, but
consumption spending has been increasing throughout recorded history.
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Although advertising cannot be charged with creating our needs, it does encourage specific outlets for satisfying
those needs. The objective of all advertising is to alter the choices we make. Advertising seeks to increase our
desire (taste) for particular products and therewith our willingness to pay. A successful advertising campaign is
one that shifts the demand curve for a product to the right, inducing consumers to increase their purchases of a
product at every price (see Figure 4.6). Advertising may also increase brand loyalty, making the demand curve
less elastic, thereby reducing consumer responses to price increases.
FIGURE 4.6
FIGURE 4.6 The Impact of Advertising on a Demand CurveAdvertising seeks to increase our taste for a
particular product. If our taste (the product's perceived marginal utility) increases, so will our willingness to buy.
The resulting change in demand is reflected in a rightward shift of the demand curve, often accompanied by a
diminished price elasticity of demand.
SUMMARY
Our desires for goods and services originate in the structure of personality and social dynamics and are not
explained by economic theory. Economic theory focuses on demand—that is, our ability and willingness
to buy specific quantities of a good or service at various prices. LO1
Utility refers to the satisfaction we get from consumer goods and services. Total utility refers to the
amount of satisfaction associated with all consumption of a product. Marginal utility refers to the
satisfaction obtained from the last unit of a product. LO1
The law of diminishing marginal utility says that the more of a product we consume, the smaller the
increments of pleasure we get from each additional unit. This is the foundation for the law of demand.
LO1
The price elasticity of demand (E) is a numerical measure of consumer response to a change in price
(ceteris paribus). It equals the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change
in price. LO2
If demand is elastic (E > 1), a small change in price induces a large change in quantity demanded.
“Elastic” demand indicates that consumers are very price sensitive. LO2
If demand is elastic, a price increase will reduce total revenue. Price and total revenue move in the same
direction only if demand is inelastic. LO3
The shape and position of any particular demand curve depend on a consumer's income, tastes,
expectations, and the price and availability of other goods. Should any of these things change, the
assumption of ceteris paribus will no longer hold, and the demand curve will shift. LO4
Advertising seeks to change consumer tastes and thus the willingness to buy. If tastes do change, the
demand curve will shift. LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
demand
market demand
utility
total utility
marginal utility
law of diminishing marginal utility
ceteris paribus
law of demand
demand curve
price elasticity of demand
total revenue
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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Why do people routinely stuff themselves at allyoucaneat buffets? Explain in terms of both utility and
demand theories. LO1
2. What does the demand for education at your college look like? What is on each axis? Is the demand
elastic or inelastic? How could you find out? LO1
3. What would happen to unit sales and total revenue for this textbook if the publisher reduced its price?
LO3
4. Should Starbucks have increased its prices in 2014? Should it raise prices again? (See the News Wire
“Price, Sales, and Total Revenue.”) LO4
5. Identify three goods for which your demand is (a) elastic and (b) inelastic. What accounts for the
differences in elasticity? LO2
6. Utility companies routinely ask state commissions for permission to raise utility rates. What does this
suggest about the price elasticity of demand? Why is demand so (in)elastic? LO3
7. Why is the demand for San Francisco cigarettes so much more price elastic than the overall market
demand for cigarettes (see the News Wire, “Substitute Goods”)? LO4
8. When gasoline prices go up, how is demand for the following products affected: (a) SUVs; (b) hybrid
cars; (c) beach hotels; (d) iWatches? LO4
9. What goods do people buy a lot more of when their incomes go up? What goods are unaffected by income
changes? LO4
10. If Apple cuts the price of the iWatch, what will happen to (a) unit sales and (b) total revenue? LO3
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If all soda advertisements were banned, how would Pepsi sales be affected?
How about total soda consumption? LO5
PROBLEMS
1. 1. In Figure 4.3, which box of popcorn first shows diminished marginal utility?
2. In the cartoon “You can have too much of a good thing,” which pizza slice first yields negative
marginal utility? LO1
2. Using the demand schedule below, plot the demand curve on the graph and answer four questions about
demand and elasticity: LO3
1. Illustrate the demand curve on the following graph.
2. How much will consumers spend on shoes at the price of (i) $120 (ii) $100 (iii) $80 (iv) $60 (v)
$40?
3. As the price drops from $120 to $100 a pair, is demand elastic, unitary elastic, or inelastic?
4. As the price drops from $80 to $60 a pair, is demand elastic, unitary elastic, or inelastic?
5. As the price drops from $60 to $40 a pair, is demand elastic, unitary elastic, or inelastic?
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3. According to the elasticity computation, (a) by how much would popcorn sales fall if the price increased
by 20 percent? (b) By 40 percent? LO2
4. According to Table 4.1, if price increases by 20 percent, how much will unit sales decline for (a) coffee,
(b) shoes, and (c) airline travel? Will total revenue increase or decrease for (d) coffee, (e) shoes, (f) airline
travel? LO3
5. According to the News Wire “Law of Demand,” what is the price elasticity of demand for alcohol among
college students? LO2
6. (a) According to Table 4.1, by how much would coffee sales decline if the price of coffee increased 10
percent? (b) If your local coffee shop raised its coffee prices by the same amount (10 percent), would sales
decline by more, less, or the same amount as calculated in part a? LO4
7. According to the News Wire “Price Elasticity of Demand,” the average cigarette price rose by 12 percent
on April 1, 2009. (a) According to the story, by what percentage might smoking be expected to decline?
(b) By how much would teen smoking decline? LO2
8. Suppose the following table reflects the total satisfaction (utility) derived from eating pizza: LO1
1. What is the marginal utility of each pizza?
2. When does marginal utility first diminish?
3. When does marginal utility first turn negative?
9. According to the News Wire “Price, Sales, and Total Revenue,” (a) by what percent did Starbucks raise
average coffee prices? (b) If unit sales didn't decline at all, what would the price elasticity of demand have
been? (c) If unit sales fell by 0.2 percent, what would the price elasticity have been? (d) If unit sales fell
by 0.2 percent, would demand have been elastic or inelastic? (e) If unit sales fell by 0.2 percent, would
total revenue have increased decreased? LO3
10. According to the News Wire “Price Elasticity” what is the price elasticity of demand for the 11inch
MacBook Air? LO2
11. Economists estimate price elasticities more precisely by using average price and quantity to compute
percentage changes. Thus,
Using this formula, compute E for a popcorn price increase from 15 cents to 25 cents per ounce (Figure
4.5). LO3
12. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Suppose the following demand exists for iPhone apps:
1. At $9, what quantity is demanded?
2. If the price drops to $6, what quantity is demanded?
3. Is demand elastic or inelastic in that price range?
4. If advertising convinces people to demand 3 million more apps at every price, how many apps will
be demanded at a price of $9?
5. Graph the above answers, using point A for (a), point B for (b), and point C for (d). LO5
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Source: © McGrawHill Education/Andrew Resek
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain what the production function reveals.
2. 2 Explain why the law of diminishing returns applies.
3. 3 Describe the nature of fixed, variable, and marginal costs.
4. 4 Illustrate the difference between production and investment decisions.
5. 5 Discuss how accounting costs and economic costs differ.
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M
ost consumers think that producers reap huge profits from every market sale. Most producers wish that were
true. The average producer earns a profit of only four to six cents on every sales dollar. And those profits don't
come easily. Producers earn a profit only if they make the correct supply decisions. They have to keep a close
eye on prices and costs and produce the right quantity at the right time. If they do all the right things, they might
make a profit. Even when a producer does everything right, however, profits are not assured. Over 50,000 U.S.
businesses fail every year despite their owners' best efforts to make a profit.
In this chapter we look at markets from the supply side, examining two distinct concerns. First, how much
output can a firm produce? Second, how much output will it want to produce? As we'll see, the answers to these
two questions are rarely the same.
The question of how much can be produced is largely an engineering and managerial problem. The question of
how much should be produced is an economic issue. If costs escalate as capacity is approached, it might make
sense to produce less than capacity output. In some situations, the costs of production might even be so high that
it doesn't make sense to produce any output from available facilities. The end result will be a supply decision—
that is, an expressed ability and willingness to produce a good at various prices.
A producer's supply decision is similar to your homework decision. The amount of homework you could do in
the next two hours is determined by available resources (e.g., brain power, computer access, tutorial help,
space). How much homework you actually do (“produce”) will be determined by how you choose to use your
time. You rarely produce at capacity, and neither do business firms: They choose how much of their capacity to
utilize.
This chapter focuses on those supply decisions. We look first at the capacity to produce and then at how choices
are made about how much of that capacity to utilize. The discussion revolves around three questions:
What limits a firm's ability to produce?
What costs are incurred in producing a good?
How do costs affect supply decisions?
Once we have answered these questions, we should be able to understand how supplyside forces affect the price
and availability of the goods and services we demand in product markets. ■
CAPACITY CONSTRAINTS: THE PRODUCTION FUNCTION
No matter how large a business is or who owns it, all businesses confront one central fact: You need resources to
produce goods. To produce corn, a farmer needs land, water, seed, equipment, and labor. To produce fillings, a
dentist needs a chair, a drill, some space, and labor. Even the “production” of educational services (e.g., this
economics class) requires the use of labor (your teacher), land (on which the school is built), and some capital
(bricks and mortar or electronic classrooms). In short, unless you are producing unrefined, unpackaged air, you
need factors of production—that is, resources that can be used to produce a good or service.
The factors of production used to produce a good or service provide the basic measure of economic cost. If
someone asked you what the cost of your econ class was, you'd probably quote the tuition you paid for it. But
tuition is the price of consuming the course, not the cost of producing it. The cost of producing your economics
class is measured by the amounts of land, labor, and capital it requires. These are resource costs of production.
The first question a producer must ask is: How many resources are actually needed to produce a given product?
You could use a lot of resources to produce a product or perhaps just a few. What we really want to know is how
best to produce the product. What is the smallest amount of resources needed? Or we could ask the same
question from a different perspective: What is the maximum amount of output attainable from a given quantity
of input resources?
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These aren't easy questions to answer. But if we knew the technology of the production process, we could come
up with an answer. The answer would tell us the maximum amount of output attainable from a given quantity of
resources. These limits to the production of any good are reflected in the production function. The production
function tells us the maximum amount of good X producible from various combinations of factor inputs. With
one chair and one drill, a dentist can fill a maximum of 32 cavities per day. With two chairs, a drill, and an
assistant, a dentist can fill up to 55 cavities per day.
A production function is a technological summary of our ability to produce a particular good. It's not about
economics, it's about technology. Figure 5.1 provides a partial glimpse of one such function. In this case, the
desired output is designer jeans, as produced by Tight Jeans Corporation. The essential inputs in the production
of jeans are land, labor (garment workers), and capital (a factory and sewing machines). With these inputs, Tight
Jeans can produce and sell fancy jeans to statusconscious consumers.
FIGURE 5.1
FIGURE 5.1 A Production FunctionA production function tells us the maximum amount of output attainable
from alternative combinations of factor inputs. This particular function tells us how many pairs of jeans we can
produce in a factory that has only one sewing machine and varying quantities of labor.
With only one operator, we can produce a maximum of 15 pairs of jeans per day, as indicated in column B of the
table and point B on the graph. To produce more jeans, we need more labor. The shortrun production function
shows how output changes when more labor is used.
As in all production endeavors, we want to know how many pairs of jeans we can produce with available
resources. To make things easy, we will assume that the factory is already built. We will also assume that only
one leased sewing machine is available. Thus both land and capital inputs are fixed. Under these circumstances,
only the quantity of labor can be varied. In this case, the quantity of jeans we can produce depends directly on
the amount of labor we employ. The purpose of a production function is to tell us just how much output we
can produce with varying amounts of factor inputs. Figure 5.1 provides such information for jeans production.
Column A of the table in Figure 5.1 confirms the obvious: You can't manufacture jeans without any workers.
Even though land, capital (an empty factory and an idle machine), and denim are available, essential labor inputs
are missing, and jeans production is impossible. Maybe advances in robotics will change that reality. For now,
however, the factory depicted in Figure 5.1 isn't nearly that advanced. It still needs live bodies in the production
process.
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Column B in the table shows what happens to jeans output when just one worker is employed. With only one
machine and one worker, the jeans start rolling out the front door. Maximum output under these circumstances
(row 2, column B) is 15 pairs of jeans per day. Now we're in business!
The remaining columns of the table tell us how many additional jeans we can produce if we hire more workers,
while still leasing only one sewing machine. With one machine and two workers, maximum output rises to 34
pairs per day (column C). If a third worker is hired, output could increase to 44 pairs.
This information on our production capabilities is also illustrated graphically in Figure 5.1. Point A illustrates
the fact that we can't produce any jeans without some labor. Points B through I show how production increases
as additional labor is employed.
Labor is a vital but variable input in production.
Source: © Rob Crandall/SCPhotos/Alamy
Efficiency
Every point on the production function in Figure 5.1 represents the most output we could produce with a specific
number of workers. Point D, for example, tells us we could produce as many as 44 pairs of jeans with three
workers. We recognize, however, that we might also produce less. If the workers goof off or the sewing machine
isn't maintained well, total output might be less than 44 pairs per day. In that case, we wouldn't be making the
best possible use of scarce resources: We would be producing inefficiently. In Figure 5.1 this would imply a rate
of output below point D. Only if we produce with maximum efficiency will we end up at point D or some other
point on the production function. All points on the production function represent efficient production.
Capacity
Although the production function emphasizes how output increases with more workers, the progression can't go
on forever. Labor isn't the only factor of production needed to produce jeans. We also need capital. In this case,
we have only a small factory and one sewing machine. If we keep hiring workers, we will quickly run out of
space and available equipment. Land and capital constraints place a ceiling on potential output.
Notice in Figure 5.1 how total output peaks at point G. We can produce a total of 51 pairs of jeans at that point
by employing six workers. What happens if we hire still more workers? According to Figure 5.1, if we
employed a seventh worker, total output would not increase further. At point H, total output is still 51 pairs, just
as it was at point G, when we hired only six workers.
Were we to hire an eighth worker, total jeans output would actually decline, as illustrated by point I. An eighth
worker reduces total output by increasing congestion on the factory floor, delaying access to the sewing
machine, and just plain getting in the way. Given the size of the factory and the availability of only one sewing
machine, no more than six workers can be productively employed. Hence the capacity production of this factory
is 51 pairs of jeans per day. We could hire more workers, but output would not go up.
Marginal Physical Product
The land and capital constraints that limit output have some interesting effects on the productivity of individual
workers. Consider that seventh worker at the jeans factory. If she were hired, total output would not increase:
Total output is 51 pairs of jeans regardless of whether six or seven workers are employed. Accordingly, that
seventh worker contributes nothing to total output.
The contribution of each worker to production is measured by the change in total output that occurs when the
worker is employed. This is called marginal physical product (MPP) and it is measured as follows:
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In this case, total output doesn't change when the seventh worker is hired, so her MPP equals zero. She
contributes nothing to production.
Contrast that experience with that of the first worker hired. When the first worker is employed at the jeans
factory, total output jumps from zero (point A in Figure 5.1) to 15 pairs of jeans per day (point B). This increase
in output reflects the marginal physical product (MPP) of that first worker—that is, the change in total output
that results from employment of one more unit of (labor) input.
If we employ a second operator, jeans output more than doubles to 34 pairs per day (point C). Whereas the
marginal physical product of the first worker was only 15 pairs, a second worker increases total output by 19
pairs.
The higher MPP of the second worker raises a question about the first. Why was the first worker's MPP lower?
Laziness? Is the second worker faster, less distracted, or harder working?
The higher MPP of the second worker is not explained by superior talents or effort. We assume in this exercise
that all units of labor are equal—that is, one worker is just as good as another. Their different marginal products
are explained by the structure of the production process, not by their respective abilities. The first garment
worker had to not only sew jeans but also unfold bolts of denim, measure the jeans, sketch out the patterns, and
cut them to approximate size. A lot of time was spent going from one task to another. Despite the worker's best
efforts, this person simply could not do everything at once.
A second worker alleviates this situation. With two workers, less time is spent running from one task to another.
Now there is an opportunity for each worker to specialize a bit. While one is measuring and cutting, the other
can continue sewing. This improved ratio of labor to other factors of production results in the large jump in total
output. The superior MPP of the second worker is not unique to this person: It would have occurred even if we
had hired the workers in the reverse order. What matters is the amount of capital or land each unit of labor can
work with. In other words, a worker's productivity (MPP) depends in part on the amount of other resources in
the production process.
Law of Diminishing Returns
Unfortunately, output cannot keep increasing at this rate. Look what happens when a third worker is hired. Total
jeans production continues to increase. But the increase from point C to point D in Figure 5.1 is only 10 pairs
per day. Hence the MPP of the third worker (10 pairs) is less than that of the second (19 pairs). Marginal
physical product is diminishing.
RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS What accounts for this decline in MPP? The answer again lies in the ratio of
labor to other factors of production. A third worker begins to crowd our facilities. We still have only one sewing
machine. Two people cannot sew at the same time. As a result, some time is wasted as the operators wait for
their turns at the machine. Even if they split up the various jobs, there will still be some downtime, since
measuring and cutting are not as timeconsuming as sewing. In this sense, we cannot make full use of a third
worker. The relative scarcity of other inputs (capital and land) constrains the marginal physical product of
labor.
Resource constraints are even more evident when a fourth worker is hired. Total output increases again, but the
increase this time is very small. With three workers, we got 44 pairs of jeans per day (point D); with four
workers, we get a maximum of 48 pairs (point E). Thus the marginal physical product of the fourth worker is
only four pairs of jeans. A fourth worker really begins to strain our productive capacity. There simply aren't
enough machines to make productive use of so much labor.
NEGATIVE MPP If a seventh worker is hired, the operators get in each other's way, argue, and waste denim.
As we observed earlier, total output does not increase at all when a seventh worker is hired. The MPP of the
seventh worker is zero. The seventh worker is being wasted in the sense that she contributes nothing to total
output. This waste of scarce resources (labor) was commonplace in communist countries, where everyone was
guaranteed a job (see the News Wire “Marginal Physical Product”). At Tight Jeans, however, the company does
not want to hire someone who doesn't contribute to output. And it certainly doesn't want to hire an eighth worker
because total output actually declines from 51 pairs of jeans (point H in Figure 5.1) to 47 pairs (point I) when an
eighth worker is hired. In other words, the eighth worker has a negative MPP.
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The problem of crowded facilities applies to most production processes. In the short run, a production process is
characterized by a fixed amount of available land and capital. Typically the only factor that can be varied in the
short run is labor. Yet as more labor is hired, each unit of labor has less capital and land to work with. This is
simple division: The available facilities are being shared by more and more workers. At some point, this
constraint begins to pinch. When it does, marginal physical product starts to decline. This situation is so
common that it is the basis for an economic principle: the law of diminishing returns. This law says that the
marginal physical product of any factor of production (e.g., labor) will begin to diminish at some point as more
of it is used in a given production setting.
You could put the law of diminishing returns to an easy test. Start a lawnmowing service. Assuming you have
only one electric mower and a few rakes, what will happen to total output (lawns mowed per day) as you hire
more workers? How soon before marginal physical product reaches zero? Then visit a Starbucks outlet. How
much would output (drinks per day) increase if it hired more baristas? What keeps output from increasing faster
in the short run? Would marginal physical product decline as more baristas competed for access to the espresso
machines?
Short Run versus Long Run
The limited availability of space or equipment is the cause of diminishing returns. Once we have purchased or
leased a specific factory, it sets a limit to current jeans production. When such commitments to fixed inputs (e.g.,
the factory and machinery) exist, we are dealing with a shortrun production problem. If no land or capital were
in place—if we could build or lease any size factory—we would be dealing with a longrun decision. In the long
run we might also learn new and better ways of making jeans and so increase our production capabilities. For
the time being, however, we must accept the fact that the production function in Figure 5.1 defines the shortrun
limits to jeans production. Our shortrun objective is to make the best possible use of the factory we have
acquired. This is the challenge producers face every day.
NEWS WIRE MARGINAL PHYSICAL PRODUCT
“We Pretend to Work, They Pretend to Pay Us”
One of the attractions of communist nations was their promise of employment. Passing through the factory gate
was not proof of productive employment, however. Ordered to hire all comers, staterun enterprises became
bloated with surplus workers. Although payrolls climbed, output stagnated.
As it turned out, the paychecks handed out to the workers weren't very good anyway. Runaway inflation and a
scarcity of consumer goods rendered the paychecks almost worthless. The futility of the situation was summed
up by one worker who explained that “we pretend to work and they pretend to pay us.”
When communism collapsed, the factory gates were no longer open to all. New profitoriented owners were
unwilling to pay workers whose marginal physical product was zero. In East Germany alone, over 400,000
workers lost their jobs when 126 stateowned enterprises were sold to private investors—without any decline in
output.
NOTE: As more workers are hired in a given plant, marginal physical product declines. It may even fall to zero
or less.
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COSTS OF PRODUCTION
A production function tells us how much output a firm could produce with its existing plant and equipment. It
doesn't tell us how much the firm will want to produce: that's an economic decision. The level of desired output
depends on prices and costs. A firm might want to produce at capacity if the profit picture is bright enough. On
the other hand, a firm might not produce any output if costs always exceed sales revenue. A firm's goal is to
maximize profits, not production. The most desirable rate of output is the one that maximizes total profit—the
difference between total revenue and total costs.
The production function, then, is just a starting point for supply decisions. To decide how much output to
produce with that function, a firm must next examine the dollar costs of production.
Total Cost
The economic cost of producing a good is ultimately gauged by the amount of scarce resources used to produce
it. In a market economy, however, we want a more convenient measure of cost. Instead of listing all the input
quantities used, we want a single dollar figure. To get that dollar amount, we must identify all the resources used
in production, compute their value, and then add everything up. The end result will be a dollar figure for the
total cost of production.
In the production of jeans, the resources used include land, labor, and capital. Table 5.1 identifies these
resources, their unit values, and the total costs associated with their use. This table is based on an assumed
output of 15 pairs of jeans per day, with the use of one machine operator and one sewing machine (point B in
Figure 5.1). The rent on the factory is $100 per day, a sewing machine costs $20 per day, and the wages of a
garment worker are $80 per day. We will assume Tight Jeans Corporation can purchase bolts of denim for $30
apiece, each of which provides enough denim for 10 pairs of jeans. In other words, onetenth of a bolt ($3 worth
of material) is required for one pair of jeans. We will ignore any other potential expenses. With these
assumptions, the total cost of producing 15 pairs of jeans per day amounts to $245, as shown in Table 5.1.
TABLE 5.1
TABLE 5.1 The Total Costs of Production
The total cost of producing a good equals the market value of all the resources used in its production. In this
case, we have assumed that the production of 15 pairs of jeans per day requires resources worth $245.
FIXED COSTS Total costs will change, of course, as we alter the rate of production. But not all costs increase.
In the short run, some costs don't increase at all when output is increased. These are fixed costs in the sense that
they do not vary with the rate of output. The factory lease is an example. Once you lease a factory, you are
obligated to pay for it whether you use it or not. The person who owns the factory wants $100 per day. Even if
you produce no jeans, you still have to pay that rent. That is the essence of fixed costs.
The leased sewing machine is another fixed cost. When you rent a sewing machine, you must pay the rental
charge. It doesn't matter whether you use it for a few minutes or all day long—the rental charge is fixed at $20
per day.
VARIABLE COSTS Labor costs are another story altogether. The amount of labor employed in jeans
production can be varied easily. If we decide not to open the factory tomorrow, we can just tell our only worker
to take the day off. We will still have to pay rent and the sewing machine lease, but we can cut back on wages.
Alternatively, if we want to increase daily output, we can also hire workers easily and quickly. Labor is regarded
as a variable cost in this line of work—that is, a cost that varies with the rate of output.
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The denim itself is another variable cost. Denim not used today can be saved for tomorrow. Hence how much we
“spend” on denim today is directly related to how many pairs of jeans we produce. In this sense, the cost of
denim input varies with the rate of jeans output.
Figure 5.2 illustrates how these various costs are affected by the rate of production. On the vertical axis are the
costs of production in dollars per day. Notice that the total cost of producing 15 pairs per day is still $245, as
indicated by point B. This figure consists of $120 of fixed costs (factory and sewing machine rents) and $125 of
variable costs ($80 in wages and $45 for denim). If we increase the rate of output, total costs will rise. How fast
total costs rise depends on variable costs only, however, since fixed costs remain at $120 per day. (Notice the
horizontal fixed cost curve in Figure 5.2.)
FIGURE 5.2
FIGURE 5.2 The Costs of Jeans ProductionTotal cost includes both fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs must be
paid even if no output is produced (point A). Variable costs start at zero and increase with the rate of output. The
total cost of producing 15 pairs of jeans (point B) includes $120 in fixed costs (rent on the factory and sewing
machines) and $125 in variable costs (denim and wages). Total cost rises as output increases.
In this example, the shortrun capacity is equal to 51 pairs (point G). If still more inputs are employed, costs will
rise but not total output.
With one sewing machine and one factory, there is an absolute limit to daily jeans production. As we observed in
the production function (Figure 5.1), the capacity of a factory with one machine is 51 pairs of jeans per day. If
we try to produce more jeans than this by hiring additional workers, total costs will rise, but total output will not.
In fact, we could fill the factory with garment workers and drive total costs skyhigh. But the limits of space and
one sewing machine do not permit output in excess of 51 pairs per day. This limit to productive capacity is
represented by point G on the total cost curve. Further expenditure on inputs will increase production costs but
not output.
Although there is no upper limit to costs, there is a lower limit. If output is reduced to zero, total costs fall only
to $120 per day, the level of fixed costs. This is illustrated by point A in Figure 5.2. As before, there is no way to
avoid fixed costs in the short run. If you have leased a factory or machinery, you must pay the rent whether or
not you produce any jeans.
Which Costs Matter?
The different nature of fixed and variable costs raises some intriguing questions about how to measure the cost
of producing a pair of jeans. In figuring how much it costs to produce one pair, should we look only at the denim
and labor time used to produce that pair? Or should we also take into account the factory rent and lease
payments on the sewing machines?
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A similar problem arises when you try to figure out whether a restaurant overcharges you for a steak dinner.
What did it cost the restaurant to supply the dinner? Should only the meat and the chef's time be counted? Or
should the cost include some portion of the rent, the electricity, and the insurance?
The restaurant owner, too, needs to figure out which measure of cost to use. She has to decide what price to
charge for the steak. She wants to earn a profit. Can she do so by charging a price just above the cost of meat
and wages? Or must she charge a price high enough to cover some portion of her fixed costs as well?
To answer these questions, we need to introduce two distinct measures of cost: average cost and marginal cost.
Average Cost
Average total cost (ATC) is simply total cost divided by the rate of output:
If the total cost (including both fixed and variable costs) of supplying 10 steaks is $62, then the average cost of
the steaks is $6.20.
As we observed in Figure 5.2, total costs change as the rate of output increases. Hence both the numerator and
the denominator in the ATC formula change with the rate of output. This complicates the arithmetic a bit, as
Figure 5.3 illustrates.
Figure 5.3 shows how average total cost changes as the rate of output varies. Row J of the cost schedule, for
example, again indicates the fixed, variable, and total costs of producing 15 pairs of jeans per day. Fixed costs
are still $120 (for factory and machine rentals); variable costs (denim and labor) are $125. Thus the total cost of
producing 15 pairs per day is $245. The average cost for this rate of output is simply total cost ($245) divided
by quantity (15), or $16.33 per day. This ATC is indicated in column 5 of the table and by point J on the graph.
FIGURE 5.3
FIGURE 5.3 Average Total CostAverage total cost (ATC) is total cost divided by the number of units produced.
In the accompanying table the ATC in column 5 is computed by dividing Total Cost (column 4) by the rate of
output (column 1). Notice how ATC falls initially as output increases and then later rises. This gives the ATC
curve a distinctive U shape, as illustrated in the graph.
USHAPED ATC CURVE An important feature of the ATC curve is its shape. Average costs start high, fall,
then rise once again, giving the ATC curve a distinctive U shape.
The initial decline in ATC is largely due to fixed costs. At low rates of output, fixed costs are a high proportion
of total costs. Quite simply, it's very expensive to lease (or buy) an entire factory to produce only a few pairs of
jeans. The entire cost of the factory must be averaged out over a small quantity of output. This results in a high
average cost of production. To reduce average costs, we must make fuller use of our leased plant and equipment.
The same problem of cost spreading would affect a restaurant that served only two dinners a day. The total cost
of operating a restaurant might easily exceed $500 a day. If only two dinners were served, the average total cost
of each meal would exceed $250. That's why restaurants need a high volume of business to keep average total
costs—and meal prices—low.
As output increases, the fixed costs of production are distributed over an increasing quantity of output. Fixed
costs no longer dominate total costs as production increases (compare columns 2 and 3 in Figure 5.3). As a
result, average total costs tend to decline.
Average total costs don't fall forever, however. They bottom out at point M in Figure 5.3 and then start rising.
What accounts for this turnaround?
Marginal Cost
The upturn of the ATC curve is caused by rising marginal costs. Marginal cost (MC) refers to the change in
total costs when one more unit of output is produced. In practice, marginal cost is easy to measure; just observe
how much total costs increase when one more unit of output is produced. For larger increases in output,
marginal cost can also be approximated by the formula
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Using this formula and Figure 5.3, we could confirm how marginal costs rise in jeans production. Take this
slowly. Notice that as jeans production increases from 20 pairs (row K) to 30 pairs (row L) per day, total costs
rise from $270 to $360. Hence the change in total cost ($90) divided by the change in total output (10) equals
$9. This is the marginal cost of jeans in that range of output (20 to 30 pairs).
Figure 5.4 shows how marginal costs change as jeans output increases. As output continues to increase further
from 30 to 40 pairs per day, marginal costs rise. Total cost rises from $360 (row L) to $470 (row M), a change of
$110. Dividing this by the change in output (10) reveals that marginal cost is now $11. Marginal costs are rising
as output increases.
FIGURE 5.4
FIGURE 5.4 Marginal CostMarginal cost is the change in total cost that occurs when more output is produced.
MC equals ΔTC/Δq.
Marginal costs rise as more workers have to share limited space and equipment (fixed costs) in the short run.
This “crowding” reduces marginal physical product and increases marginal costs.
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Rising marginal cost implies that each additional unit of output becomes more expensive to produce. Why is
this? Why would the third pair of jeans cost more to produce than the second pair? Why would it cost a
restaurant more to serve the twelfth dinner than the eleventh dinner?
The explanation for this puzzle of rising marginal cost lies in the production function. As we observed earlier,
output increases at an everslower pace as capacity is approached. The law of diminishing marginal product tells
us that we need an increasing amount of labor to eke out each additional pair of jeans. The same law applies to
restaurants. As more dinners are served, the waiters and cooks get pressed for space and equipment. It takes a
little longer (and requires more wages) to prepare and serve each meal. So the marginal costs of each meal
increase as the number of patrons rises.
SUPPLY HORIZONS
All these cost calculations can give you a real headache. They can also give you second thoughts about jumping
into Tight Jeans, restaurant management, or any other business. There are tough choices to be made. Any firm
can produce many different rates of output, each of which entails a distinct level of costs. Someone has to
choose which level of output to produce and thus how many goods to supply to the market. That decision has to
be based not only on the capacity to produce (the production function) but also on the costs of production (the
cost functions). Only those who make the right decisions will succeed in business.
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The ShortRun Production Decision
The nature of supply decisions also varies with the relevant time frame. In this regard, we must distinguish
shortrun decisions from longrun decisions.
THE SHORT RUN The short run is characterized by the existence of fixed costs. A commitment has been
made: a factory has been built, an office leased, or machinery purchased. The only decision to make is how
much output to produce with these existing facilities. This is the production decision, the choice of how
intensively to use available plant and equipment. This choice is typically made daily (e.g., jeans production),
weekly (e.g., auto production), or seasonally (e.g., farming).
FOCUS ON MARGINAL COST The most important factor in the shortrun production decision is marginal
costs. Producers will be willing to supply output only if they can at least cover marginal costs. If the marginal
cost of producing a product exceeds the price at which it is sold, it doesn't make sense to produce that last unit.
Price must exceed marginal cost for the producer to reap any profit from the last unit produced. Accordingly,
marginal cost is a basic determinant of shortrun supply (production) decisions.
Look back at Figure 5.4. Suppose Tight Jeans is producing 40 pairs per day (row M in the table) and selling
them for $18 each. In that case, total revenue is $720 ($18 × 40 pairs) and total cost is $470, yielding a profit of
$250 per day.
Now suppose the plant manager is so excited by these profits that she increases total output to 50 pairs per day.
Will profits increase? Not according to Figure 5.4. When output increases to 50 pairs (row N in the table),
marginal cost rises to $20. At this rate of output, the cost of producing those extra 10 pairs ($20 each) is more
than what the company can sell them for ($18 each). At this level of output, then, marginal costs dictate not
producing the additional jeans. If they are produced, total profits will decline (from $250 to only $230).
Marginal costs put a brake on production decisions.
Marginal costs may also dictate shortrun pricing decisions. Suppose the average total cost of serving a steak
dinner is $12, but the marginal cost is only $7. How low a price can the restaurant charge for the dinner? Ideally,
it would like to charge at least $12 and cover all of its costs. It could at least cover marginal costs, however, if it
charged only $7. At that price the restaurant would be neither better nor worse off for having served an extra
dinner. The additional cost of serving that one meal would be covered.
It must be emphasized that covering marginal cost is a minimal condition for supplying additional output. A
restaurant that covers only marginal costs but not average total cost will lose money. It may even go out of
business. This is a lesson lots of nowdefunct Internet companies learned the hard way. They spent millions of
dollars building telecommunications networks to produce Internet services. The marginal costs of producing
Internet service was low, so they sold their services at low prices. Those low prices didn't bring in enough
revenue to cover fixed costs, however, so legions of dot.com companies went bankrupt. As they quickly learned,
you can get by just covering marginal costs. To stay in the game, however, you've got to cover average total
costs as well. In Chapter 6 we examine more closely just how marginal cost considerations affect shortrun
supply behavior.
The LongRun Investment Decision
The long run opens up a whole new range of options. In the long run, we have no lease or purchase
commitments. We are free to start all over again, with whatever scale of plant and equipment we desire. There
are no fixed costs in the long run. Accordingly, longrun supply decisions are more complicated. If no
commitments to production facilities have been made, a producer must decide how large a facility to build, buy,
or lease. Hence the size (scale) of plant and equipment becomes an additional option for longterm supply
decisions. In a longrun (no fixed costs) situation, a firm can make the investment decision.
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NEWS WIRE PRODUCTION AND INVESTMENT DECISIONS
Tesla To Boost Output In 2015
Tesla Motors promised to deliver 55,000 cars in 2015, up from the 35,000 it produced at its Fremont, CA,
factory in 2014.
Tesla Plans “Gigafactory”
Electric carmaker Tesla Motors says it plans on building a “gigafactory” that will be able to produce 500,000
lithium batteries, more than the entire world produces today. The $5billion factory, to be built outside of Reno,
Nevada, will employ 6,500 workers by the time it is fully operational in 2020.
Source: Tesla news releases, February 2015.
NOTE: Production decisions focus on the (shortrun) use of existing facilities. Investment decisions relate to the
(longrun) acquisition of productive facilities.
NO FIXED COSTS Note that the distinction between short and longrun supply decisions is not based on
time. The distinction instead depends on whether commitments have been made. If no leases have been signed,
no construction contracts awarded, no acquisitions made, a producer still has a free hand. With no fixed costs,
the producer can walk away from the potential business at a moment's notice.
Once fixed costs are incurred, the options narrow. Then the issue becomes one of making the best possible use
of the assets (e.g., factory, office space, equipment) that have been acquired. Once fixed costs have been
incurred, it's hard to walk away from the business. The goal then becomes to make as much profit as possible
from the investments already made. The accompanying News Wire “Production and Investment Decisions”
illustrates the distinction between these production and investment decisions. The decision by Tesla to produce
more vehicles at its Fremont, California, plant was a shortrun production decision. By contrast, Tesla's decision
to build a “gigafactory” was an investment decision.
ECONOMIC VERSUS ACCOUNTING COSTS
The cost concepts we have discussed here are based on real production relationships. The dollar costs we
compute reflect underlying resource costs—the land, labor, and capital used in the production process. Not
everyone counts this way. On the contrary, accountants and businesspeople often count dollar costs only and
ignore any resource use that doesn't result in an explicit dollar cost. This kind of tunnel vision can cause serious
mistakes.
Return to Tight Jeans for a moment to see the difference. When we computed the dollar cost of producing 15
pairs of jeans per day, we noted the following resource inputs:
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The total value of the resources used in the production of 15 pairs of jeans was thus $245 per day. But this
economic cost need not conform to actual dollar costs. Suppose the owners of Tight Jeans decided to sew the
jeans themselves. Then they would not have to hire a worker or pay $80 per day in wages. Dollar costs would
drop to $165 per day. The producers and their accountant would consider this to be a remarkable achievement.
They would assert that the costs of producing jeans had fallen.
Economic Cost
An economist would draw no such conclusions. The essential economic question is how many resources are
used in production. This has not changed. One unit of labor is still being employed at the factory; now it's
simply the owner, not a hired worker. In either case, one unit of labor is not available for the production of other
goods and services. Hence society is still incurring an opportunity cost of $245 for jeans, whether the owners of
Tight Jeans write checks in that amount or not. We really don't care who sews the jeans—the essential point is
that someone (i.e., a unit of labor) does.
The same would be true if Tight Jeans owned its factory rather than rented it. If the factory was owned rather
than rented, the owners probably would not write any rent checks. Accounting costs would drop by $100 per
day. But society would not be saving any resources. The factory would still be in use for jeans production and
therefore unavailable for the production of other goods and services. Hence the opportunity cost of the factory
would still be $100 per day. As a result, the economic (resource) cost of producing 15 pairs of jeans would still
be $245.
The distinction between an economic cost and an accounting cost is essentially one between resource and dollar
costs. Dollar cost refers to the explicit dollar outlays made by a producer; it is the lifeblood of accountants.
Economic cost, in contrast, refers to the dollar value of all resources used in the production process; it is the
lifeblood of economists. The accountant's dollar costs are usually explicit in the sense that someone writes a
check. The economist takes into consideration implicit costs as well—that is, even those costs for which no
direct payment is made. In other words, economists count costs as
As this formula suggests, economic and accounting costs will diverge whenever any factor of production is
not paid an explicit wage (or rent, etc.).
THE COST OF HOMEWORK These distinctions between economic and accounting costs apply also to the
“production” of homework. You can pay people to write term papers for you or even buy them off the Internet.
At large schools you can often buy lecture notes as well. But most students end up doing their own homework so
that they will learn something and not just turn in required assignments.
Doing homework is expensive, however, even if you don't pay someone to do it. The time you spend reading
this chapter is valuable. You could be doing something else if you weren't reading right now. What would you be
doing? The forgone activity—the best alternative use of your time—represents the opportunity cost of doing
homework. Even if you don't pay yourself for reading this chapter, you'll still incur that economic cost.
Economic Profit
The distinction between economic cost and accounting cost directly affects profit computations. People who
supply goods and services want to make a profit from their efforts. But what exactly is “profit”? In economic
terms, profit is the difference between total revenues and total economic costs:
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Economists don't rely on accountants to compute profits. Instead they factor in not just the explicit costs that
accountants keep track of but also the implicit costs that arise when resources are used but not explicitly paid
(e.g., an owner's time and capital investment). Suppose total revenue at Tight Jeans was $300 per day. With total
costs of $245 per day (see the foregoing cost computation), profit would be $55 per day. If the owner did her
own stitching, accounting costs would drop by $80 and accounting profits would increase by the same amount.
Economic profits would not change, however. By keeping track of all costs (implicit and explicit), economists
can keep a consistent eye on profits. In the next chapter we'll see how business firms use supply decisions to
maximize those profits.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Can We Outrun Diminishing Returns?
For more than a century people have been predicting that living standards are destined to fall—that the growth
of the world's population will exceed the growth of production. If that were to happen, the future would indeed
be bleak. But is that outcome inevitable?
Fears about future living standards have their roots in the law of diminishing returns. As we add more and more
people to the fixed resources of the planet, each person will have fewer resources to work with. As a result,
marginal physical productivity will decline, along with our standard of living.
But declining marginal physical product (MPP) isn't inevitable. We can postpone that scenario—perhaps
indefinitely. To beat the law of diminishing marginal productivity, we can increase the productivity of all
workers. This means that we have to shift production functions upward, as shown graphically in Figure 5.5a.
FIGURE 5.5
FIGURE 5.5 Improvements in Productivity Reduce CostsAdvances in technological or managerial knowledge
increase our productive capability. This is reflected in upward shifts of the production function (a) and
downward shifts of production cost curves (b). Investments in either labor (education and training) or capital
(new plant and equipment) propel such shifts.
How can we achieve such acrosstheboard productivity gains? There are several possibilities. One possibility is
to invest in labor by increasing education and training. Bettereducated workers are apt to squeeze more output
from any production facility. In the world's poorest nations, one out of every two workers is illiterate (see the
News Wire). In those nations, even basic literacy training can boost labor productivity substantially. In the
United States, most workers have at least some college education. That isn't the end of skill training, however.
Skill training in classrooms and on the job continues to boost U.S. labor productivity. The government
encourages such training with student loans, school subsidies, and training programs. In 2015, the federal
government spent over $100 billion on education, and state and local governments spent 10 times that much.
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Spending on capital investment also boosts productivity. As we observed in Chapter 2, American workers have
the productivity advantage of not just more education but also far more capital resources in the workplace.
Additional investment in capital not only adds to the stock (quantity) of resources in the world but increases its
quality as well. New machines, factories, and networks almost always embody the latest technology. Hence
more capital investment typically results in improved technology as well, giving a double boost to
production possibilities. The government can encourage such investments with targeted tax incentives.
Investments in either human or nonhuman capital shift the production function upward, as in Figure 5.5a. In
either case, the marginal physical product of labor rises and marginal costs fall (Figure 5.5b). This not only
increases worker productivity but also expands (shifts) society's production possibilities outward. Those outward
shifts of the production function are what allow the Earth to accommodate more and more people without
lowering living standards.
SUMMARY
Supply decisions are constrained by the capacity to produce and the costs of using that capacity. LO1
In the short run, some inputs (e.g., land and capital) are fixed in quantity. Increases in (shortrun) output
result from more use of variable inputs (e.g., labor). LO1
A production function indicates how much output can be produced from available facilities using different
amounts of variable inputs. Every point on the production function represents efficient production.
Capacity output refers to the maximum quantity that can be produced from a given facility. LO1
Output tends to increase at a diminishing rate when more labor is employed in a given facility. Additional
workers crowd existing facilities, leaving each worker with less space and machinery to work with. LO2
The costs of production include both fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs (e.g., space and equipment
leases) are incurred even if no output is produced. Variable costs (e.g., labor and material) are incurred
when plant and equipment are put to use. LO3
Average cost is total cost divided by the quantity produced. The average total cost (ATC) curve is
typically Ushaped. LO3
Marginal cost is the increase in total cost that results when one more unit of output is produced. Marginal
costs increase because of diminishing returns in production. LO3
The production decision is the shortrun choice of how much output to produce with existing facilities. A
producer will be willing to supply output only if price at least covers marginal cost. LO4
The long run is characterized by an absence of fixed costs. The investment decision entails the choice of
whether to acquire fixed costs—that is, whether to build, buy, or lease plant and equipment. LO4
The economic costs of production include the value of all resources used. Accounting costs typically
include only those dollar costs actually paid (explicit costs). LO5
Historically, advances in technology and the quality of our inputs have been the major source of
productivity growth. These advances have shifted production functions up and pushed cost curves down.
LO1
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
supply
factors of production
production function
marginal physical product (MPP)
law of diminishing returns
short run
long run
profit
total cost
fixed costs
variable costs
average total cost (ATC)
marginal cost (MC)
production decision
investment decision
economic cost
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QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Is your school currently producing at capacity (i.e., teaching as many students as possible)? What
considerations might inhibit full capacity utilization? LO1
2. What are the production costs of your economics class? What are the fixed costs? The variable costs?
What is the marginal cost of enrolling more students? LO3
3. Suppose you set up a lawnmowing service and recruit friends to help you. Would the law of diminishing
returns apply? Explain. LO2
4. What are the fixed and variable costs of (a) a pizza shop, (b) an Internet service provider, (c) a corn farm,
(d ) a movie theater? Which needs the highest sales volume to earn a profit? LO3
5. How do marginal costs “put a brake on production decisions”? LO3
6. Is it possible for a company to show an accounting profit even while it is incurring an economic loss?
How? What might happen with such a company? LO5
7. What role do expectations play in Tesla's production and investment decisions described in the News Wire
“Production and Investment Decisions”? LO3
8. Why does marginal physical product decline at a fastfood outlet (e.g., McDonald's) when more
employees are hired? What are the fixed input constraints that limit worker productivity? LO2
9. Why doesn't maximum output generate maximum profits? LO3
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If capital investment ceased, what would happen over time to worker
productivity and living standards? LO1
PROBLEMS
1. 1. What is the marginal physical product of each successive worker in Figure 5.1? For which worker is
marginal physical product
2. first diminishing?
3. zero? LO2
2. 1. Compute average fixed costs and average variable costs in Figure 5.3 for all rates of output. At
what rate of output is (are) LO3
2. Average fixed costs the lowest?
3. Average variable costs the lowest?
4. Average total cost the lowest?
3. 1. Complete the following table;
2. then plot the marginal cost and average total cost curves on the same graph.
3. What output has the lowest perunit cost?
4. What is the value of fixed costs? LO3
4. Suppose the mythical Tight Jeans Corporation leased a second sewing machine, giving it the following
production function: LO1
1. Graph the production function.
2. On a separate graph, illustrate marginal physical product.
At what level of employment does
3. The law of diminishing returns become apparent?
4. MPP hit zero?
5. MPP become negative?
5. Using the data in problem 4 and a price of $30 per pair of jeans, calculate the marginal physical product
and the value of the marginal physical product. Note the value of the marginal physical product is the
price of the product multiplied by the marginal physical product. LO3
6. Using Figure 5.3 as a guide, compute total profits at a price of $18 per pair of jeans and output of (a) 40
pairs, and (b) 50 pairs. LO3
7. Suppose a company incurs the following costs:
Labor $800
Equipment $400
Materials $300
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It owns the building, so it doesn't have to pay the usual $900 in rent. LO5
1. What is the total accounting cost?
2. What is the total economic cost?
3. How would accounting and economic costs change if the company sold the building and then leased
it back?
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If investment in new machinery doubles the productivity of every worker,
what will be the MPP of the fifth worker in Figure 5.1? LO4
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If the world's population is growing by 1 percent a year, (a) how fast does
production have to increase to keep living standards from falling? (b) Will living standards rise, fall, or
stay the same if the workforce and productivity (MPP) also increase by 1 percent each year? LO1
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Source: © TongRo Image Stock/Alamy;RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Identify the unique characteristics of perfectly competitive firms and markets.
2. 2 Illustrate how total profits change as output expands.
3. 3 Describe how the profitmaximizing rate of output is found.
4. 4 Recite the determinants of competitive market supply.
5. 5 Explain why profits get eliminated in competitive markets.
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C
atfish farmers in the South are upset. During the last two decades they have invested millions of dollars in
converting cotton farms into breeding ponds for catfish. They now have over 100,000 acres of ponds and supply
over 90 percent of the nation's catfish. From January 2010 to January 2012, catfish prices rose dramatically,
from 76 cents a pound to $1.25 a pound. That made catfish farming look pretty good. But then prices started
slipping again, falling as low as 75 cents a pound by January 2013. This abrupt price decline killed any hopes
the farmers had of making huge profits. Indeed, catfish prices got so low that many farmers started draining their
ponds and planting crops again.
The dilemma the catfish farmers find themselves in is a familiar occurrence in competitive markets. When the
profit prospects look good, everybody wants to get in on the act. As more and more firms start producing the
good, however, prices and profits tumble. This helps explain why over 200,000 new firms are formed each year
as well as why 50,000 others fail.
In this chapter we examine how supply decisions are made in competitive markets—markets in which all
producers are relatively small. Our focus on competition centers on the following questions:
What are the unique characteristics of competitive markets?
How do competitive firms make supply decisions?
How are production levels, prices, and profits determined in competitive markets?
By answering these questions, we will develop more insight into supply decisions and thus the core issues of
WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM goods and services are produced. ■
MARKET STRUCTURE
The quest for profits is the common denominator of business enterprises. But not all businesses have the same
opportunity to pursue profits. Millions of firms, like the southern catfish farms, are very small and entirely at the
mercy of the marketplace. A small decline in the market price of their product often spells financial ruin. Even
when such firms make a profit, they must always be on the lookout for new competition, new products, or
changes in technology.
Larger firms don't have to work quite so hard to maintain their standing. Huge corporations often have the power
to raise prices, change consumer tastes (through advertising), or even prevent competitors from taking a slice of
the profit pie. Such powerful firms can protect and perpetuate their profits. They are more likely to dominate
markets than to be at their mercy.
Business firms aren't always either giants or dwarfs, however. Those are extremes of market structure that
illustrate the range of power a firm might possess. Most realworld firms fall along a spectrum that stretches
from the powerless to the powerful. At one end of the spectrum (Figure 6.1) we place perfectly competitive
firms—firms that have no power over the price of goods they produce. Like the catfish farmers in the South, a
perfectly competitive firm must take whatever price for its wares the market offers; it is a price taker. A market
composed entirely of competitive firms—and without anyone dominating the demand side either—is referred to
as a (perfectly) competitive market. In a perfectly competitive market, no single producer or consumer has
any control over the price or quantity of the product.
FIGURE 6.1
FIGURE 6.1 Market StructuresThe number and relative size of firms producing a good vary across industries.
Market structures range from perfect competition (a great many firms producing the same goods) to monopoly
(only one firm). Most realworld firms are along the continuum of imperfect competition.
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At the other end of the spectrum of market structures are monopolies. A monopoly is a single firm that produces
the entire supply of a particular good. Despite repeated legal and technological attacks, Microsoft still supplies 9
out of 10 computer operating systems. That nearmonopoly gives Microsoft the power to set market prices rather
than simply respond to them. With nearly 75 percent of the soft drink market between them, The CocaCola
Company and PepsiCo are a virtual duopoly (twofirm market). Together they have the power to set prices for
their beverages. All firms with such power are price setters, not price takers.
Monopolies are the extreme case of market power. In Figure 6.1 they are at the far right end of the spectrum,
easily distinguished from the small, competitive firms that reside at the low (left) end of the power spectrum.
Among the 30 million or so business enterprises in the United States, there are relatively few monopolies. Local
phone companies, cable TV companies, and utility firms often have a monopoly in specific geographic areas.
The National Football League has a monopoly on professional football. The NFL owners know that if they raise
ticket prices, fans won't go elsewhere to watch a football game. These situations are the exception to the rule,
however. Typically more than one firm supplies a particular product.
Consider the case of Apple, Inc. Apple is a megacorporation with over $200 billion in annual sales revenue and
more than 90,000 employees. It is not a monopoly, however. Other firms produce smartphones that are virtually
identical to Apple products. These other smartphone companies (Samsung, Huawei, Xiaomi, LG, etc.) limit
Apple's ability to set prices for its own output. In other words, other firms in the same market limit Apple's
market power. Apple is not completely powerless, however; it is still large enough to have some direct
influence on smartphone prices and output. Because it has some market power over smartphone prices, Apple is
not a perfectly competitive firm.
Economists have created categories to distinguish the degrees of competition in product markets. These various
market structures are illustrated in Figure 6.1. At one end of the spectrum is perfect competition, where lots of
small firms vie for consumer purchases. At the other extreme is monopoly, where only one firm supplies a
particular product.
In between the extremes of monopoly (no competition) and perfect competition lie various forms of imperfect
competition:
Duopoly: Only two firms supply a particular product.
Oligopoly: A few large firms supply all or most of a particular product.
Monopolistic competition: Many firms supply essentially the same product, but each enjoys significant
brand loyalty.
How a firm is classified across this spectrum depends not only on its size but also on how many other firms
produce identical or similar products. A decade ago IBM, for example, would be classified in the oligopoly
category for servers. IBM supplied nearly 70 percent of all servers and confronted only a few rival producers. In
the personal computer market, however, IBM had a small market share (under 10 percent) and faced dozens of
rivals. In that market IBM fit into the category of monopolistic competition. These days, more firms are
producing servers, PCs and tablet computers leading to increased competition. Gasoline stations, fastfood
outlets, and even colleges are other examples of monopolistic competition. In this category, many firms are
trying to rise above the crowd and get the consumer's attention (and purchases).
With other firms also producing smartphones, Apple has to keep improving its product.
Source: © Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography /Alamy
Market structure has important effects on the supply of goods. How much you pay for a product depends partly
on how many firms offer it for sale. This textbook would be even more expensive if other publishers weren't
offering substitute goods. And longdistance telephone service didn't become inexpensive until competing firms
broke AT&T's monopoly control of that market. The number of firms in the market has had a significant effect
on price.
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The quality of the product also depends on the degree of competition in the marketplace. Why do the look, the
feel, and the features of an iPhone change so fast? Largely because dozens of firms are nipping at Apple's heels,
trying to get a larger piece of the smartphone market that Apple created. Apple isn't a perfectly competitive firm,
but it still feels the heat of competitive pressure. By contrast, the U.S. Department of Justice contended that the
lack of effective competition allowed Microsoft to sell operating systems that were too complex and unwieldy
for the typical computer user. With more firms in the market, consumers would have gotten a better product at a
lower price.
In this chapter we focus on only one market structure—namely, perfect competition. Our goal is to see how
perfectly competitive firms make supply decisions. In the next chapter we contrast monopoly behavior with this
model of perfect competition.
PERFECT COMPETITION
It's not easy to visualize a perfectly competitive firm. None of the corporations you could name are likely to fit
the model of perfect competition. Perfectly competitive firms are pretty much faceless. They have no brand
image and no real market recognition.
No Market Power
The critical factor in perfect competition is the total absence of market power for individual firms. A perfectly
competitive firm is one whose output is so small in relation to market volume that its output decisions have no
perceptible impact on price. A competitive firm can sell all its output at the prevailing market price. If it tries to
charge a higher price, it will not sell anything because consumers will shop elsewhere. In this sense, a perfectly
competitive firm has no market power—no ability to control the market price for the good it sells.
At first glance, it might appear that all firms have market power. After all, who is to stop a producer from raising
prices? The critical concept here, however, is market price—that is, the price at which goods are actually sold.
You might want to resell this textbook for $90. But you will discover that the bookstore will not buy it at that
price. Anyone can change the asking price of a good, but actual sales will occur only at the market price. With
so many other students offering to sell their books, the bookstore knows it does not have to pay the $90 you are
asking. Because you do not have any market power, you have to accept the “going price” for used texts if you
want to sell this book.
The same kind of powerlessness is characteristic of the small catfish farmer. Like any producer, the lone catfish
farmer can increase or reduce his rate of output. But this production decision will not affect the market price of
catfish.
Even a larger farmer who can alter a harvest by as much as 100,000 pounds of fish per year will not influence
the market price of catfish. Why not? Because over 600 million pounds of catfish are brought to market every
year, and another 100,000 pounds simply won't be noticed. In other words, the output of the lone farmer is so
small relative to the market supply that it has no significant effect on the total quantity or price in the market.
One can visualize the difference between competitive firms and firms with market power by considering what
happened in 2008 to U.S. catfish supplies and prices when Farmer Seamans drained some of his catfish ponds
(see News Wire “Competitive Markets”). No one really noticed: Total U.S. catfish production and market prices
were unaffected. Farmer Seamans was a tiny player in a very big market.
Contrast that scenario with the likely consequences for U.S. auto supplies and prices if the Ford Motor Company
were to close down suddenly. Farmer Seamans's cutbacks had no impact on market outcomes; the impact of a
Ford shutdown would be dramatic. Ford is a big player in the auto market.
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NEWS WIRE COMPETITIVE MARKETS
Catfish Farmers Feel Forced Out of Business
Also feeling the pinch from foreign imports and rising grain costs, Jerry Seamans is cutting back his 1,200 acres
of catfish ponds by 20 percent and returning the acreage to soybeans and rice….
“I really don't know of a fish operation that's not changing,” said Seamans, whose farm is just outside of Lake
Village. “Some people are going out of business, several people are doing the same thing I'm doing. Most
everybody in the business is trying to make major adjustments.”
At its peak in 2002, Arkansas' catfish industry numbered 195 operations covering 38,000 acres of ponds. The
latest numbers from the U.S. Department of Agriculture show 128 catfish farms with 29,900 acres of ponds.
Production has dropped from 106,821 pounds two years ago to the current 90,400 pounds.
Source: Moritz, Rob, “Catfish Farmers Feel Forced Out of Business,” Pine Bluff Commercial, May 25,
2008. Copyright © 2008 Stephens Media, Arkansas
NOTE: In competitive markets, new firms enter quickly when profitable opportunities exist. As a result of such
entry, profits often don't last long, forcing some firms to quit the business.
The same contrast is evident when a firm's output is increased. Were Farmer Seamans to double his production
capacity (build another 10 ponds), the added catfish output wouldn't even show up in commerce statistics. U.S.
catfish production is calibrated in the hundreds of millions of pounds, and no one is going to notice another
100,000 pounds of fish. Were Ford, on the other hand, to double its production, the added output would depress
automobile prices as Ford tried to unload its heavy inventories.
Price Takers
The critical distinction between Ford and Farmer Seamans is not in their motivation but in their ability to alter
market outcomes. Both are out to make a profit. What makes Farmer Seamans's situation different is the fact that
his output decisions do not influence catfish prices. All catfish look alike, so Farmer Seamans's catfish will fetch
the same price as everyone else's catfish. Were he to attempt to enlarge his profits by raising his catfish prices
above market levels, he would find himself without customers because consumers would go elsewhere to buy
their catfish. To maximize his profits, Farmer Seamans can only strive to run an efficient operation and make the
right supply decisions. He is a price taker, taking the market price of catfish as a fact of life and doing the best
he can within that constraint.
Ford Motor Company, on the other hand, can behave like a price setter. Instead of waiting to find out what the
market price is and making appropriate output adjustments, Ford has the discretion to announce prices at the
beginning of every model year. Fords are not exactly like Chevrolets or Toyotas in the minds of consumers.
Because Fords are differentiated, Ford knows that sales will not fall to zero if its car prices are set a little higher
than those of other car manufacturers. Ford confronts a downwardsloping, rather than a perfectly horizontal,
demand curve for its output.
Market Demand versus Firm Demand
To appreciate the unique nature of perfect competition, you must distinguish between the market demand curve
and the demand curve confronting a particular firm. Farmer Seamans's small operation does not contradict the
law of demand. The quantity of catfish purchased in the supermarket still depends on catfish prices. That is to
say, the market demand curve for catfish is downwardsloping, just as the market demand for cars is downward
sloping.
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THE FIRM'S HORIZONTAL DEMAND CURVE Although the market demand curve for catfish is
downwardsloping, the demand curve facing Farmer Seamans has a unique shape: It is horizontal. Remember, if
he charges a price above the prevailing market price, he will lose all his customers. So a higher price results in
quantity demanded falling to zero. On the other hand, he can double or triple his output and still sell every fish
he produces at the prevailing market price. As a result, the demand curve facing a perfectly competitive firm is
horizontal. Farmer Seamans himself faces a horizontal demand curve because his share of the market is so tiny
that changes in his output do not disturb the market equilibrium.
Collectively, though, individual farmers do count. If 10,000 small, competitive farmers expand their catfish
production at the same time, the market equilibrium will be disturbed. That is to say, a competitive market
composed of 10,000 individually powerless producers still sees a lot of action. The power here resides in the
collective action of all the producers, however, not in the individual action of any one producer. Were catfish
production to increase abruptly, the catfish could be sold only at lower prices, in accordance with the downward
sloping nature of the market demand curve.
The distinction between the actions of a single producer and those of the market are illustrated in Figure 6.2.
Notice that
The market demand curve for a product is always downwardsloping.
The demand curve facing a perfectly competitive firm is horizontal.
FIGURE 6.2
FIGURE 6.2 Market Demand versus Firm DemandThe market demand for any product is downwardsloping.
The equilibrium price (pe) of catfish is established by the intersection of market demand and market supply, as
shown in Figure 6.2a.
This marketestablished price is the only one at which an individual farmer can sell catfish. If the farmer asks a
higher price (e.g., p1), no one will buy the catfish since people can buy identical catfish from other farmers at pe.
But a farmer can sell all of his catfish at the equilibrium price. The lone farmer thus confronts a horizontal
demand curve for his own output, as shown in Figure 6.2b. (Notice the difference in quantities on the horizontal
axes of the two graphs.)
That horizontal demand curve is the distinguishing feature of perfectly competitive firms. If a firm can raise its
price without losing all its customers, it is not a perfectly competitive firm. (Does McDonald's meet this
condition? United Airlines? Apple? Your college?)
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THE FIRM'S PRODUCTION DECISION
Because a competitive firm is a price taker, it doesn't have to worry about what price to charge: Everything it
produces will be sold at the prevailing market price. It still has an important decision to make, however. The
competitive firm must decide how much output to sell at the going price.
Choosing a rate of output is a firm's production decision. Should it produce all the output it can? Or should it
produce at less than its capacity output?
Output and Revenues
If a competitive firm produces more output, its sales revenue will definitely increase. Total revenue is the price
of the good multiplied by the quantity sold:
Since a competitive firm can sell all of its output at the market price, total revenue is a simple multiple of that
price. That is why the total revenue line in Figure 6.3 keeps rising in a straight line.
Revenues versus Profits
If a competitive firm wanted to maximize total revenue, its strategy would be obvious: It would simply produce
as much output as possible. But maximizing total revenue isn't the goal. Business firms try to maximize total
profits, not total revenue.
As we saw in Chapter 5, total profit is the difference between total revenues and total costs. Hence a profit
maximizing firm must look not only at revenues but at costs as well. As output increases, total revenues go up,
but total costs do as well. If costs rise too fast, profits may actually decline as output increases.
We may embark on the search for maximizing profits with two clues:
Maximizing output or revenue is not the way to maximize profits.
Total profits depend on how both revenues and costs increase as output expands.
Notice in Figure 6.3 how total costs start out above total revenue. Do you remember why this is the case?
Because of fixed costs—costs that are incurred even when no output is produced. At low levels of output, costs
exceed revenues, and losses are incurred. As production increases, however, revenues increase faster than costs
(beginning at q1), making production profitable. But profits don't keep growing. At some point (q2), escalating
costs may overtake revenues, creating economic losses again. Hence a business is profitable only within a
certain range of output (q1 to q2 in Figure 6.3).
FIGURE 6.3
FIGURE 6.3 The Profitable Range of OutputTotal revenue rises as output expands. But profits depend on how
fast revenues rise in comparison to total costs. Only in the range of output between q1 and q2 is this business
profitable (i.e., total revenue exceeds total cost). The goal is to find the output level within this range that
maximizes total profits.
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The goal of the firm is to find the single rate of output that maximizes total profit. That output rate must lie
somewhere between q1 and q2 in Figure 6.3. But how can we locate it?
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION
We can advance still further toward the goal of maximum profits by employing a simple rule of thumb: Produce
an additional unit of output only if that unit brings in more revenue than it costs. A producer who follows this
rule will move steadily closer to maximum profits. We will explain this rule by looking first at the revenue side
of production (what it brings in) and then at the cost side (what it costs).
Price
For a perfectly competitive firm, it is easy to determine how much revenue a unit of output will bring in. All we
have to look at is price. Since competitive firms are price takers, they must take whatever price the market has
put on their products. Thus a catfish farmer can readily determine the value of the fish by looking at the market
price of catfish.
Marginal Cost
Once we know what one more unit brings in (its price), all we need to know for profit maximization is the cost
of producing an additional unit.
The production process for catfish farming is fairly straightforward. The “factory” in this case is a pond; the rate
of production is the number of fish harvested from the pond per hour. A farmer can alter the rate of production at
will, up to the breeding capacity of the pond.
Assume that the fixed cost of the pond is $10 per hour. The fixed costs include the rental value of the pond and
the cost of electricity for keeping the pond oxygenated so the fish can breathe. These fixed costs must be paid no
matter how many fish the farmer harvests.
To harvest catfish from the pond, the farmer must incur additional costs. Labor is needed to net and sort the fish.
The cost of labor is variable, depending on how much output the farmer decides to produce. If no fish are
harvested, no variable costs are incurred.
The marginal costs (MC) of harvesting refer to the additional costs incurred to harvest one more basket of fish.
Generally, marginal costs rise as the rate of production increases. The law of diminishing returns we encountered
in Chapter 5 applies to catfish farming as well. As more labor is hired, each worker has less space (pond area)
and capital (access to nets, sorting trays) to work with. Accordingly, it takes a little more labor time (marginal
cost) to harvest each additional fish.
Figure 6.4 illustrates these marginal costs. The unit of production used here is baskets of fish per hour. Notice
how the MC rises as the rate of output increases. At the output rate of four baskets per hour (point E), marginal
cost is $13; the fourth basket increases total costs by $13. The fifth basket (point F) is even more expensive,
with a marginal cost of $17.
FIGURE 6.4
FIGURE 6.4 Increasing Marginal CostMarginal cost (MC) is the cost of producing one more unit. When
production expands from two to three units per hour, total costs increase by $9 (from $22 to $31 per hour). The
marginal cost of the third basket is therefore $9, as seen in row D of the table and point D in the graph. Marginal
costs increase as output expands.
ProfitMaximizing Rate of Output
We are now in a position to make a production decision. All we have to know is the price of the product and its
marginal cost. We do not want to produce an additional unit of output if its MC exceeds its price. If MC exceeds
price, we are spending more to produce that extra unit than we are getting back: Total profits will decline if we
produce it.
Catfish production is most profitable when MC = p.
Source: © Bill Barksdale/AgStock Images/Canopy/Corbis
The opposite is true when price exceeds MC. If an extra unit brings in more revenue than it costs to produce, it
is adding to total profit. Total profits must increase in this case. Hence a competitive firm wants to expand the
rate of production whenever price exceeds MC.
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Since we want to expand output when price exceeds MC and contract output if price is less than MC, the profit
maximizing rate of output is easily found. Shortrun profits are maximized at the rate of output where price
equals marginal cost. The competitive profit maximization rule is summarized in Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1
TABLE 6.1 ShortRun Decision Rules for a Competitive Firm
The relationship between price and marginal cost dictates shortrun production decisions. For competitive firms,
profits are maximized at that rate of output where price = MC.
Figure 6.5 illustrates the application of our profit maximization rule. The market price of catfish is $13 a basket.
At this price we can sell all the fish we produce, up to our shortrun capacity. The fish cannot be sold at a higher
price because lots of farmers grow fish and sell them for $13. If we try to charge a higher price, consumers will
buy their fish from these other producers. Hence the demand curve facing this one firm is horizontal at the price
of $13 a basket.
FIGURE 6.5
FIGURE 6.5 Maximizing Profits for a Competitive FirmA competitive firm maximizes total profits at the output
rate where MC = p. If MC is less than price, the firm can increase profits by producing more. If MC exceeds
price, the firm should reduce output. In this case, profit maximization occurs at an output of four baskets of fish
per hour.
The costs of harvesting catfish were already examined in Figure 6.4. The key concept illustrated here is marginal
cost. The MC curve slopes upward.
Also depicted in Figure 6.5 are the total revenues, costs, and profits of alternative production rates. Study the
table in Figure 6.5 first. Notice that the firm loses $10 per hour if it produces no fish (row A). At zero output,
total revenue is zero (p × q = 0). However, the firm must still contend with fixed costs of $10 per hour. Total
profit—total revenue minus total cost—is therefore minus $10; the firm incurs a loss.
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Row B of the table shows how this loss is reduced when one basket of fish is produced per hour. The production
and sale of just one basket per hour brings in $13 of total revenue (column 3). The total cost of producing that
one basket is $15 (column 4). Hence the total loss associated with an output rate of one basket per hour is $2
(column 5). This $2 loss may not be what we hoped for, but it is certainly better than the $10 loss incurred at
zero output.
If a firm had a complete table of revenues and costs, it could identify the profitmaximizing rate of output. But it
would be nice to have a shortcut to that conclusion. Fortunately there is an easier way to make production
decisions.
DECISION WHEN p > MC The superior profitability of producing one basket of fish per hour rather than
none is evident in columns 6 and 7 of row B. The first basket produced fetches a price of $13. Its marginal cost
is only $5. Hence it brings in more added revenue ($13) than it costs to produce ($5). Under these circumstances
—whenever price exceeds MC—output should definitely be expanded. That is one of the decision rules
summarized in Table 6.1.
The excess of price over MC for the first unit of output is also illustrated by the graph in Figure 6.5. Point B
($13) lies above MCB ($5); the difference between these two points measures the contribution that the first
basket of fish makes to the total profits of the firm. In this case, that contribution equals $13 − $5 = $8, and
production losses are reduced by that amount when the rate of output is increased from zero to one basket per
hour.
So long as price exceeds MC, further increases in the rate of output are desirable. Notice what happens to
profits when the rate of output is increased from one to two baskets per hour (row C). The price of the second
basket is $13; its MC is $7. Therefore, it adds $6 to total profits. Instead of losing $2 per hour, the firm is now
making a profit of $4 per hour.
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The firm can make even more profits by expanding the rate of output further. Look what happens when the rate
of output reaches three baskets per hour (row D of the table). The price of the third basket is $13; its marginal
cost is $9. Therefore, the third basket makes a $4 contribution to profits. By increasing its rate of output to three
baskets per hour, the firm doubles its total profits.
This firm will never make huge profits. The fourth unit of output has a price of $13 and an MC of $13 as well. It
does not contribute to total profits, nor does it subtract from them. The fourth unit of output represents the
highest rate of output the firm desires. At the rate of output where price = MC, total profits of the firm are
maximized.
DECISION WHEN p < MC Notice what happens if we expand output beyond four baskets per hour. The price
of the fifth basket is still $13, but its MC is $17. The fifth basket costs more than it brings in. If we produce that
fifth basket, total profit will decline by $4. The fifth unit of output makes us worse off. This is evident in the
graph in Figure 6.5: At the output rate of five baskets per hour, the MC curve lies above the price curve. The
lesson here is clear: Output should not be increased if MC exceeds price.
MAXIMUM PROFIT AT p = MC The outcome of the production decision is illustrated in Figure 6.5 by the
intersection of the price and MC curves. At this intersection, price equals MC and profits are maximized. If we
produced less, we would be giving up potential profits. If we produced more, total profits would also fall. Hence
the point where MC = p is the limit to profit maximization.
Total Profit
So what have we learned here? The message is simple: To reach the right production decision, we need only
compare price and marginal costs. Having found the desired rate of output, however, we may want to take a
closer look at the profits we are accumulating. We could, of course, content ourselves with the statistics shown
in the table of Figure 6.5. But a picture would be nice, too, especially if it reflected our success in production.
Figure 6.6 provides such a picture.
FIGURE 6.6
FIGURE 6.6 Illustrating Total ProfitTotal profits can be computed as profit per unit (p − ATC) multiplied by the
quantity sold. This is illustrated by the shaded rectangle. To find the desired profitmaximizing rate of output,
we could use this graph or just the MC and price curves of Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.6 takes advantage of the fact that total profit can be computed in one of two ways:
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or
In Figure 6.6, the focus is on the second formula. To use it, we compute profit per unit as price minus average
total cost—that is,
Figure 6.6 adds an average total cost curve to the graphs of Figure 6.4. This curve allows us to see how profit
per unit changes as the rate of output increases. Like the ATC curve we first encountered in Chapter 5 (Figure
5.3), this ATC curve has the distinctive U shape.
We compute profit per unit as price minus ATC. As before, the market price of catfish is assumed to be $13 per
basket, as illustrated by the horizontal price line at that level. Therefore, the difference between price and
average cost—profit per unit—is illustrated by the vertical distance between the price and ATC curves. At four
baskets of fish per hour, for example, profit per unit equals $13 − $11 = $2.
To compute total profits at the output rate of four baskets, we note that
In this case, the total profit would be $8 per hour. Total profits are illustrated in Figure 6.6 by the shaded
rectangle. (Recall that the area of a rectangle is equal to its height [profit per unit] multiplied by its width
[quantity sold].)
Profit per unit is used to compute total profits but it is often of interest in its own right as well. Businesspeople
like to cite statistics on markups, which are a crude index to perunit profits. However, the profitmaximizing
producer never seeks to maximize perunit profits. What counts is total profits, not the amount of profit per
unit. This is the ageold problem of trying to sell ice cream for $8 a cone. You might be able to maximize profit
per unit if you could sell one cone for $8, but you would make a lot more money if you sold 100 cones at a per
unit profit of only 50 cents each.
Similarly, the profitmaximizing producer has no particular desire to produce at that rate of output where
ATC is at a minimum. Minimum ATC does represent leastcost production. But additional units of output, even
though they raise average costs, will increase total profits. This is evident in Figure 6.6: Price exceeds MC for
some output to the right of minimum ATC (the bottom of the U). Therefore, total profits are increasing as we
increase the rate of output beyond the point of minimum average costs. Total profits are maximized only where
p = MC.
SUPPLY BEHAVIOR
Right about now you may be wondering why we're memorizing formulas for profit maximization. Who cares
about MC, ATC, and all these other cost concepts? Maybe we all do. If we don't know how firms make
production decisions, we'll never figure out how the market establishes prices and quantities for the products we
desire. Knowledge of supply decisions can also be valuable if you are purchasing a car, a vacation package, or
even something in an electronic auction. What we're learning here is how much of a good sellers are willing to
offer at any given price.
A Firm's Supply
The most distinctive feature of perfectly competitive firms is the lack of pricing decisions. As price takers, the
only decision competitive firms make is how much output to produce at the prevailing market price. Their
supply behavior is determined by the rules for profit maximization. Specifically, competitive firms adjust the
quantity supplied until MC = price.
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Suppose the price of catfish was only $9 per basket instead of $13. Would it still make sense to harvest four
baskets per hour? No. Four baskets is the profitmaximizing rate of output only when the price of catfish is $13.
At a price of $9 a basket, it would not make sense to produce four baskets because the MC of the fourth basket
($13) would exceed its price. The decision rule (Table 6.1) in this case requires a cutback in output. At a market
price of $9, the most profitable rate of output would be only three baskets of fish per hour (see Figure 6.5).
The marginal cost curve thus tells us how much output a firm will supply at different prices. Once we know the
price of catfish, we can look at the MC curve to determine exactly how many fish Farmer Seamans should
harvest. In other words, the marginal cost curve is the shortrun supply curve for a competitive firm.
SUPPLY SHIFTS Since marginal costs determine the supply decisions of a firm, anything that alters marginal
cost will change supply behavior. The most important influences on marginal cost (and supply behavior) are
The price of factor inputs.
Technology.
Expectations.
A catfish farmer will supply more fish at any given price if the price of feed declines. If fish can be bred faster
because of advances in genetic engineering, productivity will increase and the farmer's MC curve will shift
downward. With lower marginal costs, the firm will supply more output at any given price.
Conversely, if wages increased, the marginal cost of producing fish would rise as well. This upward shift of the
MC curve would cause the firm to supply fewer fish at any prevailing price. Finally, if producers expect factor
prices to rise or demand to diminish, they may be more willing to supply output now.
You can put the concept of marginal cost pricing to use the next time you buy a car. The car dealer wants to get a
price that covers all costs, including a share of the rent, electricity, and insurance (fixed costs). The dealer might,
however, be willing to sell the car for only its marginal cost—that is, the wholesale price paid for the car plus a
little labor time (variable costs). So long as the price exceeds marginal cost, the dealer is better off selling the car
than not selling it.
Market Supply
Up until now we have focused on the supply behavior of a single competitive firm. But what about the market
supply of catfish? We need a market supply curve to determine the market price the individual farmer will
confront. In the previous discussion, we simply picked a price arbitrarily at $13 per basket. Now our objective is
to find out where that market price comes from.
Like the market supply curves we first encountered in Chapter 3, the market supply of catfish is obtained by
simple addition. All we have to do is add up the quantities each farmer stands ready to supply at each and every
price. Then we will know the total number of fish to be supplied to the market at that price. Figure 6.7 illustrates
this summation. Notice that the market supply curve is the sum of the marginal cost curves of all the firms.
Hence whatever determines the marginal cost of a typical firm will also determine industry supply. Specifically,
the market supply of a competitive industry is determined by
The price of factor inputs.
Technology.
Expectations.
The number of firms in the industry.
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FIGURE 6.7
FIGURE 6.7 Competitive Market SupplyThe MC curve is a competitive firm's shortrun supply curve. The
curve MCA tells us that Farmer A will produce 40 pounds of catfish per day if the market price is $3 per pound;
Farmer B will produce 60 pounds per day (curve MCB); and Farmer C will produce 50 pounds per day (curve
MCC).
To determine the market supply, we add up the quantities supplied by each farmer. The total quantity supplied to
the market here is 150 pounds per day (= a + b + c). Market supply depends on the number of firms in an
industry and their respective marginal costs.
INDUSTRY ENTRY AND EXIT
With a market supply curve and a market demand curve, we can identify the equilibrium price—the price that
matches the quantity demanded to the quantity supplied. This equilibrium is shown as E1 in Figure 6.8.
FIGURE 6.8
FIGURE 6.8 Market Entry Pushes Prices DownIf there are profits at the initial equilibrium (E1), more firms will
enter the industry. As they do, the market supply curve (S1) shifts to the right (S2). This creates a new
equilibrium (E2), where output is higher (q2) and price is lower (p2).
If truth be told, locating a market's equilibrium is neither difficult nor terribly interesting—certainly not in
competitive markets. In competitive markets, the real action is in changes to market equilibrium. In
competitive markets, new firms are always beating down the door, trying to get a share of industry profits.
Entrepreneurs are always looking for ways to improve products or the production process. Nothing stays in
equilibrium very long. Hence, to understand how competitive markets really work, we have to focus on changes
in equilibrium rather than on the identification of a static equilibrium. One of the forces driving those changes is
the entry of new firms into an industry.
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Entry
Suppose that the equilibrium price in the catfish industry is $13. This shortrun equilibrium is illustrated in
Figure 6.8 by the point E1 at the intersection of market demand and the market supply curve S1. At that price,
the typical catfish farmer would harvest four baskets of fish per hour and earn a profit of $8 per hour (as seen
earlier in Figure 6.6). All the farmers together would be producing the quantity q1 in Figure 6.8.
The profitable equilibrium at E1 is not likely to last, however. Farmers still growing cotton or other crops will
see the profits being made by catfish farmers and lust after them. They, too, will want to dig up their crops and
replace them with catfish ponds.
This is a serious problem for the catfish farmers in the South. It is fairly inexpensive to get into the catfish
business. You can start with a pond, some breeding stock, and relatively little capital equipment. Accordingly,
when catfish prices are high, lots of cotton farmers are ready and willing to bulldoze a couple of ponds and get
into the catfish business. The entry of more farmers into the catfish industry increases the market supply and
drives down catfish prices.
NEWS WIRE ENTRY AND PRICE
Flat Panels, Thin Margins
Rugged Competition from Smaller Brands Has Made the TV Sets Cheaper Than Ever
Like just about everyone else checking out the flatpanel TVs at Best Buy in Manhattan, graphic designer Roy
Gantt came in coveting a Philips, Sony, or Panasonic. But after seeing the price tags, he figured a Westinghouse
might be a better buy….
It is just one of more than 100 flatpanel brands jamming the aisles of retailers such as Best Buy, Target, and
Costco. The names on the sets range from the obscure (Sceptre, Maxent) to the recycled (Polaroid).
The freeforall is a boon to the millions of Americans who want to trade in their bulky analog sets….
For many in the industry, though, the competition is brutal. Prices for LCD sets are falling so rapidly that
retailers who place orders too far in advance risk getting stuck with expensive inventory.
—Pete Engardio
Source: BusinessWeek, February 15, 2007. Used with permission of Bloomberg L.P. Copyright © 2007. All
rights reserved.
NOTE: When more firms enter an industry, the market supply increases (shifts right) and price declines.
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The impact of market entry on market outcomes is illustrated in Figure 6.8. The initial equilibrium at E1 was
determined by the supply behavior of existing producers. If those producers are earning a profit, however, other
firms will want to enter the industry. When they do, the industry supply curve shifts to the right (S2). This entry
induced shift of the market supply curve changes market equilibrium. A new equilibrium is established at E2. At
E2, the quantity supplied is larger and the price is lower than at the initial equilibrium E1. Hence industry output
increases and price falls when firms enter an industry. This is the kind of competitive behavior that has made
flatpanel TVs so cheap (see the accompanying News Wire “Entry and Price”).
Tendency toward Zero Economic Profits
Whether more cotton farmers enter the catfish industry depends on their expectations for profit. If catfish
farming looks more profitable than cotton, more farmers will flood their cotton fields. As they do, the market
supply curve will continue shifting to the right, driving catfish prices down.
How far can catfish prices fall? The force that drives catfish prices down is market entry. New firms continue to
enter a competitive industry so long as profits exist. Hence the price of catfish will continue to fall until all
economic profits disappear.
Notice in Figure 6.9 where this occurs. When price drops from p1 to p2, the typical firm reduces its output from
q1 to q2. At the price p2, however, the firm is still making a profit because price exceeds average cost at the
output q2. This profit is illustrated by the shaded rectangle that appears in Figure 6.9b.
FIGURE 6.9
FIGURE 6.9 The Lure of ProfitsIf economic profits exist in an industry, more firms will want to enter it. As they
do, the market supply curve will shift to the right and cause a drop in the market price (Figure 6.9a). The lower
market price, in turn, will reduce the output and profits of the typical firm (Figure 6.9b). Once the market price
is driven down to p3, all profits disappear and entry ceases.
The persistence of profits lures still more firms into the industry. As they enter the industry, the market price of
fish will be pushed ever lower (Figure 6.9a). When the price falls to p3, the most profitable rate of output will be
q3 (where MC = p). But at that level, price no longer exceeds average cost. Once price falls to the level of
minimum average cost, all economic profits disappear. This zeroprofit outcome occurs at the bottom of the U
shaped ATC curve.
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NEWS WIRE ENTRY AND EXIT
U.S. Catfish Growers Struggle Against High Feed Prices, Foreign Competition
LITTLE ROCK, Ark.—The catfish industry in the state continued its downward spiral in 2011, with declines in
acreage, production, and sales…
Catfish farms shed about 3,500 water surface acres in the state in 2011, a 26.5 percent decrease to 9,700 acres,
the lowest in a decade, according to USDA figures.
Nationwide, surface acres fell a little more than 10 percent in 2011, to 89,390…
With fewer fish available, the price paid by processors to farmers was up in 2011, averaging $1.05 a pound—an
increase from an average of 77 cents in 2010.
Ted McNulty, head of the Aquaculture Division of the Arkansas Department of Agriculture, said he expects food
inventory and acreage to stabilize but that it is unlikely for at least a few years.
Source: Associated Press, February 11, 2012. Used with permission of The Associated Press Copyright ©
2012. All rights reserved.
When economic profits vanish, market entry ceases. No more cotton farmers will switch to catfish farming once
the price of catfish falls to the level of minimum average total cost.
Exit
In the short run, catfish prices might actually fall below average total cost. This is what happened in 2012 when
Vietnamese and Chinese catfish farmers increased exports to the United States, hoping to take advantage of high
prices. The resultant shift of market supply pushed prices so low (from $1.25 to 75 cents a pound) that many
U.S. catfish farmers incurred an economic loss (p < ATC).
Suddenly fields of rice looked a lot more enticing than ponds full of fish. Before long, some catfish farmers
started filling in their ponds and planting rice. As they exited the catfish industry, the market supply curve
shifted to the left and catfish prices rose (see the accompanying News Wire “Entry and Exit”). Eventually price
rose to the level of average total costs, at which point further exits ceased. Once entry and exit cease, the market
price stabilizes.
Equilibrium
The lesson to be learned from catfish farming is straightforward:
The existence of profits in a competitive industry induces entry.
The existence of losses in a competitive industry induces exits.
Accordingly, we can anticipate that prices in a competitive market will continue to adjust until all entry and exit
cease. At that point, the market will be in equilibrium. In longrun competitive market equilibrium,
Price equals minimum average total cost.
Economic profit is eliminated.
Catfish farmers would be happier, of course, if the price of catfish did not decline to the point where economic
profits disappeared. But how are they going to prevent it? Farmer Seamans knows all about the law of demand
and would like to get his fellow farmers to slow production a little before all the profits disappear. But Farmer
Seamans is powerless to stop the forces of a competitive market. He cannot afford to reduce his own catfish
production. Nobody would notice the resulting drop in market supplies, and catfish prices would continue to
slide. The only one affected would be Farmer Seamans, who would be denying himself the opportunity to share
in the good fortunes of the catfish market while they last. As long as others are willing and able to enter the
industry and increase output, Farmer Seamans must do the same or deny himself even a small share of the
available profits. Others will be willing to expand catfish production so long as catfish breed economic profits—
that is, so long as the rate of return in catfish production is superior to that available elsewhere. They will be able
to do so as long as it is easy to get into catfish production.
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Farmer Seamans's dilemma goes a long way toward explaining why catfish farming is not highly profitable.
Every time the profit picture looks good, everybody tries to get in on the action. This kind of pressure on prices
and profits is a fundamental characteristic of competitive markets. As long as it is easy for existing producers to
expand production or for new firms to enter an industry, economic profits will not last long. Industry output
will expand, market prices will fall, and rates of profit will diminish. Thus the rate of profits in catfish farming is
kept down by the fact that anyone with a pond and a couple of catfish can get into the business fairly easily.
Low Barriers to Entry
New producers will be able to enter a profitable industry and help drive down prices and profits as long as there
are no significant barriers to entry. Such barriers may include patents, control of essential factors of
production, brand loyalty, and various forms of price control. All such barriers make it expensive, risky, or
impossible for new firms to enter into production. In the absence of such barriers, new firms can enter an
industry more readily and at less risk.
Not surprisingly, firms already entrenched in a profitable industry do their best to keep newcomers out by
erecting barriers to entry. As we saw, there are few barriers to entering the catfish business. When catfish
imports from Vietnam first soared in 2002–2003, domestic farmers sought to stem the inflow with new entry
barriers, including countryoforigin labeling, tougher health inspections, and outright import quotas. Such entry
barriers would have impeded rightward shifts of the market supply curve and kept catfish prices higher. Without
such protection, domestic farmers who couldn't keep up with falling prices and increased productivity exited the
industry. Owners of Tshirt shops also fret over the low entry barriers that keep their prices and profits low (see
the accompanying News Wire “Competitive Pressure”).
Market Characteristics
This brief review of catfish economics illustrates a few general observations about the structure, behavior, and
outcomes of a competitive market:
Many firms. A competitive market will include a great many firms, none of which has a significant share
of total output.
Horizontal firm demand. Perfectly competitive firms confront horizontal demand curves; they don't have
the power to raise their price above the prevailing market price.
Identical products. Products are homogeneous. One firm's product is virtually indistinguishable from any
other firm's product.
MC = p. All competitive firms will seek to expand output until marginal cost equals price.
Low barriers to entry. Barriers to enter the industry are low. If economic profits are available, more firms
will enter the industry.
Zero economic profit. The tendency of production and market supplies to expand when profit is high puts
heavy pressure on prices and profits in competitive industries. Economic profit will approach zero in the
long run as prices are driven down to the level of average production costs.
Perfect information. All buyers and sellers are fully informed of market opportunities.
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NEWS WIRE COMPETITIVE PRESSURE
The TShirt Business: Too Much Competition
At first blush, the Tshirt business looks like a sure thing. All you need is a bunch of blank Tshirts, a wall full of
jazzy transfers, and a heat press. You can buy blank shirts for as little as $1.60 apiece and stock transfers for
$1.50 a shot. That's a $3.10 investment. Sell the shirt for $15 and you've got a nice, fat profit margin. What
could be easier?
© Ellen Isaacs / Alamy, RF
Trouble is, everyone knows the formula. In fact there are dozens of web sites that offer not only the necessary
supplies but also sage advice on how to set up your Tshirt shop, either online or in a real store. They all promise
you can get rich selling Tshirts.
Tshirt shop owners aren't so sanguine about getting rich. Quite simply, there are far too many Tshirt shops and
online outlets. The competition is fierce. So Tshirt shops have to battle for customers every day. As a shop
owner in South Padre Island lamented, “Every day you have to compete with other shops. And if you invent
something new, they will copy you.”
Source: Industry web sites and news, 2015.
NOTE: The ability of a single firm to increase the price of its product depends on how many other firms offer
identical products. A perfectly competitive firm has no market power.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Does Competition Help Us or Hurt Us?
This profile of competitive markets has important implications for public policy. As we noted in Chapter 3, a
strong case can be made for the market mechanism. In particular, we observed that the market mechanism
permits individual consumers and producers to express their views about WHAT to produce, HOW to produce,
and FOR WHOM to produce by “voting” for particular goods and services with market purchases and sales.
How well this market mechanism works depends in part on how competitive markets are.
THE RELENTLESS PROFIT SQUEEZE The unrelenting squeeze on prices and profits that we have
observed in this chapter is a fundamental characteristic of the competitive process. Indeed, the market
mechanism works best under such circumstances. The existence of economic profits implies that consumers
place a high value on a particular product and are willing to pay a comparatively high price to get it. The high
price and profits signal this information to profithungry entrepreneurs, who eagerly come forward to satisfy
consumer demands. Thus high profits in a particular industry indicate that consumers want a different mix of
output (more of that industry's goods). They get that desired mix when more firms enter the industry, increasing
its total output (and reducing output in the industries they left). Low entry barriers and the competitive quest for
profits enable consumers to get more of the goods they desire, and at a lower price. We get a good answer to the
WHAT question.
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MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY When the competitive pressure on prices is carried to the limit, the products in
question are also produced at the least possible cost. This is HOW we want goods produced—at minimum cost.
This was illustrated by the tendency of catfish prices to be driven down to the level of minimum average costs
(Figure 6.9). Once the market equilibrium has been established, society is getting the most it can from its
available (scarce) resources.
ZERO ECONOMIC PROFITS At the limit of the process, all economic profit is eliminated. This doesn't
mean that producers are left emptyhanded, however. To begin with, the zero profit limit is rarely, if ever,
reached. New products are continually being introduced, consumer demands change, and more efficient
production processes are discovered. In fact, the competitive process creates strong pressures to pursue
product and technological innovation. In a competitive market, the adage about the early bird getting the worm
is particularly apt. As we observed in the catfish market, the first ones to take up catfish farming were the ones
who made the greatest profits.
The sequence of events common to a competitive market situation includes the following:
High prices and profits signal consumers' demand for more output.
Economic profit attracts new suppliers.
The market supply curve shifts to the right.
Prices slide down the market demand curve.
A new equilibrium is reached at which increased quantities of the desired product are produced and its
price is lowered. Average costs of production are at or near a minimum, more of the product is supplied
and consumed, and economic profit approaches zero.
Throughout the process producers experience great pressure to keep ahead of the profit squeeze by
reducing costs, a pressure that frequently results in product and technological innovation.
What is essential to note about the competitive process is that the potential threat of other firms to expand
production or new firms to enter the industry keeps existing firms on their toes. Even the most successful firm
cannot rest on its laurels for long. To stay in the game, competitive firms must continually improve technology,
improve their products, and reduce costs.
THE SOCIAL VALUE OF LOSSES Not all firms can maintain a competitive pace. Throughout the
competitive process, many firms incur economic losses, shut down production, and exit the industry. These
losses are a critical part of the market mechanism. Economic losses are a signal to producers that they are not
using society's scarce resources in the best way. Consumers want those resources reallocated to other firms or
industries that can better satisfy consumer demands. In a competitive market, moneylosing firms are sent
packing, making scarce resources available to more efficient firms.
The dogeatdog character of competitive markets troubles many observers. Critics say competitive markets are
“all about money,” with no redeeming social attributes. But such criticism is illfounded. The economic goals of
society are to produce the best possible mix of output, in the most efficient way, and then to distribute the output
fairly. In other words, society seeks optimal answers to the basic WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM questions.
What makes competitive markets so desirable is that they are most likely to deliver those outcomes.
Page 130
SUMMARY
Market structures range from perfect competition (many small firms in an industry) to monopoly (one
firm). LO1
A perfectly competitive firm has no power to alter the market price of the goods it sells: It is a price taker.
The firm confronts a horizontal demand curve for its own output even though the relevant market demand
curve is negatively sloped. LO1
The competitive firm maximizes profit at that rate of output where marginal cost equals price. This
represents the shortterm equilibrium of the firm. LO3
A competitive firm's supply curve is identical to its marginal cost curve. In the short run, the quantity
supplied will rise or fall with price. LO3
The determinants of supply include the price of inputs, technology, and expectations. If any of these
determinants change, the firm's supply curve will shift. Market supply will shift if costs or the number of
firms in the industry changes. LO4
If shortterm profits exist in a competitive industry, new firms will enter the market. The resulting shift of
supply will drive market prices down the market demand curve. As prices fall, the profit of the industry
and its constituent firms will be squeezed. LO5
The limit to the competitive price and profit squeeze is reached when price is driven down to the level of
minimum average total cost. Additional output and profit will be attained only if technology is improved
(lowering costs) or if demand increases. LO5
If the market price falls below ATC, firms will exit an industry. Price will stabilize only when entry and
exit cease (and zero profit prevails). LO5
The most distinctive thing about competitive markets is the persistent pressure they exert on prices and
profits. The threat of competition is a tremendous incentive for producers to respond quickly to consumer
demands and to seek more efficient means of production. In this sense, competitive markets do best what
markets are supposed to do—efficiently allocate resources. LO1
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
market structure
competitive firm
competitive market
monopoly
market power
production decision
total revenue
profit
marginal cost (MC)
competitive profit maximization rule
supply
market supply
equilibrium price
barriers to entry
market mechanism
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What industries do you regard as being highly competitive? Can you identify any barriers to entry in those
industries? LO1
2. According to the News Wire “Competitive Markets,” how many catfish farms exited the industry in 2002–
2008? What did they then do? Was this socially desirable? LO5
3. If there were more bookstores around your campus, would textbook prices rise or fall? Why aren't there
more bookstores? LO5
4. Why doesn't The CocaCola Company lose all its customers when it raises its price? Why would a catfish
farmer lose all her customers if she raised her price? LO1
5. How many fish should a commercial fisherman try to catch in a day? Should he catch as many as possible
or return to dock before filling the boat with fish? Under what economic circumstances should he not even
take the boat out? LO3
6. Why would anyone want to enter a profitable industry knowing that profits would eventually be
eliminated by competition? LO5
7. In the News Wire “Competitive Pressure,” what types of costs are cited? Which are not mentioned? If the
shop owner wanted to increase production and sales, what additional costs would he incur? Should he do
so? LO3
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If Apple had no competitors, would it be improving iPhone features as fast?
LO5
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Who gained or lost when moneylosing catfish farmers left the industry (see
the News Wire “Entry and Exit”)? LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations asserted that the pursuit of self
interest by competitive firms promoted the interests of society. What did he mean by this? LO1
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PROBLEMS
1. Use Figure 6.5 to determine the following: LO3
1. How many baskets of fish should be harvested at market prices of
1. $9?
2. $13?
3. $17?
2. How much total revenue is collected at each price?
3. How much profit does the farmer make at each of these prices?
2. In Figure 6.5, what rate of output LO2
1. Maximizes total revenue?
2. Maximizes profit per unit?
3. Maximizes total profit? (Choose the higher level of output.)
3. Graph a situation where the typical catfish farmer is incurring a loss at the prevailing market price p1.
1. What is MC equal to at the best possible rate of output?
2. Is ATC above or below p1?
3. Which of the following would raise the market price?
1. A reduction in the firm's output.
2. An increase in the firm's input costs.
3. Exits from the industry.
4. An improvement in technology.
4. What price would prevail in longterm equilibrium? LO3, LO4
4. Suppose a firm has the following costs: LO3
1. If the prevailing market price is $12 per unit, how much should the firm produce?
2. How much profit will it earn at that output rate?
3. If the market price dropped to $8, how much output should the firm produce?
4. How much profit will it make at that lower price?
5. Graph the market behavior described in the News Wire “Entry and Price.” LO5
6. According to the News Wire “Entry and Price,”
1. How many LCD television brands entered the market between 2002 and 2007?
2. What happened to the market price? LO1
7. Under perfectly competitive scenarios, firms exit the business when economic losses are incurred.
According to the News Wire “Competitive Markets,” how many Arkansas catfish farmers quit the
business due to economic losses? LO4
8. Consider the case of a Tshirt shop for which the following data apply: Rent = $200/day; Labor cost =
$4/shirt; and Output (sales) = 40 Tshirts/day. Using these data and the information contained in the News
Wire “Competitive Pressure” compute: LO3
1. Total revenue per day.
2. Average total cost.
3. Per unit profit.
4. Total profit per day.
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES What are expected profits for a perfectly competitive firm in the long run?
LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Suppose that the monthly market demand schedule for Frisbees is
Suppose further that the marginal and average costs of Frisbee production for every competitive firm are
Finally, assume that the equilibrium market price is $6 per Frisbee. LO5
1. Draw the cost curves of the typical firm.
2. Draw the market demand curve and identify market equilibrium.
3. How many Frisbees are being sold in equilibrium?
4. How many (identical) firms are initially producing Frisbees?
5. How much profit is the typical firm making?
6. In view of the profits being made, more firms will want to get into Frisbee production. In the long
run, these new firms will shift the market supply curve to the right and push the price down to
minimum average total cost, thereby eliminating profits. At what equilibrium price are all profits
eliminated?
7. How many firms will be producing Frisbees at this price?
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Source: © Bettmann Premium/Corbis
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Define what a monopoly is.
2. 2 Explain why price exceeds marginal revenue in monopoly.
3. 3 Describe how a monopoly sets output and price.
4. 4 Illustrate how monopoly and competitive outcomes differ.
5. 5 Discuss the pros and cons of monopoly structures.
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I
n 1908 Ford produced the Model T, the car “designed for the common man.” It was cheap, reliable, and as easy
to drive as the horse and buggy it was replacing. Ford sold 10,000 Model Ts in its first full year of production
(1909). After that, sales more than doubled every year. In 1913 nearly 200,000 Model Ts were sold, and Ford
was fast changing American patterns of consumption, travel, and living standards.
During this early development of the U.S. auto industry, Henry Ford dominated the field. There were other
producers, but the Ford Motor Company was the only producer of an inexpensive “motorcar for the multitudes.”
In this situation, Henry Ford could dictate the price and the features of his cars. When he opened his new
assembly line factory at Highland Park, he abruptly raised the Model T's price by $100—an increase of 12
percent—to help pay for the new plant. Then he decided to paint all Model Ts black. When told of consumer
complaints about the lack of colors, Ford advised one of his executives in 1913, “Give them any color they want
so long as it's black.”1
Henry Ford had market power. He could dictate what color car Americans would buy. And he could raise the
price of Model Ts without fear of losing all his customers. Such power is alien to competitive firms. Competitive
firms are always under pressure to reduce costs, improve quality, and cater to consumer preferences.
In this chapter we will continue to examine how market structure influences market outcomes. Specifically, we
examine how a market controlled by a single producer—a monopoly—behaves. We are particularly interested in
the following questions:
What price will a monopolist charge for its output?
How does a monopolist keep potential competitors at bay?
Are consumers better or worse off when only one firm controls an entire market? ■
1Charles E. Sorensen, My Forty Years with Ford (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1956), p. 127.
MONOPOLY STRUCTURE
The essence of market power is the ability to alter the price of a product. The catfish farmers of Chapter 6 had
no such power. Because many other farms were producing and selling the same good, each catfish producer had
to act as a price taker. Each farm could sell all the fish it harvested at the prevailing market price. If a farmer
tried to charge a higher price for his catfish, that individual farmer would lose all his customers. This inability to
set the price of their output is the most distinguishing characteristic of perfectly competitive firms.
Catfish don't, of course, violate the law of demand. As tasty as catfish are, people are not willing to buy
unlimited quantities of them at $13 per basket. The marginal utility of extra fish, in fact, diminishes rapidly. To
induce consumers to buy more fish, the price of fish must be reduced.
This seeming contradiction between the law of demand and the situation of the competitive firm was explained
by the existence of two distinct demand curves. The demand for catfish refers to the market demand for that
good. Like all other consumer demand curves, this market demand curve is downwardsloping. A second
demand curve was constructed to represent the situation confronting a single firm in the competitive catfish
market; that demand curve was horizontal.
Monopoly = Industry
We now confront an entirely different market structure. Suppose that the entire output of catfish could be
produced by a single large producer. Assume that Universal Fish had a patent on the oxygenating equipment
needed to maintain commercialsize fish ponds. A patent gives a firm the exclusive right to produce or license a
product. With its patent, Universal Fish can deny other farmers access to oxygenating equipment and thus
establish itself as the sole supplier of catfish. Such a firm is a monopoly—that is, a single firm that produces the
entire market supply of a good.
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In view of the fact that a monopoly has no direct competition, you'd hardly expect it to behave like a competitive
firm. Competitive firms are always under pressure from other firms in the industry to hold down costs and
improve product quality. Competitive firms also have to worry about new entrants into their industry and the
resultant downward pressure on prices. A monopolist, however, owns the ballpark and can set the rules of the
game. Is a monopoly going to charge the same price for fish as a competitive industry would? Not likely. As
we'll see, a monopolist can use its market power to charge higher prices and retain larger profits.
The emergence of a monopoly obliterates the distinction between industry demand and the demand curve facing
the firm. A monopolistic firm is the industry. Hence there is only one demand curve to worry about, and that is
the market (industry) demand curve. In monopoly situations, the demand curve facing the firm is identical to
the market demand curve for the product.
Price versus Marginal Revenue
Although monopolies simplify the geometry of the firm, they complicate the arithmetic of supply decisions.
Competitive firms maximize profits by producing at that rate of output where price equals marginal cost.
Monopolies do not maximize profits in the same way. They still heed the advice about never producing anything
that costs more than it brings in. But as strange as it may seem, what is brought in from an additional sale is not
the price in this case.
The contribution to total revenue of an additional unit of output is called marginal revenue (MR). To calculate
marginal revenue, we compare the total revenues received before and after a oneunit increase in the rate of
production; the difference between the two totals equals marginal revenue.
If every unit of output could be sold at the same price, marginal revenue would equal price. But what would the
demand curve look like in such a case? It would have to be horizontal, indicating that consumers were prepared
to buy everything produced at the existing price. As we have observed, however, a horizontal demand curve
applies only to small competitive firms—firms that produce only a tiny fraction of total market output. Only for
perfectly competitive firms does price equal marginal revenue.
The situation in a monopoly is different. The firm is so big that its output decisions affect market prices. Keep in
mind that a monopolist confronts the market demand curve, which is always downwardsloping. As a
consequence, a monopolist can sell additional output only if it reduces prices.
Suppose Universal Fish could sell one ton of fish for $6,000. If it wants to sell two tons, however, it has to heed
the law of demand and reduce the price per ton. Suppose it has to reduce the price to $5,000 in order to get the
additional sales. In that case, we would observe
To compute marginal revenue, we observe that
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Notice how the quantity demanded in the marketplace increases as the unit price is reduced (the law of demand
again). Notice, also, however, what happens to total revenue when unit sales increase: Total revenue here
increases by $4,000. This change in total revenue represents the marginal revenue of the second ton.
Notice in the calculation that marginal revenue ($4,000) is less than price ($5,000). This will always be the case
when the demand curve facing the firm is downwardsloping. To get added sales, price must be reduced. The
additional quantity sold is a plus for total revenue, but the reduced price per unit is a negative. The net result of
these offsetting effects represents marginal revenue. Since the demand curve facing a monopolist is always
downwardsloping, marginal revenue is always less than price for a monopolist, as shown in Figure 7.1.
FIGURE 7.1
FIGURE 7.1 Price Exceeds Marginal Revenue in MonopolyIf a firm must lower its price to sell additional
output, marginal revenue is less than price. If this firm wants to increase its sales from one to two pounds of fish
per hour, for example, price must be reduced from $13 to $12. The marginal revenue of the second pound is
therefore only $11 (= $24 of total revenue at p = $12 minus $13 of total revenue at p = $13). This is indicated in
row B of the table and by point b on the graph.
Figure 7.1 provides more detail on how marginal revenue is calculated. The demand curve and schedule
represent the market demand for catfish and thus the sales opportunities for the Universal Fish monopoly.
According to this information, Universal Fish can sell one pound of fish per hour at a price of $13. If the
company wants to sell a larger quantity of fish, it has to reduce its price. According to the market demand curve
shown here, the price must be lowered to $12 to sell two pounds per hour. This reduction in price is shown by a
movement along the demand curve from point A to point B.
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Our primary focus here is on marginal revenue. We want to show what happens to total revenue when unit sales
increase by one pound per hour. To do this, we must compute the total revenue associated with each rate of
output and then observe the changes that occur.
The calculations necessary for computing MR are summarized in Figure 7.1. Row A of the table indicates that
the total revenue resulting from one sale per hour is $13. To increase unit sales, price must be reduced. Row B
indicates that total revenues rise to only $24 per hour when catfish sales double. The increase in total revenues
resulting from the added sale is thus $11. The marginal revenue of the second pound is therefore $11. This is
illustrated in the last column of the table and by point b on the marginal revenue curve.
Notice that the MR of the second pound of fish ($11) is less than its price ($12). This is because both pounds are
being sold for $12 apiece. In effect, the firm is giving up the opportunity to sell only one pound per hour at $13
in order to sell a larger quantity at a lower price. In this sense, the firm is sacrificing $1 of potential revenue on
the first pound of fish in order to increase total revenue. Marginal revenue measures the change in total revenue
that results.
So long as the demand curve is downwardsloping, MR will always be less than price. Compare columns 2 and
4 of the table in Figure 7.1. At each rate of output in excess of one pound, marginal revenue is less than price.
This is also evident in the graph: The MR curve lies below the demand (price) curve at every point but the first.
MONOPOLY BEHAVIOR
Like all producers, a monopolist wants to maximize total profits. A monopolist does this a bit differently than a
competitive firm, however. Recall that a perfectly competitive firm is a price taker. It maximizes profits by
adjusting its rate of output to a given market price. A monopolist, by contrast, sets the market price. Hence a
monopolist must make a pricing decision that perfectly competitive firms never make.
Profit Maximization
In setting its price, the monopolist first identifies the profitmaximizing rate of output (the production decision)
and then determines what price is compatible with that much output.
To find the best rate of output, a monopolist will follow the general profit maximization rule about equating
marginal cost (what an additional unit costs to produce) and marginal revenue (how much more revenue an
additional unit brings in). Hence a monopolist maximizes profits at the rate of output where MR = MC.
Note that competitive firms actually do the same thing. In their case, MR and price are identical. Hence a
competitive firm maximizes profits where MC = MR = p. Thus the general profit maximization rule (MR = MC)
applies to all firms; only those firms that are perfectly competitive use the special case of MC = p = MR.
The Production Decision
Figure 7.2 shows how a monopolist applies the profit maximization rule to the production decision. The
demand curve represents the market demand for catfish; the marginal revenue curve is derived from it, as shown
in Figure 7.1. The marginal cost curve in Figure 7.2 represents the costs incurred by Universal Fish in supplying
the market. As we've seen before, the MC curve slopes upward. Universal's goal is to use these curves to find
the one rate of output that maximizes total profit.
FIGURE 7.2
FIGURE 7.2 Profit MaximizationThe most profitable rate of output is indicated by the intersection of marginal
revenue and marginal cost (point d). In this case, marginal revenue and marginal cost intersect at an output of
four pounds per hour. Point D indicates that consumers will pay $10 per pound for this much output. Total
profits equal price ($10) minus average total cost ($8), multiplied by the quantity sold (4 pounds).
Competitive firms make the production decision by locating the intersection of marginal cost and price. A
monopolist, however, looks for the rate of output at which marginal cost equals marginal revenue. This is
illustrated in Figure 7.2 by the intersection of the MR and MC curves (point d). Looking down from that
intersection, we see that the associated rate of output is four pounds per hour. Thus four pounds is the profit
maximizing rate of output for this monopoly; this is the only rate of output where MC = MR.
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The Monopoly Price
How much should Universal Fish charge for these four pounds of fish? Naturally, the monopolist would like to
charge a very high price. But its ability to charge a high price is limited by the demand curve. The demand curve
always tells us the most consumers are willing to pay for any given quantity. Once we have determined the
quantity that is going to be supplied (four pounds per hour), we can look at the demand curve to determine the
price ($10 at point D) that consumers will pay for these catfish. That is to say,
The intersection of the marginal revenue and marginal cost curves (point d) establishes the profit
maximizing rate of output.
The demand curve tells us the highest price consumers are willing to pay for that specific quantity of
output (point D).
If Universal Fish ignored these principles and tried to charge $13 per pound, consumers would buy only one
pound, leaving it with three unsold pounds of fish. As the monopolist will soon learn, only one price is
compatible with the profitmaximizing rate of output. In this case the price is $10. This price is found in Figure
7.2 by moving up from the intersection of MR = MC until reaching the demand curve at point D. Point D tells us
that consumers are able and willing to buy exactly four pounds of fish per hour at the price of $10 each. A
monopolist that tries to charge more than $10 will not be able to sell all four pounds of fish. That could turn out
to be an unprofitable (and smelly) situation.
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Monopoly Profits
Also illustrated in Figure 7.2 are the total profits of the Universal Fish monopoly. To compute total profits, we
again take advantage of the average total cost (ATC) curve. The distance between the price (point D) and ATC at
the output rate of 4 represents profit per unit. In this case, profit per unit is $2 (price of $10 minus ATC of $8).
Multiplying profit per unit ($2) by the quantity sold (4) gives us total profits of $8 per hour, as illustrated by the
shaded rectangle.
We could also compute total profit by comparing total revenue and total cost. Total revenue at q = 4 is price
($10) times quantity (4), or $40. Total cost is quantity (4) times average total cost ($8), or $32. Subtracting total
cost ($32) from total revenue ($40) gives us the total profit of $8 per hour already illustrated in Figure 7.2.
BARRIERS TO ENTRY
The profits attained by Universal Fish as a result of its monopoly position are not the end of the story. As we
observed earlier, the existence of economic profit tends to bring profithungry entrepreneurs swarming. Indeed,
in the competitive catfish industry of Chapter 6, the lure of high profits brought about an enormous expansion in
domestic catfish farming, a flood of imported fish, and a steep decline in catfish prices. What, then, can we
expect to happen in the catfish industry now that Universal has a monopoly position and is enjoying economic
profits?
The consequences of monopoly on prices and output can be seen in Figure 7.3. In this case, we must compare
monopoly behavior to that of a competitive industry. Remember that a monopoly is a single firm that constitutes
the entire industry. What we want to depict, then, is how a different market structure (perfect competition) would
alter industry prices and the quantity supplied.
FIGURE 7.3
FIGURE 7.3 Monopoly versus Competitive OutcomesA monopoly will produce at the rate of output where MR
= MC. A competitive industry will produce where MC = p. Hence a monopolist produces less (q = 4) than a
competitive industry (q = 5). It also charges a higher price ($10 versus $9).
If a competitive industry were producing at point D it too would be generating an economic profit with the costs
shown in Figure 7.3. A competitive industry would not stay at that rate of output, however. All the firms in a
competitive industry try to maximize profits by equating price and marginal cost. But at point D, price ($10)
exceeds marginal cost ($7). Hence a competitive industry would quickly move from point D (the monopolist's
equilibrium) to point E, where marginal cost and price are equal. At point E (the shortrun competitive
equilibrium), more fish are supplied, their price is lower, and industry profits are smaller.
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Threat of Entry
At point E, catfish farming is still profitable, since price ($9) exceeds average cost ($8) at that rate of
production. Although total profits at the competitive point E ($5 per hour) are less than at the monopolist's point
D ($8 per hour), they are still attractive. These remaining profits will lure more entrepreneurs into a competitive
industry. As more firms enter, the market supply curve will shift to the right, driving prices down further. As we
observed in Chapter 6, output will increase and prices will decline until all economic profit is eliminated and
entry ceases (longrun competitive equilibrium).
Will this sequence of events occur in a monopoly? Absolutely not. Remember that Universal Fish is now
assumed to have an exclusive patent on oxygenating equipment and can use this patent as an impassable barrier
to entry. Consequently, wouldbe competitors can swarm around Universal's profits until their wings drop off;
Universal is not about to let them in on the spoils. Universal Fish has the power to maintain production and price
at point D in Figure 7.3. In the absence of competition, monopoly outcomes won't budge. We conclude,
therefore, that a monopoly attains higher prices and profits by restricting output.
The secret to a monopoly's success lies in its barriers to entry. So long as entry barriers exist, a monopoly can
control (restrict) the quantity of goods supplied. The barrier to entry in this catfish saga is the patent on
oxygenating equipment. Without access to that technology, wouldbe catfish farmers must continue to farm
cotton or other crops.
Patent Protection: Polaroid versus Kodak
A patent was also the source of monopoly power in the historic battle between Polaroid and Eastman Kodak.
Edwin Land invented the instant development camera in 1947 and got a patent on his invention. Over the
subsequent 29 years, the company he founded was the sole supplier of instant photography cameras and racked
up billions of dollars in profits.
Polaroid's huge profits were too great a prize to ignore. In 1976 the Eastman Kodak Company decided to enter
the market with an instant camera of its own. The availability of a second camera quickly depressed camera
prices and squeezed Polaroid's profits.
Polaroid cried foul and went to court to challenge Kodak's entry into the instant photography market. Polaroid
claimed that Kodak had infringed on Polaroid's patent rights and was producing cameras illegally. Kodak
responded that it had developed its cameras independently and used no processes protected by Polaroid's
patents.
The ensuing legal battle lasted 14 years. In the end, a federal judge concluded that Kodak had violated Polaroid's
patent rights. Kodak not only stopped producing instant cameras but also offered to repurchase all of the 16
million cameras it had sold (for which film would no longer be available).
In addition to restoring Polaroid's monopoly, the court ordered Kodak to pay Polaroid for its lost monopoly
profits. The court essentially looked at Figure 7.3 and figured out how much profit Polaroid would have made
had it enjoyed an undisturbed monopoly in the instant photography market. Prices would have been higher,
output lower, and profits greater. Using such reasoning, the judge determined that Polaroid's profits would have
been $909.5 million higher if Kodak had never entered the market—twice as high as the profits actually earned.
Kodak had to repay Polaroid these lost profits.
Although Polaroid won the legal battle, consumers ended up losing. What the Kodak entry demonstrated was
how just a little competition (a second firm) can push consumer prices down, broaden consumer options, and
improve product quality. Once its monopoly was restored, Polaroid didn't have to try as hard to satisfy consumer
desires (it was later upended by the digital revolution).
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Other Entry Barriers
Patents are a highly visible and effective barrier. There are numerous other ways of keeping potential
competitors at bay, however.
LEGAL HARASSMENT An increasingly effective way of suppressing competition is to sue new entrants.
Even if a new competitor hasn't infringed on a monopolist's patents or trademarks, it is still fair game for legal
challenges. Recall that Kodak spent 14 years battling Polaroid in court. Small firms can't afford all that legal
skirmishing. When Napster, one of the first companies to offer free music downloads, got sued for copyright
infringement in 2000, its fate was sealed. It simply didn't have the revenues needed to wage an extended legal
battle. Even before the court ruled against it, Napster chose to compromise rather than fight. Because lengthy
legal battles are so expensive, even the threat of legal action may dissuade entrepreneurs from entering a
monopolized market. Kazaa customers were scared away from using its music filesharing network when the
record companies filed suit against 261 download users in 2003. Linux sales were also slowed by legal threats,
as the following News Wire “Barriers to Entry” explains.
EXCLUSIVE LICENSING Nintendo allegedly used another tactic to control the video game market in the
early 1990s. Nintendo forbade game creators from writing software for competing firms. Such exclusive
licensing made it difficult for potential competitors to acquire the factors of production (game developers) they
needed to compete against Nintendo. Only after the giant electronics company Sony entered the market in 1995
with new technology (PlayStation) did Nintendo have to share its monopoly profits.
BUNDLED PRODUCTS Another way to thwart competition is to force consumers to purchase complementary
products. The U.S. Justice Department repeatedly accused Microsoft Corporation of “bundling” its applications
software (e.g., Internet Explorer) with its Windows operating software. With a near monopoly on operating
systems, Microsoft could charge a high price for Windows and then give “free” applications software with each
system. Such bundling makes it almost impossible for potential competitors in the applications market to sell
their products at a profitable price. The News Wire “Barriers to Entry” cites this practice as one of the many
“oppressive” tactics that Microsoft used to protect and exploit its monopoly position. Bundling helped Microsoft
gain 96 percent of the Internet browser market (displacing Netscape), 94 percent of the office suites markets
(displacing Word Perfect), and an increased share of money management applications (gaining on Intuit). The
federal courts concluded that consumers would have enjoyed better products and lower prices had the market for
computer operating systems been more competitive.
NEWS WIRE BARRIERS TO ENTRY
SCO Suit May Blunt the Potential of Linux
SCO Group Inc., the software firm that has accused industry giant IBM Corp. of stealing its trade secrets and
incorporating them into the Linux operating system, has begun showing the allegedly pilfered code to analysts in
an attempt to convince the industry that it has a strong case.
While the facts of the SCOIBM case may be impenetrable to most who don't write programs, the possible
ramifications are undeniable: The free Linux system might not be free anymore and, as a result, might not live
up to its hopedfor potential as a formidable threat to Microsoft.
Some in the Linux camp accuse Microsoft of trying to scare potential users away from Linux by sowing doubt
about its future as a free operating system.
SCO's aggressive stance is having at least some effect on companies considering making the switch to Linux,
software writers and buyers said. It “puts fear” into the minds of chief information officers, said Chris Yeun, a
systems administrator at Silicon Valley firm Electronics for Imaging, which is shifting from software from Sun
and Silicon Graphics Inc. to Linux.
—Joseph Menn
Source: Los Angeles Times, June 6, 2003, used with permission.
NOTE: Legal action—or even the threat of legal action—may dissuade a firm from entering an industry or its
customers from buying its product.
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NEWS WIRE BARRIERS TO ENTRY
Judge Rules Microsoft Violated Antitrust Laws
WASHINGTON (AP) — Humbling a proud giant of the computer age, a federal judge ruled Monday that
Microsoft violated U.S. antitrust laws by keeping “an oppressive thumb” on competitors during the race to link
Americans to the Internet.
In a sweeping verdict against the empire that Bill Gates built, U.S. District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson said
Microsoft violated the Sherman Antitrust Act, just as Standard Oil and AT&T did in earlier antitrust cases.
He concluded that the company was guilty … of “unlawfully tying its Web browser” to its Windows operating
system that dominates the computer market worldwide.
“Microsoft placed an oppressive thumb on the scale of competitive fortune, thereby effectively guaranteeing its
continued dominance” in the market, Jackson wrote.
The verdict affirms Jackson's previous ruling in November that the software giant is a monopoly, one that
illegally used its power to bully competitors, stifle innovation and hurt consumers in the process.
Source: “Judge rules Microsoft violated antitrust laws,” The Journal Record, April 4, 2000. Copyright ©
2000 The Journal Record. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: Microsoft tried to keep competitors out of its operating system and applications software markets by
erecting various barriers to entry. This behavior slowed innovation, restricted consumer choices, and kept prices
too high.
When Microsoft started bundling its Media Player with its Windows operating system, the same concern over
entry barriers came to the fore again. This time the European Union really cracked down. It fined Microsoft
$600 million and required the company to offer both bundled and unbundled versions of Windows.
GOVERNMENT FRANCHISES In many cases, a monopoly persists just because the government gave a
single firm the exclusive right to produce a particular good in a specific market. The entry barrier here is not a
patent on a product but instead an exclusive franchise to sell that product. Local cable and telephone companies
are often franchised monopolies. So is the U.S. Postal Service in the provision of firstclass mail. Your campus
bookstore might also have exclusive rights to sell textbooks on campus.
COMPARATIVE OUTCOMES
These and other entry barriers are the ultimate sources of monopoly power. With that power, monopolies can
change the way the market responds to consumer demands.
Competition versus Monopoly
By way of summary, we recount the different ways in which perfectly competitive and monopolized markets
behave. The likely sequence of events that occurs in each type of market structure is as follows:
Competitive Industry Monopoly Industry
•High prices and profits signal consumers' demand for more •High prices and profits signal consumers'
output. demand for more output.
•The high profits attract new suppliers. •Barriers to entry are erected to exclude
potential competition.
•Production and supplies expand. •Production and supplies are constrained.
•Prices slide down the market demand curve. •Prices don't move down the market demand
curve.
•A new equilibrium is established in which more of the desired •No new equilibrium is established, average
product is produced, its price falls, average costs of production costs are not necessarily at or near a
approach their minimum, and economic profits approach zero. minimum, and economic profits are at a
maximum.
•Price equals marginal cost throughout the process. •Price exceeds marginal cost at all times.
•Throughout the process, there is great pressure to keep ahead of •There is no squeeze on profits and thus no
the profit squeeze by reducing costs or improving product pressure to reduce costs or improve product
quality. quality.
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Near Monopolies
These comparative sequences aren't always followed exactly. Nor is the monopoly sequence available only to a
single firm. In reality, two or more firms may rig the market to replicate monopoly outcomes and profits.
DUOPOLY In a duopoly there are two firms rather than only one. They may literally be the only two firms in
the market, or two firms may so dominate the market that they can still control price and output even if other
firms are present.
How would you expect duopolists to behave? Will they slug it out, driving prices and profits down to
competitive levels? Or will they recognize that less intense competition will preserve industry profits? If they
behave like true competitors, they risk losing economic profits. If they work together, they assure themselves a
continuing share of monopolylike profits.
The two giant auction houses, Sotheby's and Christie's, figured out which strategy made more sense. Together
the two companies control 90 percent of the $4 billion auction market. Rather than compete for sales by offering
lower prices to potential sellers, Sotheby's and Christie's agreed to fix commission prices at a high level. When
they got caught in 2000, the two firms agreed to pay a $512 million fine to auction customers.
OLIGOPOLY In an oligopoly, several firms (rather than one or two) control the market. Here, too, the strategic
choice is whether to compete feverishly or live somewhat more comfortably. To the extent that the dominant
firms recognize their mutual interest in higher prices and profits, they may avoid the kind of price competition
common in perfectly competitive industries. CocaCola and Pepsi, for example, much prefer to use clever
advertising rather than lower prices to lure customers away from each other. With 75 percent of industry sales
between them, CocaCola and Pepsi realize that price competition is a nowin strategy.
In some instances, an oligopoly may have explicit limits on production and price. The 12 nations that constitute
the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), for example, meet every six months or so to limit
output (quantity supplied) and maintain a high price for oil (see the accompanying News Wire “Mimicking
Monopoly”). OPEC operates outside U.S. borders and is therefore immune to U.S. laws against price fixing. The
record industry doesn't enjoy such immunity, however. In October 2002 eight music companies agreed to refund
$67.4 million to consumers for inflating CD prices at Tower Records, Musicland Stores, and Trans World
Entertainment. In 2014 five German beer manufacturers were fined $145 million for similar behavior (see the
News Wire “Price Fixing”).
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NEWS WIRE MIMICKING MONOPOLY
OPEC Keeps Oil Output Target on Hold, Predicts Low Prices
VIENNA—OPEC decided to keep its oil output target on hold Friday and predicted prices would remain low for
the foreseeable future—good news for both for oilhungry international industries and consumers at the gas
pump.
The cartel said its output level would remain at 30 million barrels a day despite the fact that prices were still low
compared with a year ago.
With nonOPEC oil producing countries ready to ramp up production if prices go much above present levels,
OPEC's secretary general said the cost of crude will stay relatively low for a while.
While the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries accounts for over a third of the world's oil, its
power to determine supply and demand has been steadily eroding as outsiders capture large shares of the market.
It gave up imposing quotas on individual members four years ago after these were consistently ignored.
That has led to an overhang in recent months of more than 1 million barrels a day of OPEC production beyond
the target. But the likelihood of continued overproduction persists.
OPEC powerhouse Saudi Arabia is fighting to keep market share against U.S. shale oil, Iran plans to increase
production in anticipation of an end to sanctions that have crimped its crude exports and other countries are
trying to compensate for low prices by selling more.
“OPEC realizes … that it is now in a highly competitive market, in which its own members will compete against
each other and collectively against nonOPEC producers, and in particular shale producers,” said John Hall of
Alfa Energy in London.
Announcing the decision to keep the present target, an OPEC statement urged members “to adhere to it.” But al
Badri, the secretary general, acknowledged that, as in the past, countries had only been assigned “indicators”—
not quotas—in attempts to hew to the target.
In contrast, Saudi and Iranian comments Friday reflected the countries' determination to produce what they
decide.
“Production policy is a sovereign right,” Naimi told reporters.
Iranian Petroleum Minister Bijar Namdar Zangeneh, meanwhile, advised OPEC to make room for increased
output from his country as early as the end of the month. That's the target date for a deal between Tehran and six
world powers envisaging an end to sanctions on the Islamic Republic in exchange for curbs on its nuclear
program.
Iran hopes to ramp up production by up to 1 million barrels a day within a year once sanctions are gone, and
Zangeneh said his country doesn't “need any decision from the OPEC side to return to the market, because it's
our right.”
OPEC powerhouse Saudi Arabia and their Gulf allies are best set to continue allout producing—even though
they, like others, are selling at a loss.
But they can afford to do so.
The Saudi sovereign wealth fund stands at over $700 billion and the coffers of the other Gulf nations are also
well stocked. The Saudis, who effectively set OPEC policy, were the prime drivers in the decision in November
to keep the 30 million barrela day target, the seventh time in three years that the group opted for the status quo.
—George Jahn
Source: “OPEC keeps oil output target on hold, predicts low prices,” The Associated Press, June 5, 2015.
Copyright © 2015 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: The 12 membernations of OPEC collectively set their combined rate of output. In doing so, they are
trying to duplicate monopoly outcomes.
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NEWS WIRE PRICE FIXING
German Brewers Fined over PriceFixing
BERLIN (AP)—German antitrust authorities have fined a group of beer brewers a total of 106.5 million euros
($145 million) for illegal pricefixing between 2006 and 2008.
The Federal Cartel Office said Monday that the companies fixed price increases for draft and bottled beer. Five
firms were fined — Bitburger, Krombacher, Veltins, Warsteiner and Barre — along with seven people deemed to
be “personally responsible.”
Cartel office chief Andreas Mundt said the breweries involved, some of Germany's most prominent, agreed to
raise draft beer prices in 2006 and again in 2008 by between 5 and 7 euros ($6.8–$9.5) per 100 liters (26.4
gallons). In 2008, they agreed to hike the price of a 20bottle case of beer by 1 euro.
Mundt said in a statement that the pricefixing was based “largely on purely personal and telephone contacts.”
—Associated Press, Jan. 13, 2014
Source: “German brewers fined over pricefixing,” The Associated Press, January 13, 2014. Copyright ©
2014 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: When a handful of companies dominate an industry, they may conspire to fix prices at monopoly levels.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Starbucks, too, has the power to set prices for its products even though
many other firms sell coffee. But it has much less power than CocaCola or OPEC because so many firms sell
coffee. A market made up of many firms, each of which has some distinct brand image, is called monopolistic
competition. Each company has a monopoly on its brand image but still must contend with competing brands.
This is still very different from perfect competition, in which no firm has a distinct brand image or pricesetting
power. As a result, any industry dominated by relatively few firms is likely to behave more like a monopoly than
like perfect competition.
WHAT Gets Produced
To the extent that dominating firms behave as we have discussed, they alter the output of goods and services in
two specific ways. You remember that competitive industries tend, in the long run, to produce at minimum
average total costs. Competitive industries also pursue cost reductions and product improvements relentlessly.
These pressures tend to expand our production possibilities and enrich our consumption choices. No such forces
are at work in the monopoly we have discussed here. Hence there is a basic tendency for monopolies to inhibit
economic growth and limit consumption choices.
Another important feature of competitive markets is their tendency toward marginal cost pricing. Marginal cost
pricing is important to consumers because it informs consumers of the true opportunity costs of various goods.
This allows us to choose the mix of output that delivers the most utility with available resources. In our
monopoly example, recall that consumers ended up getting fewer catfish than they wanted, while the economy
continued to produce cotton and other goods that were less desired. The mix of output shifted away from catfish
when Universal took over the industry. The presence of a monopoly therefore alters society's answer to the
question of WHAT to produce.
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FOR WHOM
Monopoly also changes the answer to the FOR WHOM question. The reduced supply and higher price of catfish
imply that some people will have to eat canned tuna instead of breaded catfish. The monopolist's restricted
output will also reduce job opportunities in the South, leaving some families with less income. The monopolist
will end up with fat profits and thus greater access to all goods and services.
HOW
Finally, monopoly may also alter the HOW response. Competitive firms are likely to seek out new ways of
breeding, harvesting, and distributing catfish. A monopoly, however, can continue to make profits from existing
equipment and technology. Accordingly, monopolies tend to inhibit technology—how things are produced—by
keeping potential competition out of the market.
ANY REDEEMING QUALITIES?
Despite the strong case to be made against monopoly, it is conceivable that monopolies could also benefit
society. One of the arguments made for concentrations of market power is that monopolies have greater ability
to pursue research and development. Another is that the lure of monopoly power creates a tremendous incentive
for invention and innovation. A third argument in defense of monopoly is that large companies can produce
goods more efficiently than smaller firms. Finally, it is argued that even monopolies have to worry about
potential competition and will behave accordingly. We must pause to reflect, then, on whether and how market
power might be of some benefit to society.
NEWS WIRE R&D INCENTIVES
Two Drug Firms Agree to Settle Pricing Suit
ALBANY, NY, Jan. 27—Two drug companies have agreed to pay $80 million to settle allegations that they
conspired to keep a cheaper, generic version of a blood pressure medication off the market.
Under the settlement announced today, Aventis Pharmaceuticals Inc. and Andrx Corp. will pay that amount to
states, insurance companies, and consumers nationwide.
Consumers paid too much for the drugs Cardizem CD and its generic equivalents because the companies
conspired to delay the marketing of cheaper competitors, said New York state Attorney General Eliot L. Spitzer.
Spitzer said that in 1998, the German pharmaceutical giant Hoechst—which merged with RhonePoulenc in
1999 to form Aventis—paid Andrx just under $100 million to not market a generic form of Cardizem CD for 11
months. The agreement was to be renewed annually, he said.
This “most craven form of anticompetitive behavior” kept the drug financially out of the reach of countless
people, Spitzer said.
Consumer groups have said that Cardizem sales total about $700 million a year domestically. Users of Cardizem
were paying about $73 a month for the drug when a generic cost about $32 a month.
—Michael Gormley
Source: Gormley, Michael. “Drug companies to pay $80 million for allegedly blocking cheaper generics,”
The Associated Press, January 28, 2003. Copyright © 2003 The Associated Press. All rights reserved.
Used with permission.
NOTE: A firm that dominates a market may not have sufficient incentive to improve its product or reduce costs.
It may even try to suppress product improvements that weaken its monopoly hold.
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Research and Development
In principle, monopolies are well positioned to undertake valuable research and development. First, such firms
are sheltered from the constant pressure of competition. Second, they have the resources (monopoly profits) with
which to carry out expensive R&D functions. The manager of a perfectly competitive firm, by contrast, has to
worry about daytoday production decisions and profit margins. As a result, she is unable to take the longer
view necessary for significant research and development and could not afford to pursue such a view even if she
could see it.
The basic problem with the R&D argument is that it says nothing about incentives. Although monopolists have a
clear financial advantage in pursuing research and development, they have no clear incentive to do so. They can
continue to make substantial profits just by maintaining market power. Research and development are not
necessarily required for profitable survival. In fact, research and development that make existing products or
plant and equipment obsolete run counter to a monopolist's vested interest and so may actually be suppressed.
In 2003 two drug companies admitted to paying a third company $100 million a year to suppress its new
competing product. As the News Wire “R&D Incentives” notes, consumers were paying $73 a month for
medication that the third company could produce and sell for only $32 a month. In a truly competitive market,
there would be too many firms to conspire in this way. Everyone would be scrambling to bring improved
products to market.
Entrepreneurial Incentives
The second defense of market power tries to use the incentive argument in a novel way. As we observed in
Chapter 6, every business is out to make a profit, and it is the quest for profits that keeps industries running.
Thus, it is argued, even greater profit prizes will stimulate more entrepreneurial activity. Little Horatio Algers
will work harder and longer if they can dream of one day possessing a whole monopoly.
The incentive argument for market power is enticing but not entirely convincing. After all, an innovator can
make substantial profits in a competitive market, as it typically takes a considerable amount of time for the
competition to catch up. Recall that the early birds did get the worm in the catfish industry in Chapter 6 even
though profit margins were later squeezed. Hence it is not evident that the profit incentives available in a
competitive industry are inadequate.
Economies of Scale
A third defense of market power is the most convincing. A large firm, it is argued, can produce goods at a lower
unit (average) cost than a small firm. That is, there are economies of scale in production. Thus if we desire to
produce goods in the most efficient way—with the least amount of resources per unit of output—we should
encourage and maintain large firms.
Consider once again the comparison we made earlier between Universal Fish and the competitive catfish
industry. We explicitly assumed that Universal confronted the same production costs as the competitive industry.
Thus Universal was not able to produce catfish any more cheaply than the competitive counterpart. We
concerned ourselves only with the different production decisions made by competitive and monopolistic firms.
It is conceivable, however, that Universal Fish might use its size to achieve greater efficiency. Perhaps the firm
could build one enormous pond and centralize all breeding, harvesting, and distributing activities. If successful,
this centralization might reduce production costs, making Universal more efficient than a competitive industry
composed of thousands of small farms (ponds).
Even though large firms may be able to achieve greater efficiencies than smaller firms, there is no assurance that
they actually will. Increasing the size (scale) of a plant may actually reduce operating efficiency. Workers may
feel alienated in a massive firm and perform below their potential. Centralization might also increase managerial
red tape and increase costs. In evaluating the economiesofscale argument for market power, then, we must
recognize that efficiency and size do not necessarily go hand in hand. In fact, monopolies may generate
diseconomies of scale, producing at higher cost than a competitive industry.
Page 147
Even where economies of scale do exist, there is no guarantee that consumers will benefit. Consider the case of
multiplex theaters that offer multiple movie screens. Multiplex theaters have significant economies of scale
(e.g., consolidated box office, advertising, snack bar, restrooms, projection) compared to singlescreen theaters.
Once they drive smaller theaters out of business, however, they rarely lower ticket prices.
Natural Monopolies
There is a special case where the economiesofscale argument is potentially more persuasive. In this case—
called natural monopoly—a single firm can produce the entire market supply more efficiently than any larger
number of (smaller) firms. As the size (scale) of the one firm increases, its average total costs continue to fall.
These economies of scale give the one large producer a decided advantage over wouldbe rivals. Hence
economies of scale act as a “natural” barrier to entry.
Local telephone, cable, and utility services are classic examples of natural monopoly. They have extraordinarily
high fixed costs (e.g., transmission lines and switches) and exceptionally small marginal costs. Hence average
total costs keep declining as output expands. As a result, it is much cheaper to install one system of cable or
phone lines than a maze of competing ones. Accordingly, a single telephone or power company can supply the
market more efficiently than a large number of competing firms.
Although natural monopolies are economically desirable, they may be abused. We must ask whether and to what
extent consumers are reaping some benefit from the efficiency a natural monopoly makes possible. Do
consumers end up with lower prices, expanded output, and better service? Or does the monopoly tend to keep
the benefits for itself in the form of higher profits, better wages, and more comfortable offices? Typically,
federal, state, and local governments are responsible for regulating natural monopolies to ensure that the benefits
of increased efficiency are shared with consumers.
Contestable Markets
Governmental regulators are not necessarily the only force keeping monopolists in line. Even though a firm may
produce the entire supply of a particular product at present, it may face potential competition from other firms.
Potential rivals may be sitting on the sidelines, watching how well the monopoly fares. If it does too well, these
rivals may enter the industry, undermining the monopoly structure and profits. In such contestable markets,
monopoly behavior may be restrained by potential competition.
How contestable a market is depends not so much on its structure as on entry barriers. If entry barriers are
insurmountable, wouldbe competitors are locked out of the market. But if entry barriers are modest, they will
be surmounted when the lure of monopoly profits is irresistible. Foreign rivals already producing the same
goods are particularly likely to enter domestic markets when monopoly prices and profits are high.
Structure versus Behavior
From the perspective of contestable markets, the whole case against monopoly is misconceived. Market
structure per se is not a problem; what counts is market behavior. If potential rivals force a monopolist to behave
like a competitive firm, then monopoly imposes no cost on consumers or on society at large.
The experience with the Model T Ford illustrates the basic notion of contestable markets. At the time Henry
Ford decided to increase the price of the Model T and paint all Model Ts black, the Ford Motor Company
enjoyed a virtual monopoly on massproduced cars. But potential rivals saw the profitability of offering
additional colors and features (e.g., selfstarter, lefthand drive). When they began producing cars in volume,
Ford's market power was greatly reduced. In 1926 the Ford Motor Company tried to regain its dominant position
by again supplying cars in colors other than black. By that time, however, consumers had more choices. Ford
ceased production of the Model T in May 1927.
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The experience with the Model T suggests that potential competition can force a monopoly to change its ways.
Critics point out, however, that even contestable markets don't force a monopolist to act exactly like a
competitive firm. There will always be a gap between competitive outcomes and those monopoly outcomes
likely to entice new entry. That gap can cost consumers a lot. The absence of existing rivals is also likely to
inhibit product and productivity improvements. From 1913 to 1926, all Model Ts were black, and consumers
had few alternatives. Ford changed its behavior only after potential competition became actual competition.
Even after 1927, when the Ford Motor Company could no longer act like a monopolist, it still didn't price its
cars at marginal cost.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Why Is Flying Monopoly Air Routes So Expensive?
Ever wonder why it's so cheap to fly to one place yet so expensive to fly somewhere else of equal distance? The
answer is likely to be market structure. As we've observed in this and the previous chapter, the greater the
number of firms in a market, the lower prices are likely to be. More competition also increases the quantity
supplied.
INDUSTRY STRUCTURE From a national perspective, the airline industry looks pretty competitive. Over 90
domestic airline companies offer scheduled passenger service, and at least 150 foreign carriers serve U.S. cities.
So there are a lot of firms competing for the $100 billion that Americans spend annually on airline travel.
All those airlines don't fly to the places you want to go, however. If you're looking for a nonstop flight from Los
Angeles to Palm Springs, don't bother calling US Airways, Southwest, or Delta, much less Air France. None of
those firms fly that route. In fact, only one airline (United) was flying that route in 2015. Hence travelers in the
Los Angeles–Palm Springs market end up paying monopoly fares ($4.47 per mile, as compared to 16 cents per
mile on the more competitive Los Angeles–New York route).
Travelers between Huntsville, Alabama, and Houston Intercontinental confront outright monopoly fares since
only United Airlines flies that route. When other carriers entered US Airways's monopoly Pittsburgh–
Philadelphia route in 2005, the roundtrip fare fell from $680 to $186.
How much it costs to fly depends on how many airlines compete.
Source: © Greg Balfour Evans / Alamy
Page 149
When assessing market structure, it is essential to specify the relevant market. In this case the relevant market
is best defined by specific intercity routes. The number of airlines serving a particular route is a far better
measure of market power than the number of airlines flying anywhere. By this yardstick, the airline industry is
beset with market power.
INDUSTRY BEHAVIOR If market structure really matters, airline fares should vary with the number of firms
serving a particular route. And so they do. A study by the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) found that
fares from airports dominated by one or two carriers were 45–85 percent higher than at more competitive
airports.
ENTRY EFFECTS Another way to assess the impact of market structure on prices is to observe how airline
fares change when airlines enter or exit a specific market. According to an antitrust suit filed by the U.S. Justice
Department, American Airlines slashed fares whenever a new carrier entered a market it dominated. As soon as
the new carrier was forced out of the market, American raised fares to monopoly levels again. The
accompanying News Wire “Predatory Pricing” offers some examples of this predatory pricing.
BARRIERS TO ENTRY For the largest carriers to maintain high profits on specific routes, they must be able
to keep new firms from entering those markets. One of the most formidable entry barriers is their ownership of
slots (landing rights) and gates. At Washington, DC's Reagan Airport, for example, the six largest carriers owned
97 percent of available takeoff/landing slots in 2000. To offer service from that airport, a new entrant would
have to buy or lease a slot from one of them. It would also have to secure a gate so passengers could access the
plane. Wouldbe competitors complain that the dominant carriers unfairly withhold access to slots and gates,
thereby thwarting competition.
The U.S. Department of Transportation has examined options for giving wouldbe entrants more access to
airline markets. One proposal envisions a lottery system for redistributing some slots. In a prior lottery, however,
almost all the new entrants that were awarded slots simply resold them to the largest carriers, choosing quick,
sure cash over uncertain competition. That left travelers with the alltoofamiliar choice of either staying home
or flying Monopoly Air.
NEWS WIRE PREDATORY PRICING
Following the Fares
The Justice Department says American Airlines cut its fares when lowcost carriers arrived—then raised them
when they left. Fares* shown are for 1995–1996 from the Dallas–Fort Worth airport to
*Average for all local carriers, nonstop.
Source: The United States Department of Justice; U.S. v. AMR Corporation, American Airlines, Inc., and
AMR Eagle Holding; www.justice.gov/atr/cases/f8100/8134.htm.
NOTE: A monopoly carrier may use a sharp but temporary cut in fares to drive a new entrant out of the market
—or to discourage others from entering.
Page 150
SUMMARY
Market power is the ability to influence the market price of a good or service. The extreme case of market
power is monopoly, where only one firm produces the entire supply of a particular product. A monopolist
selects the quantity to be supplied to the market and sets the market price. LO1
The distinguishing feature of any firm with market power is that the demand curve it faces is downward
sloping. In a monopoly, the demand curve facing the firm and the market demand curve are identical.
LO1
The downwardsloping demand curve facing a monopolist creates a divergence between marginal revenue
and price. To sell larger quantities of output, the monopolist must lower product prices. Marginal revenue
is the change in total revenue divided by the change in output. LO2
A monopolist maximizes total profit at the rate of output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost
(MC = MR). LO3
A monopolist will produce less output than will a competitive industry confronting the same market
demand and cost opportunities. That reduced rate of output will be sold at higher prices, in accordance
with the (downwardsloping) market demand curve. LO4
A monopoly will attain a higher level of profit than a competitive industry because of its ability to equate
industry (i.e., its own) marginal revenues and costs. By contrast, a competitive industry ends up equating
marginal costs and price because its individual firms have no control over the market supply curve. LO4
Because the higher profits attained by a monopoly attract envious entrepreneurs, barriers to entry are
needed to prohibit other firms from expanding market supplies. Patents are one such barrier to entry.
Other barriers are legal harassment, exclusive licensing, product bundling, and government franchises.
LO4
The defense of market power rests on (1) the ability of large firms to pursue research and development,
(2) the incentives implicit in the chance to attain market power, (3) the efficiency that larger firms may
attain, and (4) the contestability of even monopolized markets. The first two arguments are weakened by
the fact that competitive firms are under much greater pressure to innovate and can stay ahead of the profit
game only if they do so. The contestability defense at best concedes some amount of monopoly
exploitation. LO5
A natural monopoly exists when one firm can produce the output of the entire industry more efficiently
than can a number of smaller firms. This advantage is attained from economies of scale. Large firms are
not necessarily more efficient, however. LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
market power
market demand
patent
monopoly
marginal revenue (MR)
profit maximization rule
production decision
barriers to entry
marginal cost pricing
economies of scale
natural monopoly
contestable market
predatory pricing
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. If you owned the only bookstore on or near campus, what would you charge for this textbook? How much
would you pay students for their used books? LO3
2. Why don't competitive industries produce at the rate of output that maximizes industry profits, as a
monopolist does? LO4
3. Is single ownership of a whole industry necessary to exercise monopoly power? How might an industry
with several firms achieve the same result? Can you think of any examples? LO1
4. Despite its reaffirmed monopoly position, Polaroid went bankrupt in 2001 and stopped making instant
development cameras in 2007. What happened? LO4
5. Why don't monopolists try to establish the highest price possible, as many people allege? What would
happen to sales? To profits? LO3
6. What circumstances might cause a monopolist to charge less than the profitmaximizing price? LO3
7. How could free Media Player software (either bundled or downloaded with Windows) possibly harm
consumers? LO4
8. What entry barriers exist in (a) the fastfood industry; (b) cable TV; (c) the auto industry; (d) the illegal
drug trade? LO1
9. Why would any firm pay another firm to not produce? (See the News Wire “R&D Incentives.”) LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES What are the economies of scale in multiplex theaters? Why aren't their
prices less than those of singlescreen theaters? LO5
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES The U.S. airline industry generated over $30 billion in profits in 2015. Is
that outcome representative of a competitive industry? Why don't more companies get into the airline
business? LO4
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PROBLEMS
1. In Figure 7.1, LO2
1. What is the highest price the monopolist could charge and still sell fish?
2. What is total revenue at that highest price?
3. What happens to total revenue as price is reduced from A to F?
4. What is the value of marginal revenue as price is reduced from F to G?
2. In Figure 7.1's graph, LO3
1. At what output rate (from A to G) is total revenue maximized?
2. What is MR at that output rate?
3. Use Figure 7.2 to answer the following questions: LO2
1. What rate of output maximizes total profit?
2. What is the MR at that rate of output?
3. What is the price?
4. If output is increased by 1 pound beyond that point, is MC (i) larger or (ii) smaller than MR?
5. What happens to total profits?
4. Compute marginal revenues from the following data on market demand: LO2
Price per unit $38363432302826
Units demanded 10111213141516
Marginal revenue ———————
1. At what price does MR = 0?
2. At what price is MR < 0?
3. At what price is MR < p?
5. Suppose the following data represent the market demand for catfish: LO2
Price (per unit) $20191817161514131211
Quantity demanded (units per day) 12131415161718192021
Total revenue ——————————
Marginal revenue ——————————
1. Compute total and marginal revenue to complete the table above.
2. At what rate of output is total revenue maximized?
3. At what rate of output is MR less than price?
4. At what rate of output does MR first become negative?
5. Graph the demand and MR curves.
6. Assume that the following marginal costs exist in catfish production: LO4
Quantity produced (units per day)1011121314151617
Marginal cost (per unit) $4 6 81012141618
1. Graph the MC curve.
2. Use the data on market demand below and graph the demand and MR curves on the same graph.
Price (per unit) $2524232221201918
Quantity demanded (units per day) 1011121314151617
3. At what rate of output is MR = MC?
4. What price will a monopolist charge for that much output?
5. If the market were perfectly competitive, what price would prevail?
6. How much output would be produced?
7. 1. According to the News Wire “Mimicking Monopoly,” OPEC ministers agreed to keep their daily
crude production target at what level?
2. This explicit limit on production led to how much of an immediate increase in price? LO3
8. According to the News Wire “R&D Incentives,” how much profit per year per user might the producers of
Cardizem have been making if their average total costs were equal to that of the generic substitute? LO4
9. If a euro is worth $1.20, by how much did the German brewers' pricefixing scheme increase the price of a
bottle of beer (see the News Wire “Price Fixing”)? LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Assume the oncampus demand for soda is as follows: LO4
Price ($ per can) 2.001.751.501.251.000.750.500.25
Quantity demanded (per day) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
If the marginal cost of supplying a soda is 50 cents, what price will students end up paying in
1. A perfectly competitive market?
2. A monopolized market?
Page 152
Source: ©Chris Trotman/Stringer/Getty; RM
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Cite the forces that influence the supply of labor.
2. 2 Explain why the labor demand curve slopes downward.
3. 3 Describe how the equilibrium wage and employment level are determined.
4. 4 Depict how a legal minimum wage alters market outcomes.
5. 5 Explain why wages are so unequal.
Page 153
D
ale Earnhardt Jr. rakes in around $13 million a year from winning NASCAR races. But that's just the beginning
for Dale Jr.: He gets another $10–15 million a year from product endorsements—everything from Nationwide
Insurance (his primary sponsor) to Mountain Dew, Barrel O'Fun potato chips, and Dale Jr. “88” stogies. Yet the
president of the United States gets paid only $400,000. And the secretary who typed the manuscript of this book
is paid just $19,000. What accounts for these tremendous disparities in earnings?
And why is it that the average college graduate earns over $55,000 a year, while the average high school
graduate earns just $32,000? Are such disparities simply a reward for enduring four years of college, or do they
reflect real differences in talent? Are you really learning anything that makes you that much more valuable than
a high school graduate? For that matter, what are you worth—not in metaphysical terms but in terms of the
wages you would be paid in the marketplace?
The FOR WHOM question is one of society's three central economic concerns. How large a share of output
individuals get is largely determined by their paychecks. As we saw in Chapter 2, the distribution of income in
the United States and elsewhere is far from equal. How does this inequality arise? Why do some people earn a
great deal of income while others earn very little? To answer this question, we have to consider both the supply
and the demand for labor. In this regard, the following questions arise:
How do people decide how much time to spend working?
What determines the wage rate an employer is willing to pay?
Why are some workers paid so much and others so little?
To answer these questions, we need to examine the behavior of labor markets. ■
LABOR SUPPLY
The following two ads appeared in the campus newspaper of a wellknown university:
Will do ANYTHING for money:Web Architect: Computer sciences
ablebodied liberalminded male graduate, strong programming
needs money, will work to get it. skills and software knowledge
Have car. Call Tom 5550244. (e.g., Flash, DreamWeaver). Please
call Margaret 5553247, 9–5.
Although placed by individuals with very different talents, the ads clearly expressed Tom's and Margaret's
willingness to work. We don't know how much money they were asking for their respective talents or whether
they ever found jobs, but we can be sure that they were prepared to take a job at some wage rate. Otherwise they
would not have paid for the ads in the “Jobs Wanted” column of their campus newspaper.
The advertised willingness to work expressed by Tom and Margaret represents a labor supply. They are
offering to sell their time and talents to anyone who is willing to pay the right price. Their explicit offers are
similar to those of anyone who looks for a job. Job seekers who check the current job openings at the student
employment office or send résumés to potential employers are demonstrating a willingness to accept
employment—that is, to supply labor. The 3,000 people who showed up at the job fair at Rutgers's College
Avenue campus (see the following News Wire “Labor Supply”) were also offering to supply labor.
Our first concern in this chapter is to explain these labor supply decisions. As Figure 8.1 illustrates, we expect
the quantity of labor supplied—the number of hours people are willing to work—to increase as wage rates rise.
FIGURE 8.1
FIGURE 8.1 The Supply of LaborThe quantity of any good or service offered for sale typically increases as its
price rises. Labor supply responds in the same way. At the wage rate w1, the quantity of labor supplied is q1
(point A). At the higher wage w2, workers are willing to work more hours per week—that is, to supply a larger
quantity of labor (q2).
But how do people decide how many hours to supply at any given wage rate? Do people try to maximize their
income? If they did, we would all be holding three jobs and sleeping on the commuter bus. Few of us actually
live this way. Hence we must have other goals than simply maximizing our incomes.
Page 154
NEWS WIRE LABOR SUPPLY
Thousands of Hopeful Job Seekers Attend Career Fair at Rutgers
An estimated 3,000 job seekers attended the state's largest career fair Thursday, as economic indicators
suggested that the employment picture might be brightening somewhat …
The fair, held at Rutgers University, drew mostly young, soontobe college graduates. But older workers armed
with resumes also visited some of the 174 employers who attended on the university's College Avenue campus
in New Brunswick.
—Patricia Alex
Source: Alex, Patricia. “Thousands of hopeful job seekers attend career fair at Rutgers” from
www.northjersey.com, Jan. 5, 2012. Copyright © 2012 Patricia Alex/northjersey.com. Used with
permission.
NOTE: People supply labor by demonstrating a willingness to work. The quantity of labor supplied increases as
the wage rate rises.
Income versus Leisure
The most visible benefit obtained from working is a paycheck. In general, the fatter the paycheck—the greater
the wage rate offered—the more willing a person is to go to work.
As important as paychecks are, however, people recognize that working entails real sacrifices. Every hour we
spend working implies one less hour available for other pursuits. If we go to work, we have less time to watch
TV, go to a soccer game, or simply enjoy a nice day. In other words, there is a real opportunity cost associated
with working. Generally, we say that the opportunity cost of working is the amount of leisure time that must be
given up in the process.
Because both leisure and income are valued, we confront a tradeoff when deciding whether to go to work.
Going to work implies more income but less leisure. Staying home has the opposite consequences.
The inevitable tradeoff between labor and leisure explains the shape of individual labor supply curves. As we
work more hours, our leisure time becomes more scarce and thus more valuable. We become increasingly
reluctant to give up any remaining leisure time as it gets scarcer. People who work all week long are reluctant to
go to work on Saturday. It's not that they are physically exhausted. It's just that they want some time to enjoy the
fruits of their labor. In other words, as the opportunity cost of job time increases, we require correspondingly
higher rates of pay. We will supply additional labor—work more hours—only if higher wage rates are offered:
This is the message conveyed by the upwardsloping labor supply curve.
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The upward slope of the labor supply curve is reinforced with the changing value of income. Our primary
motive for working is the income a job provides. Those first few dollars are really precious, especially if you
have bills to pay. As you work and earn more, however, you discover that your most urgent needs have been
satisfied. You may still want more things, but your consumption desires aren't so urgent. In other words, the
marginal utility of income declines as you earn more. Accordingly, the wages offered for more work lose some
of their allure. You may not be willing to work more hours unless offered a higher wage rate.
The upward slope of an individual's labor supply curve is thus a reflection of two phenomena:
The increasing opportunity cost of labor.
The decreasing marginal utility of income as a person works more hours.
Nearly one of every two U.S. workers now says he or she would be willing to give up some pay for more
leisure. As wages and living standards have risen, the urge for more money has abated. What people want is
more leisure time to spend their incomes. As a result, everhigher wages are needed to lure people into working
longer hours.
Money isn't necessarily the only thing that motivates people to work, of course. People do turn down higher
paying jobs in favor of lowerwage jobs that they like. Many parents forgo highwage “career” jobs in order to
have more flexible hours and time at home. Volunteers offer their services just for the sense of contributing to
their communities; no paycheck is required. Even MBA graduates say they are motivated more by the challenge
of highpaying jobs than by the money. When push comes to shove, however, money almost always makes a
difference: People do supply more labor when offered higher wages.
Market Supply
The market supply of labor refers to all the hours people are willing to work at various wages. It, too, is
upwardsloping. As wage rates rise, not only do existing workers offer to work longer hours but other workers
are drawn into the labor market as well. If jobs are plentiful and wages high, many students leave school and
start working. Likewise, many homemakers decide that work outside the home is too hard to resist. The flow of
immigrants into the labor market also increases when wages are high. As these various flows of labor market
entrants increase, the total quantity of labor supplied to the market goes up.
LABOR DEMAND
Regardless of how many people are willing to work, it is up to employers to decide how many people will
actually work. Employers must be willing and able to hire workers if people are going to find the jobs they seek.
That is to say, there must be a demand for labor.
The demand for labor is readily visible in the help wanted section of the newspaper or the listings at
Monster.com, CareerBuilder.com, and other online job sites. Employers who pay for these ads are willing and
able to hire a certain number of workers at specific wage rates. How do they decide what to pay or how many
people to hire?
Derived Demand
In earlier chapters we emphasized that employers are profit maximizers. In their quest for maximum profits,
firms seek the rate of output at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Once they have identified the
profitmaximizing rate of output, firms enter factor markets to purchase the required amounts of labor,
equipment, and other resources. Thus the quantity of resources purchased by a business depends on the firm's
expected sales and output. In this sense, we say that the demand for factors of production, including labor, is a
derived demand; it is derived from the demand for goods and services produced by these factors. As 34,000
employees of HewlettPackard learned in 2014, when the demand for personal computers declines, so does the
demand for the workers who manufacture those machines (see the News Wire “Derived Demand”).
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NEWS WIRE DERIVED DEMAND
HewlettPackard's Job Cuts to Hit 34,000
PALO ALTO—Technology giant HewlettPackard (HPQ), which has been struggling financially in recent years,
is taking a bigger whack at its gargantuan workforce than previously has been reported.
In a regulatory filing Monday, the Palo Alto corporation said a total of 34,000 positions will be eliminated by the
end of October—5,000 higher than the 29,000 figure most often quoted in news stories.
—Steve Johnson
Source: Johnson, Steve. “HewlettPackard's job cuts to hit 34,000,” San Jose Mercury News, January 1,
2014. Copyright © 2014 San Jose Mercury News. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: A firm's demand for labor depends on the demand for the products the firm produces.
Consider also the plight of strawberry pickers. Strawberry farming is a $2 billion industry. Yet the thousands of
pickers who toil in the fields earn only $9 an hour. The United Farm Workers union blames greedy growers for
the low wages. They say if the farmers would only raise the price of strawberries by a nickel a pint, they could
raise wages by 50 percent.
Unfortunately, employer greed is not the only force at work here. Strawberry growers, like most producers,
would love to sell more strawberries at higher prices. If they did, the growers might hire more pickers and even
pay them a higher wage rate. But the growers must contend with the market demand for strawberries. If they
increase the price of strawberries—even by only 5 cents a pint—the quantity of berries demanded will decline.
They'd end up hiring fewer workers. Wage rates might suffer as well.
The link between the product market and the labor market also explains why graduates with engineering or
computer science degrees are paid so much (see the following News Wire “Unequal Wages”). Demand for
related products is growing so fast that employers are desperate to hire individuals with the necessary skills. By
contrast, the wages of philosophy majors suffer from the fact that the search for meaning is no longer a growth
industry.
The principle of derived demand suggests that if consumers really want to improve the lot of strawberry pickers,
they should eat more strawberries. An increase in consumer demand for strawberries will motivate growers to
plant more berries and hire more labor to pick them. Until then, the plight of the pickers is not likely to improve.
THE WAGE RATE The number of strawberry pickers hired by the growers is not completely determined by
consumer demand for strawberries. A farmer with tons of strawberries to harvest might still be reluctant to hire
many workers at $30 an hour. At $9 per hour, however, the same farmer would hire a lot of help. That is to say,
the quantity of labor demanded depends on its price (the wage rate). In general, we expect that strawberry
growers will be willing to hire more pickers at low wages than at high wages. Hence the demand for labor is not
a fixed quantity; instead there is a varying relationship between quantity demanded and price (wage rate). Like
virtually all other demand curves, the labor demand curve is downwardsloping (see Figure 8.2).
FIGURE 8.2
FIGURE 8.2 The Demand for LaborThe higher the wage rate, the smaller the quantity of labor demanded
(ceteris paribus). At the wage rate W1, only L1 of labor is demanded (point A). If the wage rate falls to W2, a
larger quantity of labor (L2) will be demanded. The labor demand curve obeys the law of demand.
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NEWS WIRE UNEQUAL WAGES
Most Lucrative College Degrees
College graduation does improve a person's income prospects. But all graduates aren't treated equally: What you
majored in counts for a lot. Annual salary surveys by PayScale, Inc., confirm that a student majoring in
petroleum engineering can expect to earn nearly three times the salary of an English major.
What Does Your Major Pay? 2014–2015 Survey
Source: “PayScale College Salary Report,” www.PayScale.com, 2015.
NOTE: The pay of college graduates depends in part on what major they studied. Graduates who can produce
goods and services in great demand get the highest pay.
Marginal Physical Product
The downward slope of the labor demand curve reflects the changing productivity of workers as more are hired.
Each worker isn't as valuable as the last. On the contrary, each additional worker tends to be less valuable as
more workers are hired. In the strawberry fields, a worker's value is measured by the number of boxes he or she
can pick in an hour. More generally, we measure a worker's value to the firm by his or her marginal physical
product (MPP)—that is, the change in total output that occurs when an additional worker is hired. In most
situations, marginal physical product declines as more workers are hired.
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Suppose for the moment that Marvin, a college dropout with three summers of experience as a canoe instructor,
can pick five boxes of strawberries per hour. These five boxes represent Marvin's marginal physical product
(MPP)—in other words, the addition to total output that occurs when the grower hires Marvin:
Marginal physical product establishes an upper limit to the grower's willingness to pay. Clearly the grower can't
afford to pay Marvin more than five boxes of strawberries for an hour's work; the grower will not pay Marvin
more than he produces.
Marginal Revenue Product
Most strawberry pickers don't want to be paid in strawberries, of course. At the end of a day in the fields, the last
thing a picker wants to see is another strawberry. Marvin, like the rest of the pickers, wants to be paid in cash. To
find out how much cash he might be paid, all we need to know is what a box of strawberries is worth. This is
easy to determine. The market value of a box of strawberries is simply the price at which the grower can sell it.
Thus Marvin's contribution to output can be measured in either marginal physical product (five boxes per hour)
or the dollar value of that product.
The dollar value of a worker's contribution to output is called marginal revenue product (MRP). Marginal
revenue product is the change in total revenue that occurs when more labor is hired:
If the grower can sell strawberries for $2 a box, Marvin's marginal revenue product is five boxes per hour × $2
per box, or $10 per hour. This is Marvin's value to the grower. Accordingly, the grower can afford to pay Marvin
up to $10 per hour. Thus marginal revenue product sets an upper limit to the wage rate an employer will pay.
But what about a lower limit? Suppose that the pickers aren't organized and that Marvin is desperate for money.
Under such circumstances, he might be willing to work—to supply labor—for only $6 an hour.
Should the grower hire Marvin for such a low wage? The profitmaximizing answer is obvious. If Marvin's
marginal revenue product is $10 an hour and his wages are only $6 an hour, the grower will be eager to hire him.
The difference between Marvin's marginal revenue product ($10) and his wage ($6) implies additional profits of
$4 an hour. In fact, the grower will be so elated by the economics of this situation that he will want to hire
everybody he can find who is willing to work for $6 an hour. After all, if the grower can make $4 an hour by
hiring Marvin, why not hire 1,000 pickers and accumulate profits at an even faster rate?
The 25,000 pickers who harvest America's $2 billion strawberry crop are paid only $9 an hour. Why is their pay
so low?
© David Butow/Corbis
The Law of Diminishing Returns
The exploitive possibilities suggested by Marvin's picking are too good to be true. For starters, how could the
grower squeeze 1,000 workers onto one acre of land and still have any room left over for strawberry plants? You
don't need two years of business school to recognize a potential problem here. Sooner or later the farmer will run
out of space. Even before that limit is reached, the rate of strawberry picking may slow. Indeed, the grower's
eagerness to hire additional pickers will begin to fade long before 1,000 workers are hired. The critical concept
here is marginal productivity.
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DIMINISHING MPP The decision to hire Marvin was based on his marginal physical product—that is, the
five boxes of strawberries he can pick in an hour's time. To assess the wisdom of hiring additional pickers, we
have to consider what happens to total output as more workers are employed. To do so, we need to keep track of
how marginal physical product changes when more workers are hired.
Figure 8.3 shows how strawberry output changes as additional pickers are hired. We start with Marvin, who
picks five boxes of strawberries per hour. Total output and his marginal physical product are identical because he
is initially the only picker employed.
FIGURE 8.3
FIGURE 8.3 Diminishing Marginal Physical ProductThe marginal physical product of labor is the increase in
total production that results when one additional worker is hired. Marginal physical product tends to fall as
additional workers are hired. This decline occurs because each worker has increasingly less of other factors
(e.g., land) with which to work.
When the second worker (George) is hired, total output increases from 5 to 10 boxes per hour. Hence the second
worker's MPP equals five boxes per hour. Thereafter, capital and land constraints diminish marginal physical
product.
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When the grower hires George, Marvin's old college roommate, we observe that the total output increases to 10
boxes per hour (point B in Figure 8.3). This figure represents another increase of five boxes per hour.
Accordingly, we may conclude that George's marginal physical product is five boxes per hour, the same as
Marvin's. Naturally, the grower will want to hire George and continue looking for more pickers.
As more workers are hired, total strawberry output continues to increase, but not nearly as fast. Although the
later hires work just as hard, the limited availability of land and capital constrains their marginal physical
product. One problem is the number of boxes. There are only a dozen boxes, and the additional pickers often
have to wait for an empty box. The time spent waiting depresses marginal physical product. The worst problem
is space: As additional workers are crowded onto the oneacre patch, they begin to get in one another's way. The
picking process is slowed, and marginal physical product is further depressed. Note that the MPP of the fifth
picker (row E of the table) is two boxes per hour, while the MPP of the sixth picker is only one box per hour. By
the time we get to the seventh picker (row G), marginal physical product actually falls to zero—no further
increases in total strawberry output take place.
So, what is that seventh worker doing? Why doesn't total output increase when that seventh worker is hired? The
marginal physical product of zero isn't that worker's fault. The problem is the lack of land and tools to
accommodate so many workers. The seventh worker is as busy as the other six. But lack of space and tools is
limiting strawberry production.
Things get even worse if the grower hires still more pickers. If eight pickers are employed, total output actually
declines. The pickers can no longer work efficiently under such crowded conditions. Hence the MPP of the
eighth worker is negative, no matter how ambitious or hardworking this person may be. Points H and h in Figure
8.3 illustrate this negative marginal physical product.
Our observations on strawberry production apply to most industries. Indeed, diminishing returns are evident in
even the simplest production processes. Suppose you ask a friend to help you with your homework. A little help
may go a long way toward improving your grade. Does that mean that your grade improvement will double if
you get two friends to help? What if you get five friends to help? Suddenly everyone's chatting, and your
homework performance deteriorates. In general, the marginal physical product of labor eventually declines as
the quantity of labor employed increases.
You may recognize the law of diminishing returns at work here. Marginal productivity declines as more
people must share limited facilities. Typically, diminishing returns result from the fact that an increasing
number of workers leaves each worker with less land and capital to work with.
DIMINISHING MRP As marginal physical product diminishes, so does marginal revenue product (MRP). As
noted earlier, marginal revenue product is the increase in the value of total output associated with an added unit
of labor (or other input). In our example, it refers to the increase in strawberry revenues associated with one
additional picker.
The decline in marginal revenue product (MRP) mirrors the drop in marginal physical product (MPP). Recall
that a box of strawberries sells for $2. With this price and the output statistics of Figure 8.3, we can readily
calculate marginal revenue product, as summarized in Table 8.1. As the growth of output diminishes, so does
marginal revenue product. Marvin's marginal revenue product of $10 an hour has fallen to $6 an hour by the
time four pickers are employed and reaches zero when seven pickers are employed.
TABLE 8.1
TABLE 8.1 Diminishing Marginal Revenue Product
Marginal revenue product measures the change in total revenue that occurs when one additional worker is hired.
At constant product prices, MRP equals MPP × price. Hence MRP declines along with MPP.
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THE HIRING DECISION
The tendency of marginal revenue product to diminish will clearly cool the strawberry grower's eagerness to hire
1,000 pickers. We still don't know, however, how many pickers will be hired.
The Firm's Demand for Labor
Figure 8.4 provides the answer. We already know that the grower is eager to hire pickers whose marginal
revenue product exceeds their wage. Suppose the going wage for strawberry pickers is $6 an hour. At that wage,
the grower will certainly want to hire at least one picker because the MRP of the first picker is $10 an hour
(point A in Figure 8.4). A second worker will be hired as well because that picker's MRP (point B in Figure 8.4)
also exceeds the going wage rate. In fact, the grower will continue hiring pickers until the MRP has declined
to the level of the market wage rate. Figure 8.4 indicates that this intersection of MRP and the market wage rate
(point C) occurs after four pickers are employed. Hence we can conclude that the grower will be willing to hire
—will demand—four pickers if wages are $6 an hour.
FIGURE 8.4
FIGURE 8.4 The Marginal Revenue Product Curve Is the Firm's Labor Demand CurveAn employer is willing to
pay a worker no more than his or her marginal revenue product. In this case, a grower would gladly hire a
second worker because that worker's MRP (point B) exceeds the wage rate ($6). The fifth worker will not be
hired at that wage rate, however, since that worker's MRP (at point D) is less than $6. The MRP curve is the
firm's labor demand curve.
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NEWS WIRE MARGINAL REVENUE PRODUCT
Alabama's Nick Saban Gets Raise, Contract Extension
Nick Saban is staying at the University of Alabama, just like he said all along.
Saban reached an agreement Friday that is expected to raise his salary to between $7 million and $7.5 million
per year from its current annual compensation of almost $5.4 million and extend his term as head football coach
of the Crimson Tide, The Tuscaloosa News has learned.
© Kevin C. Cox/Getty Images
—Cecil Hurt and Aaron Suttles
Source: Cecil Hurt and Aaron Suttles, Copyright © The Tuscaloosa News, December 14, 2013. Used with
permission.
NOTE: Colleges are willing to pay more for football coaches than professors. Successful coaches bring in much
more revenue.
The folly of hiring more than four pickers is also apparent in Figure 8.4. The marginal revenue product of the
fifth worker is only $4 an hour (point D). Hiring a fifth picker will cost more in wages than the picker brings in
as revenue. The maximum number of pickers the grower will employ at prevailing wages is four (point C).
The law of diminishing returns also implies that all of the four pickers will be paid the same wage. Once four
pickers are employed, we cannot say that any single picker is responsible for the observed decline in marginal
revenue product. Marginal revenue product diminishes because each worker has less capital and land to work
with, not because the last worker hired is less able than the others. Accordingly, the fourth picker cannot be
identified as any particular individual. Once four pickers are hired, Marvin's MRP is no higher than any other
picker's. Each (identical) worker is worth no more than the marginal revenue product of the last worker
hired, and all workers are paid the same wage rate.
The principles of marginal revenue product apply to football coaches as well as strawberry pickers. Nick Saban,
Alabama's football coach, earns $7 million a year (see the accompanying News Wire “Marginal Revenue
Product”). Why does he get paid 10 times more than the university's president? Because a winning football team
brings in tens of thousands of paying fans per game, lots of media exposure, and grateful alumni. The university
thinks his MRP easily justifies the high salary.
If we accept the notion that marginal revenue product sets the wages of both football coaches and strawberry
pickers, must we give up all hope for lowpaid workers? Can anything be done to create more jobs or higher
wages for pickers? To answer this, we need to see how market demand and supply interact to establish
employment and wage levels.
MARKET EQUILIBRIUM
The principles that guide the hiring decisions of a single strawberry grower can be extended to the entire labor
market. This suggests that the market demand for labor depends on
The number of employers.
The marginal revenue product of labor in each firm and industry.
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On the supply side of the labor market we have already observed that the market supply of labor depends on
The number of available workers.
Each worker's willingness to work at alternative wage rates.
The supply decisions of each worker are in turn a reflection of tastes, income, wealth, expectations, other prices,
and taxes.
Equilibrium Wage
Figure 8.5 brings these market forces together. The intersection of the market supply and demand curves
establishes the equilibrium wage. In our previous example we assumed that the prevailing wage was $6 an
hour. In reality, the market wage will be we, as illustrated in Figure 8.5. The equilibrium wage is the only wage
at which the quantity of labor supplied equals the quantity of labor demanded. Everyone who is willing and
able to work for this wage will find a job.
FIGURE 8.5
FIGURE 8.5 Equilibrium WageThe intersection of market supply and demand determines the equilibrium wage
in a competitive labor market. All of the firms in the industry can then hire as much labor as they want at that
equilibrium wage. Likewise, anyone who is willing and able to work for the wage we will be able to find a job.
Many people will be unhappy with the equilibrium wage. Employers may grumble that wages are too high.
Workers may complain that wages are too low. Nevertheless, the equilibrium wage is the only one that clears the
market.
Equilibrium Employment
The intersection of labor supply and demand determines not just the prevailing wage rate but the level of
employment as well. In Figure 8.5 this equilibrium level of employment occurs at qe. That is the only
sustainable level of employment in that market, given prevailing supply and demand conditions.
CHANGING MARKET OUTCOMES
The equilibrium established in any market is subject to change. If Alabama's football team started losing too
many games, ticket and ad revenues would fall. Then the coach's salary might shrink. Likewise, if someone
discovered that strawberries cure cancer, those strawberry pickers might be in great demand. In this section we
examine how changing market conditions alter wages and employment levels.
Changes in Productivity
The law of diminishing returns is responsible for the tradeoff between wage and employment levels. The
downward slope of the labor demand curve does not mean wages and employment can never rise together,
however. If labor productivity (MPP) rises, wages can increase without sacrificing jobs.
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Suppose that Marvin and his friends enroll in a local agricultural extension course and learn new methods of
strawberry picking. With these new methods, the marginal physical product of each picker increases by one box
per hour. With the price of strawberries still at $2 a box, this productivity improvement implies an increase in
marginal revenue product of $2 per worker. Now farmers will be more eager to hire pickers. This increased
demand for pickers is illustrated by the upward shift of the labor demand curve in Figure 8.6.
FIGURE 8.6
FIGURE 8.6 Increased ProductivityWage and employment decisions depend on marginal revenue product. If
productivity improves, the labor demand curve shifts upward (e.g., from D1 to D2), raising the MRP of all
workers. The grower can now afford to pay higher wages (point S) or hire more workers (point E).
Notice how the improvement in productivity has altered the value of strawberry pickers. The MRP of the fourth
picker is now $7 an hour (point S) rather than $6 (point C). Hence the grower can now afford to pay higher
wages. Or the grower could employ more pickers than before, moving from point C to point E. Increased
productivity implies that workers can get either higher wages without sacrificing jobs or more employment
without lowering wages. Historically, increased productivity has been the most important source of rising wages
and living standards.
Changes in Price
An increase in the price of strawberries would also help the pickers. Marginal revenue product reflects the
interaction of productivity and product prices. If strawberry prices were to double, strawberry pickers would
become twice as valuable, even without an increase in physical productivity. Such a change in product prices
depends, however, on changes in the market supply and demand for strawberries.
Legal Minimum Wages
Rather than waiting for market forces to raise their wages, the strawberry pickers might seek government
intervention. The U.S. government decreed in 1938 that no worker could be paid less than 25 cents per hour.
Since then the U.S. Congress has repeatedly raised the legal minimum wage, bringing it to $7.25 in 2009. In
2015, President Obama proposed another increase—to $10.10 an hour (see the accompanying News Wire
“Minimum Wage Hikes”).
Figure 8.7 illustrates the consequences of such minimum wage legislation. In the absence of government
intervention, the labor supply and labor demand curves would establish the wage we. At that equilibrium qe,
workers would be employed.
FIGURE 8.7
FIGURE 8.7 Minimum Wage EffectsA minimum wage increases the quantity of labor supplied but reduces the
quantity demanded. Some workers (qd) end up with higher wages, but others (qs − qd) remain or become
jobless.
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NEWS WIRE MINIMUM WAGE HIKES
Obama Proposes to Increase Federal Minimum Wage
During Tuesday's State of the Union address, President Barack Obama proposed increasing the federal minimum
wage from $7.25 an hour to $10.10 in stages by the end of 2016.
Calling it “the right thing to do” the president challenged members of Congress to try living on the minimum
wage: “Of course, nothing helps families make ends meet like higher wages…. And to everyone in this Congress
who still refuses to raise the minimum wage, I say this: If you truly believe you could work fulltime and support
a family on less than $15,000 a year, go try it. If not, vote to give millions of the hardestworking people in
America a raise.”
Minimum Wage History
Source: White House, January 21, 2015.
NOTE: An increase in the minimum wage raises wages for some workers but may eliminate jobs for others.
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DEMANDSIDE EFFECTS When a legislated minimum wage of wm is set, things change. Suddenly the
quantity of labor demanded declines. In the prior equilibrium employers kept hiring workers until their marginal
revenue product fell to we. If a minimum wage of wm must be paid, it no longer makes sense to hire that many
workers. So employers back up on the labor demand curve from point E to point D. At D, marginal revenue
product is high enough to justify paying the legal minimum wage. At D, only qd workers are demanded, not the
previous qe. As a result of this retrenchment, some workers (qe − qd) lose their jobs.
SUPPLYSIDE EFFECTS Note in Figure 8.7 what happens on the supply side as well. The higher minimum
wage attracts more people into the labor market. The number of workers willing to work jumps from qe (point
E) to qs (point S). Everybody wants one of those betterpaying jobs.
There aren't enough jobs to go around, however. The number of jobs available at the minimum wage is only qd;
the number of job seekers at that wage is qs. With more job seekers than jobs, unemployment results. We now
have a market surplus (equal to qs minus qd). Those workers are unemployed.
Governmentimposed wage floors thus have two distinct effects. A minimum wage
Reduces the quantity of labor demanded.
Increases the quantity of labor supplied.
Thus it
Creates a market surplus.
The market surplus creates inefficiency and frustration, especially for workers who are ready and willing to
work but can't find a job. Not everyone suffers, however. Those workers who keep their jobs (at qd in Figure
8.7) end up with higher wages than they had before. Accordingly, a legal minimum wage entails a tradeoff:
Some workers end up better off, while others end up worse off. Those most likely to end up worse off are
teenagers and other inexperienced workers whose marginal revenue product is below the legal minimum wage.
They will have the hardest time finding jobs when the legal wage floor is raised.
How many potential jobs are lost to minimum wage hikes depends on how far the legal minimum is raised. The
elasticity of labor demand is also important. Democrats argue that labor demand is inelastic, so few jobs will be
lost. Republicans argue that labor demand is elastic, so more jobs will be lost. The state of the economy is also
critical. If the economy is growing rapidly, increases (shifts) in labor demand will help offset job losses resulting
from a minimum wage hike.
Labor Unions
Labor unions are another force that attempts to set aside equilibrium wages. The workers in a particular industry
may not be satisfied with the equilibrium wage. They may decide to take collective action to get a higher wage.
To do so, they form a labor union and bargain collectively with employers. This is what the United Farm
Workers has tried to do in California's strawberry fields.
The formation of a labor union does not set aside the principles of supply and demand. The equilibrium wage
remains at we, the intersection of the labor supply and demand curves (see Figure 8.8a). If the union were
successful in negotiating a higher wage (wu in the figure), a labor market surplus would appear (l3 − l2 in Figure
8.8a). These jobless workers would compete for the union jobs, putting downward pressure on the union
negotiated wage. Hence to get and maintain an aboveequilibrium wage, a union must exclude some workers
from the market. Effective forms of exclusion include union membership, required apprenticeship programs,
and employment agreements negotiated with employers.
FIGURE 8.8
FIGURE 8.8 The Effect of Unions on Relative WagesIn the absence of unions, the average wage rate would be
equal to we. As unions take control of the market, however, they seek to raise wage rates to wu. The higher wage
reduces the amount of employment in the unionized market from l1 to l2. The workers displaced from the
unionized market will seek work in the nonunionized market, thereby shifting the nonunion supply curve to the
right. The result will be a reduction of wage rates (to wn) in the nonunionized market. Thus union wages (wu)
end up higher than nonunion wages (wn).
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What happens to the excluded workers? In the case of a national minimum wage (Figure 8.7), the surplus
workers remain unemployed. A union, however, sets aboveequilibrium wages in only one industry or craft.
Accordingly, there are lots of other potential jobs for the excluded nonunion workers. Their wages will suffer,
however. As workers excluded from the unionized market (Figure 8.8a) stream into the nonunionized market
(Figure 8.8b), they shift the nonunionized labor supply curve to the right. This influx of workers depresses
nonunion wages, dropping them from we to wn.
Although the theoretical impact of union exclusionism on relative wages is clear, empirical estimates of that
impact are fairly rare. We do know that union wages in general are significantly higher than nonunion wages
($970 versus $763 per week in 2014). But part of this differential is due to the fact that unions are more common
in industries that have always been more capitalintensive and have paid relatively high wages. When
comparisons are made within particular industries or sectors, the differential narrows considerably. Nevertheless,
there is a consensus that unions have managed to increase their relative wages from 15 to 20 percent above the
competitive equilibrium wage.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Should CEO Pay Be Capped?
The chairman of the Walt Disney Company signed a 5year contract in 2011 that will pay him an astronomical
$200 million. If Disney could pay that much to its chairman, surely it could afford to pay more than the legal
minimum wage to its least skilled workers. But Disney says such a comparison is irrelevant. When challenged to
defend his pay, Disney's Board of Directors insisted that Bob Iger had earned every penny of it by enhancing the
value of the company's stock.
Critics of CEO pay don't accept this explanation. They make three points. First, the rise in the price of Disney's
stock is not a measure of marginal revenue product. Stock prices rise in response to both company performance
and general changes in financial markets. Hence only part of the stock increase could be credited to the CEO.
Second, the revenues of the Walt Disney Company probably wouldn't be $200 million less in the absence of
CEO Bob Iger. Hence his marginal revenue product was less than $200 million. Finally, Iger probably would
have worked just as hard for, say, just $100 million or so. Therefore, his actual pay was more than required to
elicit the desired supply response.
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NEWS WIRE CAP CEO PAY?
Swiss Voters Reject Strict CEO Pay Limits in Referendum
Swiss voters rejected a proposal to limit executives' pay to 12 times that of junior employees yesterday, a
measure that would have gone further than any other developed nation.
The measure was opposed by 65 percent of voters, the government in Bern said yesterday… Voter turnout was
53 percent, the highest in three years.
“It's a big relief,” Valentin Vogt, president of the Swiss Employers' Association, said in an interview on Swiss
national television SRF. “It's a signal that it's not up to the state to have a say in pay.”
“Absurd” Proposal
Speaking at a news conference in Bern yesterday, Economy Minister Johann SchneiderAmmann said the
intended pay curbs were “absurd” and welcomed the voters decision. “We know there would have been lots of
ways to circumvent the restrictions,” he said. “Switzerland stays attractive as a business location.”
Highest Wage
Switzerland is the world's secondmost competitive country behind the U.S., according to an annual ranking
published by IMD's World Competitiveness Center. The Swiss also have the highest gross average monthly
wage in Europe at about $7,766, the most recent UN data shows.
—Caroline Bosley
Source: Reuters, November 24, 2013.
NOTE: Critics of “excessive” CEO pay want limits on executive compensation. Defenders of CEO pay warn
that arbitrary limits will discourage talented people from assuming CEO responsibilities.
Critics conclude that many CEO paychecks are out of line with the realities of supply and demand. President
Obama was particularly outraged by the multimilliondollar salaries and bonuses paid to Wall Street executives
during the 2008–2009 recession. He wanted corporations to reduce CEO pay and revise the process used for
setting CEO pay levels.
UNMEASURED MRP One of the difficulties in determining the appropriate level of CEO pay is the
elusiveness of marginal revenue product. It is easy to measure the MRP of a strawberry picker or even a sales
clerk who sells Disney toys. But a corporate CEO's contributions are less well defined. A CEO is supposed to
provide strategic leadership and a sense of mission. These are critical to a corporation's success but hard to
quantify.
Congress confronts the same problem in setting the president's pay. We noted earlier that President Obama is
paid $400,000 a year. Can we argue that this salary represents his marginal revenue product? The wage we
actually pay the president of the United States is less a reflection of his contribution to total output than a matter
of custom. His salary also reflects the price voters believe is required to induce competent individuals to forsake
private sector jobs and assume the responsibilities of the presidency. In this sense, the wage paid to the president
and other public officials is set by their opportunity wage—that is, the wage they could earn in private industry.
The same kinds of considerations influence the wages of college professors. The marginal revenue product of a
college professor is not easy to measure. Is it the number of students he or she teaches, the amount of knowledge
conveyed, or something else? Confronted with such problems, most universities tend to pay college professors
according to their opportunity wage—that is, the amount the professors could earn elsewhere.
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Opportunity wages also help explain the difference between the wage of the chairman of Disney and that of the
workers who peddle its products. The lower wage of sales clerks reflects not only their marginal revenue
product at Disney stores but also the fact that they are not trained for many other jobs. That is to say, their
opportunity wages are low. By contrast, Disney's CEO has impressive managerial skills that are in demand by
many corporations; his opportunity wages are high.
The wages of top corporate officers may not be fully justified by their marginal revenue product.
Copyright © 2000 William Hamilton/The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank. All rights reserved. Used
with permission.
Opportunity wages help explain CEO pay but don't fully justify such high pay levels. If Disney's CEO pay is
justified by opportunity wages, that means that another company would be willing to pay him that much. But
what would justify such high pay at another company? Would his MRP be any easier to measure? Maybe all
CEO paychecks have been inflated.
Critics of CEO pay conclude that the process of setting CEO pay levels should be changed. All too often,
executive pay scales are set by selfserving committees composed of executives of the same or similar
corporations (see the accompanying cartoon). Critics want a more independent assessment of pay scales, with
nonaffiliated experts and stockholder representatives. Some critics want to go a step further and set mandatory
caps on CEO pay. Voters in Switzerland rejected this idea, opting to let the market set CEO pay scales (see the
accompanying News Wire “Cap CEO Pay?”).
If markets work efficiently, such government intervention should not be necessary. Corporations that pay their
CEOs excessively will end up with smaller profits than companies that pay marketbased wages. Over time, lean
companies will be more competitive than fat companies, and excessive pay scales will be eliminated. Legislated
CEO pay caps imply that CEO labor markets aren't efficient or that the adjustment process is too slow.
SUMMARY
The economic motivation to work arises from the fact that people need income to buy the goods and
services they desire. As a consequence, people are willing to work (i.e., to supply labor). LO1
There is an opportunity cost involved in working—namely, the amount of leisure time one sacrifices.
People willingly give up additional leisure only if offered higher wages. Hence the labor supply curve is
upwardsloping. LO1
A firm's demand for labor reflects labor's marginal revenue product. A profitmaximizing employer will
not pay a worker more than the value of what the worker produces. LO2
The marginal revenue product of labor diminishes as additional workers are employed in a particular job
(the law of diminishing returns). This decline occurs because additional workers have to share existing
land and capital, leaving each worker with less land and capital to work with. The decline in MRP gives
labor demand curves their downward slope. LO2
The equilibrium wage is determined by the intersection of labor supply and labor demand curves.
Attempts to set aboveequilibrium wages cause labor surpluses by reducing the jobs available and
increasing the number of job seekers. LO3
Labor unions attain aboveequilibrium wages by excluding some workers from a particular industry or
craft. The excluded workers increase the labor supply in the nonunion market, depressing wages there.
LO4
Differences in marginal revenue product are an important explanation of wage inequalities. But the
difficulty of measuring MRP in many instances leaves many wage rates to be determined by custom,
power, discrimination, or opportunity wages. LO5
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TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
labor supply
opportunity cost
market supply of labor
demand for labor
derived demand
marginal physical product (MPP)
marginal revenue product (MRP)
law of diminishing returns
equilibrium wage
opportunity wage
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Why are you doing this homework? What are you giving up? What do you expect to gain? If homework
performance determined course grades, would you spend more time doing it? LO1
2. Why does the opportunity cost of doing homework increase as you spend more time doing it? LO1
3. How do “supply and demand” explain the wage gap between petroleum engineering and sociology majors
(News Wire “Unequal Wages”)? LO3
4. Explain why marginal physical product would diminish as LO2
1. More secretaries are hired in an office.
2. More professors are hired in the economics department.
3. More construction workers are hired to build a school.
5. Under what conditions might an increase in the minimum wage not reduce the number of lowwage jobs?
How much of a job loss is acceptable? LO4
6. The United Farm Workers want strawberry pickers to join its union. It hopes then to convince consumers
to buy only unionpicked strawberries. Will such activities raise picker wages? Increase employment?
LO3
7. Why did HewlettPackard eliminate so many jobs (News Wire “Derived Demand”)? LO1
8. Why are engineering professors paid more than English professors? LO5
9. How might you measure the marginal revenue product of (a) a quarterback, (b) the team's coach, and (c)
the team's owner? LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why did Swiss voters overwhelmingly reject governmentset pay limits on
CEO paychecks (News Wire “Cap CEO Pay?”)? LO5
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why do people want to cap Bob Iger's salary but not Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s?
LO5
PROBLEMS
1. 1. If each of the companies at the Rutgers Job Fair was hiring two people, what was the quantity of
labor demanded?
2. What was the quantity supplied? (News Wire “Labor Supply”) LO3
2. According to Figure 8.4, how many workers would be hired if the prevailing wage were LO3
1. $8 an hour?
2. $4 an hour?
3. The following table depicts the number of grapes that can be picked in an hour with varying amounts of
labor: LO2
Number of pickers (per hour) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Output of grapes (in flats) 1028435461646561
Calculate marginal physical product (MPP) and then graph the total product (output) and MPP curves.
4. 1. Assuming that the price of grapes is $3 per flat, use the data in Problem 3 to calculate total revenue
and marginal revenue product (MRP) and graph the MRP curve.
2. How many pickers will be hired if the going wage rate is $9 per hour? LO2
5. Using the production information contained in Table 8.1 and assuming that the price of strawberries is $3
per box, how many workers would be hired at a wage of
1. $12 per hour, and
2. $6 per hour? LO3
6. The University of Alabama increased the capacity of its BryantDenny stadium by 10,000 seats when it
hired Nick Saban as its football coach.
1. If the average price of a season ticket is $1,000, how much additional revenue is the university
getting from those added seats?
2. Does that exceed coach Saban's pay (see the News Wire “Marginal Revenue Product”)? LO3
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7. In Figure 8.7, LO4
1. How many workers lose their jobs when the minimum wage is enacted?
2. How many workers are unemployed at the minimum wage?
8. In November 2014, the Miami Marlins agreed to pay Giancarlo Stanton $325 million over 10 years. If this
salary were to be covered by ticket sales only, how many more tickets per game would the Marlins have to
sell to cover Stanton's salary in the 81 home games per year if the average ticket price is $60? LO4, LO5
9. Assuming that a college graduate on average earns his or her MRP, what is the MRP for a newly hired
Economics major? (See the News Wire “Unequal Wages.”) LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If Nick Saban (News Wire “Marginal Revenue Product”) were offered a
CEO position at a sporting goods company, What would his opportunity cost be? LO5
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Source: © Steve Allen/Brand X Pictures/PunchStock, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Define what “market failure” means.
2. 2 Explain why the market underproduces “public goods.”
3. 3 Tell how externalities distort market outcomes.
4. 4 Describe how market power prevents optimal outcomes.
5. 5 Define what “government failure” is.
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The market has a keen ear for private wants, but a deaf ear for public needs.
–Robert Heilbroner
dam Smith was the eighteenthcentury economist who coined the phrase laissez faire. He wanted the
government to “leave it [the market] alone” so as not to impede the efficiency of the marketplace. But even
Adam Smith felt the government had to intervene on occasion. He warned in The Wealth of Nations (1776), for
example, that firms with market power might meet together and conspire to fix prices or restrain competition.
He also recognized that the government might have to give aid and comfort to the poor. So he didn't really
believe that the government should leave the market entirely alone. He just wanted to establish a presumption of
market efficiency.
Economists, government officials, and political scientists have been debating the role of government ever since.
So has the general public. Although people are quick to assert that government is too big, they are just as quick
to demand more schools, more police, and more income transfers.
The purpose of this chapter is to help define the appropriate scope of government intervention in the
marketplace. To this end, we try to answer the following questions:
Under what circumstances do markets fail?
How can government intervention help?
How much government intervention is desirable?
As we'll see, there is substantial agreement about how and when markets fail to give us the best WHAT, HOW,
and FOR WHOM answers. There is much less agreement about whether government intervention improves the
situation. Indeed, Americans are strikingly ambivalent about government intervention. They want the
government to fix the mix of output, protect the environment, and ensure an adequate level of income for
everyone. But voters are equally quick to blame government meddling for many of our economic woes. ■
MARKET FAILURE
We can visualize the potential for government intervention by focusing on the WHAT question. Our goal is to
produce the best possible mix of output with existing resources. We illustrated this goal earlier with the
production possibilities curve. Figure 9.1 assumes that of all the possible combinations of output we could
produce, the unique combination at point X represents the most desirable—that is, the optimal mix of output.
The exact location of X in the graph is arbitrary—we're just using that point to remind us that some specific mix
of output must be better than all other combinations. Thus point X is assumed to be optimal—the mix of output
society would choose after examining all other options, their opportunity costs, and social preferences.
FIGURE 9.1
FIGURE 9.1 Market FailureWe can produce any mix of output on the production possibilities curve. Our goal is
to produce the optimal (best possible) mix of output, as represented by point X. Market forces, however, may
produce another combination, such as point M. In that case, the market fails—it produces a suboptimal mix of
output.
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The Nature of Market Failure
We have observed how the market mechanism can help us find this desired mix of output. The market
mechanism moves resources from one industry to another in response to consumer demands. If we demand
more computers—offer to buy more at a given price—more resources (labor) will be allocated to computer
manufacturing. Similarly, a fall in demand will encourage producers to stop making computers and offer their
services in another industry. Changes in market prices direct resources from one industry to another, moving us
along the perimeter of the production possibilities curve.
The big question is whether the mix of output the market mechanism selects is the one society most desires. If
so, we don't need government intervention to change the mix of output. If not, we may need government
intervention to guide the invisible hand of the market.
We use the term market failure to refer to less than perfect (suboptimal) outcomes. If the invisible hand of the
marketplace produces a mix of output that is different from the one society most desires, then it has failed.
Market failure implies that the forces of supply and demand have not led us to the best point on the
production possibilities curve. Such a failure is illustrated by point M in Figure 9.1.
Point M is assumed to be the mix of output generated by market forces. Notice that the market mix (point M) is
not identical to the optimal mix (point X). The market in this case fails; we get the wrong answer to the WHAT
question. Specifically, at point M, too many computers and too few other goods are produced. It's not that we
have no use for more computers—additional computers are still desired. But we'd rather have more of the other
goods. In other words, we'd be better off with a slightly different mix of output, such as that at point X.
Market failure opens the door for government intervention. If the market can't do the job, we need some form of
nonmarket force to get the right answers. In terms of Figure 9.1, we need something to change the mix of output
—to move us from point M (the market mix of output) to point X (the optimal mix of output). Accordingly,
market failure establishes a basis for government intervention.
Sources of Market Failure
Because market failure is the justification for government intervention, we need to know how and when market
failure occurs. There are four specific sources of microeconomic market failure:
Public goods.
Externalities.
Market power.
Inequity.
We examine the nature of these micro problems in this chapter. We also take note of failures due to macro
instability. Along the way we'll see why government intervention is called for in each case.
PUBLIC GOODS
The market mechanism has the unique capability to signal consumer demands for various goods and services.
By offering to pay higher or lower prices for specific products, we express our collective answer to the question
of WHAT to produce. However, the market mechanism works efficiently only if the benefits of consuming a
particular good or service are available only to the individuals who purchase that product.
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Consider doughnuts, for example. When you eat a doughnut, you alone enjoy its greasy, sweet taste—that is,
you derive a private benefit. No one else reaps any significant benefit from your consumption of a doughnut:
The doughnut you purchase in the market is yours alone to consume. Accordingly, your decision to purchase the
doughnut will be determined only by your anticipated satisfaction, your income, and your opportunity costs.
Joint Consumption
Many goods and services produced in the public sector are different from doughnuts—and not just because
doughnuts look, taste, and smell different from nuclear submarines. When you buy a doughnut, you exclude
others from consumption of that product. If Dunkin' Donuts sells a particular pastry to you, it cannot supply the
same pastry to someone else. If you devour it, no one else can. In this sense, the transaction and product are
completely private.
The same exclusiveness is not characteristic of public goods such as national defense. If you buy a nuclear
submarine to patrol the Pacific Ocean, there is no way you can exclude your neighbors from the protection your
submarine provides. Either the submarine deters wouldbe attackers or it doesn't. In the former case, both you
and your neighbors survive happily ever after; in the latter case, we are all blown away together. In that sense,
you and your neighbors either consume or don't consume the benefits of nuclear submarine defenses jointly.
There is no such thing as exclusive consumption here. The consumption of nuclear defenses is a communal feat,
no matter who pays for them. For this reason, national defense is regarded as a public good in the sense that
consumption of a public good by one person does not preclude consumption of the same good by another
person. By contrast, a doughnut is a private good because if I eat it, nobody else can consume it.
The FreeRider Dilemma
The communal nature of public goods leads to a real dilemma. If you and I will both benefit from nuclear
defenses, which one of us should buy the nuclear submarine? I would prefer, of course, that you buy it, thereby
providing me with protection at no direct cost. Hence I may profess no desire for nuclear subs, secretly hoping
to take a free ride on your market purchase. Unfortunately, you, too, have an incentive to conceal your desire
for national defense. As a consequence, neither one of us may step forward to demand nuclear subs in the
marketplace. We will both end up defenseless.
Flood control is also a public good. No one in the valley wants to be flooded out. But each landowner knows
that a flood control dam will protect all the landowners, regardless of who pays. Either the entire valley is
protected or no one is. Accordingly, individual farmers and landowners may say they don't want a dam and
aren't willing to pay for it. Everyone is waiting and hoping that someone else will pay for flood control. In other
words, everyone wants a free ride. Thus, if we leave it to market forces, no one will demand flood control and
everyone in the valley will be washed away.
Flood protection is a public good: downriver nonpayers can't be excluded from flood protection.
© Akira Kaede/Getty Images, RF
EXCLUSION The difference between public goods and private goods rests on technical considerations, not
political philosophy. The central question is whether we have the technical capability to exclude nonpayers. In
the case of national defense or flood control, we simply don't have that capability. Even city streets have the
characteristics of public goods. Although we could theoretically restrict the use of streets to those who pay to
use them, a toll gate on every corner would be exceedingly expensive and impractical. Here, again, joint or
public consumption appears to be the only feasible alternative. As the News Wire “Public Goods” about Israel's
“Iron Dome” emphasizes, the technical capability to exclude nonpayers is the key factor in identifying public
goods.
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NEWS WIRE PUBLIC GOODS
Israel's “Iron Dome” Works!
Israel's Iron Dome is an air defense system designed to intercept and destroy incoming missiles and mortars
fired across the border by Hamas and other Palestinian factions. It works. Israel's Defense Minister claims the
Iron Dome has been 90 percent effective in shielding population centers in the latest barrage of artillery fired
into Israel by Hamas.
Source: News reports of July 20–28, 2014
NOTE: An airdefense system is a public good because nonpayers cannot be excluded from its protection.
Consumption by one person does not preclude consumption by others.
To the list of public goods we could add the administration of justice, the regulation of commerce, and the
conduct of foreign relations. These services—which cost tens of billions of dollars and employ thousands of
workers—provide benefits to everyone, no matter who pays for them. More important, there is no evident way
to exclude nonpayers from the benefits of these services.
The free rides associated with public goods upset the customary practice of paying for what you get. If I can get
all the streets, defenses, and laws I desire without paying for them, I am not about to complain. I am perfectly
happy to let you pay for the services while all of us consume them. Of course, you may feel the same way. Why
should you pay for these services if you can consume just as much of them when your neighbors foot the whole
bill? It might seem selfish not to pay your share of the cost of providing public goods. But you would be better
off in a material sense if you spent your income on doughnuts, letting others pick up the tab for public services.
UNDERPRODUCTION Because the familiar link between paying and consuming is broken, public goods
cannot be peddled in the supermarket. People are reluctant to buy what they can get free. This is a perfectly
rational response for a consumer who has only a limited amount of income to spend. Hence if public goods were
marketed like private goods, everyone would wait for someone else to pay. The end result might be a total lack
of public services. This is the kind of dilemma Robert Heilbroner had in mind when he spoke of the market's
“deaf ear for public needs” (see the quote at the beginning of this chapter).
The production possibilities curve in Figure 9.2 illustrates the dilemma created by public goods. Suppose that
point X again represents the optimal mix of private and public goods. It is the mix of goods and services we
would select if everyone's preferences were known and reflected in production decisions. The market
mechanism will not lead us to point X, however, because the demand for public goods will be hidden. If we rely
on the market, nearly everyone will withhold demand for public goods, waiting for a free ride to point X. As a
result, the market tends to underproduce public goods and overproduce private goods. The market mechanism
will leave us at a mix of output like that at point M, with few, if any, public goods. Since point X is assumed to
be optimal, point M must be suboptimal (inferior to point X).
FIGURE 9.2
FIGURE 9.2 Underproduction of Public GoodsSuppose point X represents the optimal mix of output—the mix
of private and public goods that maximizes society's welfare. Because consumers will not demand purely public
goods in the marketplace, the price mechanism will not allocate enough resources to the production of public
goods. Instead the market will tend to produce a mix of output like point M, which includes fewer public goods
and more private goods than is optimal.
Figure 9.2 illustrates how the market fails: We cannot rely on the market mechanism to allocate resources to the
production of public goods, no matter how much they might be desired. If we want more public goods, we need
a nonmarket force—government intervention—to get them. The government will have to force people to pay
taxes and then use the tax revenues to pay for the production of defense, flood control, and other public goods.
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Note that we are using public good in a different way than most people use it. To most people, the term public
good refers to any good or service the government produces. In economics, however, the meaning is much more
restrictive. The distinction between public goods and private goods is based on the nature of the goods, not
who produces them. The term “public good” refers only to those goods and services that are consumed jointly,
both by those who pay for them and by those who don't. Public goods can be produced by either the government
or the private sector. Private goods can be produced in either sector as well.
EXTERNALITIES
The freerider problem associated with public goods provides an important justification for government
intervention into the market's decision about WHAT to produce. It is not the only justification, however. Further
grounds for intervention arise from the tendency of the costs or benefits of some market activities to “spill over”
onto third parties.
Your demand for a good reflects the amount of satisfaction you expect from its consumption. Often, however,
your consumption may affect others. The purchase of cigarettes, for example, expresses a smoker's demand for
that good. But others may suffer from that consumption. In this case, smoke literally spills over onto other
consumers, causing them discomfort, ill health, and even death (see the accompanying News Wire
“Externalities”). Yet their loss is not reflected in the market—the harm caused to nonsmokers is external to the
market price of cigarettes.
The term externalities refers to all costs or benefits of a market activity borne by a third party—that is, by
someone other than the immediate producer or consumer. Whenever externalities are present, the preferences
expressed in the marketplace will not be a complete measure of a good's value to society. As a consequence, the
market will fail to produce the right mix of output. Specifically, the market will underproduce goods that yield
external benefits and overproduce those that generate external costs. Government intervention may be needed
to move the mix of output closer to society's optimal point.
Consumption Decisions
Externalities often originate on the demand side of markets. Consumers are always trying to maximize their
personal wellbeing by buying products that deliver the most satisfaction (marginal utility) per dollar spent. In
the process, they aren't likely to consider how the wellbeing of others is affected by their consumption behavior.
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NEWS WIRE EXTERNALITIES
Secondhand Smoke Kills More Than 600,000 People a Year: Study
Secondhand smoke globally kills more than 600,000 people each year, accounting for 1 percent of all deaths
worldwide, according to a new study.
Researchers estimate that annually secondhand smoke causes about 379,000 deaths from heart disease, 165,000
deaths from lower respiratory disease, 36,900 deaths from asthma, and 21,400 deaths from lung cancer.
Children account for about 165,000 of the deaths. Forty percent of children and 30 percent of adults regularly
breathe in secondhand smoke.
Secondhand smoke has deadly effects for nonsmokers too, according to a recent study.
© Hannah MauleFfinch/Image Source/Corbis, RF
Source: World Health Organization
NOTE: People who smoke feel the pleasures of smoking justify the cost (price). But nonsmokers end up
bearing an external cost—secondhand smoke—that they don't voluntarily assume.
EXTERNAL COSTS Automobile driving illustrates the problem. The amount of driving one does is influenced
by the price of a car and the marginal costs of driving it. But automobile use involves not only private costs but
external costs as well. When you cruise down the highway, you are adding to the congestion that slows other
drivers down. You're also fouling the air with the emissions (carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, etc.) your car spits
out. The quality of the air other people breathe gets worse. You may even be accelerating climate change. Hence
other people are made worse off at the same time as your auto consumption is making you better off.
Do you take account of such external costs when you buy a car? Not likely. Your willingness to buy a car is
more likely to reflect only your expected satisfaction. Hence the market demand for cars doesn't fully represent
the interests of society. Instead market demand reflects only private benefits.
To account more fully for our collective wellbeing, we must distinguish the social demand for a product from
the market demand whenever externalities exist. This isn't that difficult. We simply recognize that
In the case of autos, the externality is negative—that is, an external cost. Hence the social demand for cars is less
than the (private) market demand. Put simply, this means we'd own and drive fewer cars if we took into account
the external costs (pollution, congestion) that our cars caused. We don't, of course, since we're always trying to
maximize our personal wellbeing. Market failure results.
Figure 9.3 illustrates the divergence of the social demand for automobiles and the market demand. The market
demand expresses the anticipated private benefits of driving. Because of the external costs (congestion,
pollution) associated with driving, the market demand overstates the social benefits of auto consumption. To
represent the social demand for cars, we must subtract external costs from the private benefits. This leaves us
with the social demand curve in Figure 9.3. Notice that the social demand curve lies below the market demand
curve by the amount of external cost. Also notice that the market alone would produce more cars at any price
than is socially optimal. At the price p1, for example, the market demands qM cars (point A), but society really
wants only the quantity qS (at point B).
FIGURE 9.3
FIGURE 9.3 Social versus Market DemandWhenever external costs exist, market demand overstates (lies
above) social demand. At p1 the market would demand qM cars. Because of external costs, however, society
wants only qS cars at that price. Hence the market overproduces goods with external costs.
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A divergence between social and private costs can be observed even in the simplest consumer activities, such as
throwing an empty soda can out the window of your car. To hang on to the soda can and later dispose of it in a
trash barrel involves personal effort and thus private marginal costs. Throwing it out the window transfers the
burden of disposal costs to someone else. Thus private costs can be distinguished from social costs. The
resulting externality ends up as roadside litter.
The same kind of divergence between private and social costs helps explain why people abandon old cars in the
street rather than haul them to scrap yards. It also explains why people use vacant lots as open dumps. In all
these cases, the polluter benefits by substituting external costs for private costs. In other words, market
incentives encourage environmental damage.
EXTERNAL BENEFITS Not all consumption externalities are negative. Completing this course will benefit
you personally, but it may benefit society as well. If more knowledge of economics makes you a betterinformed
voter, your community will reap some benefit from your education. If you share the lessons of supply and
demand with friends, they will benefit without ever attending class. If you complete a research project that helps
markets function more efficiently, others will sing your praises. In all these cases, an external benefit augments
the private benefit of education. Whenever external benefits exist, the social demand exceeds the market
demand. In Figure 9.3, the social demand would lie above the market demand if external benefits were present.
Society wants more of those goods and services generating external benefits than the market itself will demand.
This is why governments subsidize education and flu shots.
Production Decisions
Externalities also exist in production. A power plant that burns highsulfur coal damages the surrounding
environment. Yet the damage inflicted on neighboring people, vegetation, and buildings is external to the cost
calculations of the firm. Because the cost of such pollution is not reflected in the price of electricity, the firm
will tend to produce more electricity (and pollution) than is socially desirable. To reduce this imbalance, the
government has to step in and change market outcomes.
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Suppose you're operating an electric power plant. Power plants are major sources of air pollution and are
responsible for nearly all thermal water pollution. Hence your position immediately puts you on the most
wanted list of pollution offenders. But suppose you bear society no grudges and would truly like to help
eliminate pollution. Let's consider the alternatives.
PROFIT MAXIMIZATION Figure 9.4a depicts the marginal and average total costs (MC and ATC)
associated with the production of electricity. By equating marginal cost (MC) to price (= marginal revenue,
MR), we observe (point A) that profit maximization occurs at an output of 1,000 kilowatthours per day. Total
profits are illustrated by the shaded rectangle between the price line and the average total cost (ATC) curve.
FIGURE 9.4
FIGURE 9.4 Profit Maximization versus Pollution ControlProduction processes that control pollution may be
more expensive than those that do not. If they are, the MC and ATC curves will shift upward (to MC2 and
ATC2). These higher internal costs will reduce output and profits. In this case, environmental protection moves
the profitmaximizing output to point B from point A and total profit shrinks. Hence a producer has an incentive
to continue polluting, using cheaper technology and external costs.
The profits illustrated in Figure 9.4a are achieved in part by use of the cheapest available fuel under the boilers
(which create the steam that rotates the generators). Unfortunately, the cheapest fuel is highsulfur coal, a major
source of air pollution. Other fuels (e.g., lowsulfur coal, fuel oil, natural gas) pollute less but cost more. Were
you to switch to one of them, the ATC and MC curves would both shift upward, as shown in Figure 9.4b. Under
these conditions, the most profitable rate of output (point B) would be less than before (point A), and total profits
would decline (note the smaller profit rectangle in Figure 9.4b). Thus pollution abatement can be achieved, but
only by sacrificing some profit. If you owned this power plant, would you sacrifice profits for the sake of
cleaner air? Would your competitors?
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The same kinds of cost considerations lead the plant to engage in thermal pollution. Cool water must be run
through an electric utility plant to keep the turbines from overheating. And once the water runs through the
plant, it is too hot to recirculate. Hence it must be either dumped back into the adjacent river or cooled off by
being circulated through cooling towers. As you might expect, it is cheaper simply to dump the hot water in the
river. The fish don't like it, but they don't have to pay the construction costs of cooling towers. Were you to get
on the environmental bandwagon and build those towers, your production costs would rise, just as they did in
Figure 9.4b. The fish would benefit, but at your expense.
EXTERNAL COST The big question here is whether you and your fellow stockholders would be willing to
incur higher costs in order to cut down on pollution. Eliminating either the air pollution or the water pollution
emanating from the electric plant will cost a lot of money; eliminating both will cost much more. And to whose
benefit? To the people who live downstream and downwind? We don't expect profitmaximizing producers to
take such concerns into account. The behavior of profit maximizers is guided by comparisons of revenues and
costs, not by philanthropy, aesthetic concerns, or the welfare of fish.
The moral of this story—and the critical factor in pollution behavior—is that people tend to maximize their
personal welfare, balancing private benefits against private costs. For the electric power plant, this means
making production decisions on the basis of revenues received and costs incurred. The fact that the power plant
imposes costs on others, in the form of air and water pollution, is irrelevant to its profitmaximizing decision.
Those costs are external to the firm and do not appear on its profitandloss statement. Those external costs are
no less real, but they are incurred by society at large rather than by the firm.
Whenever external costs exist, a private firm will not allocate its resources and operate its plant in such a way
as to maximize social welfare. In effect, society is permitting the power plant the free use of valued resources—
clean air and clean water. Thus the power plant has a tremendous incentive to substitute those resources for
others (such as highpriced fuel or cooling towers) in the production process. The inefficiency of such an
arrangement is obvious when we recall that the function of markets is to allocate scarce resources in accordance
with consumers' expressed demands. Yet here we are, proclaiming a high value for clean air and clean water
while encouraging the power plant to use up both resources by offering them at zero cost to the firm. We end up
with the wrong answer to the HOW question.
Copyright © 1985 Joseph Mirachi/The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank. All rights reserved. Used
with permission.
Social versus Private Costs
The inefficiency of this market arrangement can be expressed in terms of a distinction between social costs and
private costs. Social costs are the total costs of all the resources that are used in a particular production activity.
On the other hand, private costs are the resource costs that are incurred by the specific producer.
Ideally, a producer's private costs will encompass all the attendant social costs, and production decisions will be
consistent with our social welfare. Unfortunately, this happy identity does not always exist, as our experience
with the power plant illustrates. When social costs differ from private costs, external costs exist. In fact,
external costs are equal to the difference between the social and private costs:
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When external costs are present, the market mechanism will not allocate resources efficiently. The price signal
confronting producers is flawed. By not conveying the full (social) cost of scarce resources, the market
encourages excessive pollution. We end up with a suboptimal mix of output, the wrong production processes,
and a polluted environment. This is another case of market failure.
Policy Options
What should the government do to remedy market failures caused by externalities?
Our goal is to discourage production and consumption activities that impose external costs on society. We can do
this in one of two ways:
Alter market incentives.
Bypass market incentives.
EMISSION FEES Consider our pollution problem. The key to marketbased environmental protection is to
eliminate the gap between private costs and social costs. The opportunity to shift some costs onto others lies at
the heart of the pollution problem. If we could somehow compel producers to internalize all costs—pay for both
private and previously external costs—the gap would disappear, along with the incentive to pollute.
One possibility is to establish a system of emission charges, direct costs attached to the act of polluting.
Suppose that we let you keep your power plant and permit you to operate it according to profitmaximizing
principles. The only difference is that we no longer agree to supply you with clean air and cool water at zero
cost. Instead we will charge you for these scarce resources. We might, say, charge you 2 cents for every gram of
noxious emission you discharge into the air. In addition we might charge you 3 cents for every gallon of water
you use, heat, and discharge back into the river.
Confronted with such emission charges, a producer would have to rethink the production decision. An emission
charge increases private marginal cost and thus encourages lower output. Figure 9.5 illustrates this effect.
FIGURE 9.5
FIGURE 9.5 Emission FeesEmission charges can be used to close the gap between social costs and private
costs. Faced with an emission charge of t, a private producer will reduce output from q0 to q1.
Once an emission fee is in place, a producer may also reevaluate the production process. Consider again the
choice of fuels to be used in our fictional power plant. Earlier, we chose highsulfur coal because it was the
cheapest fuel available. Now, however, there is an added cost to burning such fuel, in the form of an emission
charge on noxious pollutants. This higher marginal cost might prompt a switch to less polluting fuels. The actual
response of producers will depend on the relative costs involved. If emission charges are too low, it may be more
profitable to continue burning and polluting with highsulfur coal and pay a nominal fee. This is a simple pricing
problem. The government can set the emission price higher, prompting the desired behavioral responses.
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What works on producers will also sway consumers. Surely you've heard of deposits on returnable bottles. At
one time the deposits were imposed by beverage producers to encourage you to bring the bottle back for reuse.
Thirty years ago, virtually all soft drinks and most beer came in returnable bottles. But producers discovered that
such deposits discouraged sales and yielded little cost savings. The economics of returnable bottles were further
undermined by the advent of metal cans and, later, plastic bottles. Today returnable bottles are rarely used. One
result is the inclusion of over 30 billion bottles and 60 billion cans in our solid waste disposal problem.
We could reduce this solid waste problem by imposing a deposit on all beverage containers. This would
internalize pollution costs for the consumer and render the throwing of a soda can out the window equivalent to
throwing away money. Some people would still find the thrill worthwhile, but they would be followed around by
others who attached more value to money. When Oregon imposed a 5cent deposit on beverage containers,
related litter in that state declined by 81 percent!
REGULATION Although emission fees can be used to alter market incentives, the government can also choose
to bypass market signals altogether. This was the approach President Obama took in vetoing the Keystone XL
pipeline (see the News Wire “External Costs”). As he saw it, any project that added to environmental damage
was undesirable, regardless of what economic benefits it might generate. In his mind, there was no need to
weigh benefits versus costs and no reason to alter production decisions at the margin.
Aside from outright prohibitions, the government can also choose to regulate market behavior. The federal
government began regulating auto emissions in 1968 and got tough under the provisions of the Clean Air Act of
1970. The act required auto manufacturers to reduce hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide
emissions by 90 percent within six years of the act's passage. Although the timetable for reducing pollutants was
later extended, the act forced auto manufacturers to reduce auto emissions dramatically: By 1990, new cars were
emitting only 4 percent as much pollution as 1970 models. This dramatic reduction in pervehicle emissions
enabled auto production to increase even while pollution declined (see the accompanying News Wire “Changing
Market Behavior”).
NEWS WIRE EXTERNAL COSTS
Obama Vetoes Keystone Pipeline
Washington, DC—As he promised months ago, President Obama vetoed the Congressional bill that would have
allowed construction of the Keystone XL pipeline. The 1,200mile pipeline is designed to move Canadian oil
across the Midwest to the Gulf of Mexico. Proponents point to the 42,000 jobs the project would create and the
energy independence it would foster. Opponents emphasize the environmental risks. They say oil extracted from
oil sands emits 17 percent more greenhouse gases than oil extracted from rock. They also worry that the pipeline
would cut across the Ogallala Aquifer, one of the world's largest. President Obama said he didn't want to
approve legislation that would “contribute to the greenhouse gases that are causing climate change.” The Senate
needs 67 votes to override the president's veto.
Source: News accounts of February 25, 2015.
NOTE: Energy development entails external costs to the environment. The policy challenge is to find the
optimal balance between energy development and environmental protection.
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NEWS WIRE CHANGING MARKET BEHAVIOR
Breathing Easier
America's air has become a great deal cleaner over the last generation. Since measurement began in 1970, U.S.
emissions have fallen dramatically, even while GDP and travel have more than doubled. America, in other
words, is producing much more while polluting less.
Source: The American Enterprise, July/August 2003, p. 17. www.aei.org
NOTE: A combination of market incentives and government mandates has enabled output to increase even
while the volume of pollution has diminished. The market alone would not have done as well.
Regulatory standards may specify not only the required reduction in emissions but also the process by which
those reductions are to be achieved. Clean air legislation mandated not only fewer auto emissions but also
specific processes (e.g., catalytic converters, leadfree gasoline) for attaining them. Specific processes and
technologies are also required for toxic waste disposal and water treatment. Laws requiring the sorting and
recycling of trash are also examples of process regulation.
Although such handson regulation can be effective, this policy option also entails risks. By requiring market
participants to follow specific rules, the regulations may impose excessive costs on some activities and too low a
constraint on others. Some communities may not need the level of sewage treatment the federal government
prescribes. Individual households may not generate enough trash to make sorting and separate pickups
economically sound. Some producers may have better or cheaper ways of attaining environmental standards.
Excessive process regulation may raise the costs of environmental protection and discourage costsaving
innovation. There is also the risk of regulated processes becoming entrenched long after they are obsolete.
Regulation also entails compliance and enforcement costs. Government agencies must monitor market behavior
to ensure that regulations are enforced. Market participants must learn about the regulations, implement them,
and usually complete some compliance paperwork. All these activities require scarce resources (labor) that
could be used to produce other goods and services. Accordingly, in addition to being well designed, regulations
should also be beneficial enough to justify their opportunity costs. Former New York City Mayor Michael
Bloomberg concluded forced recycling didn't pass this test (see the following News Wire “Opportunity Costs”).
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NEWS WIRE OPPORTUNITY COSTS
Bloomberg: Forced Recycling a Waste
Looking for ways to cut the City's budget, Mayor Michael Bloomberg has zeroed in on the city's recycling
program. Local law 19 mandates that the City recycle 25 percent of its waste. But that's a very expensive
mandate. It costs about $240 per ton to recycle plastic, glass, and metal, while the cost of simply sending that
trash to landfills is only $130 per ton. If the city suspended its recycling program, it could save New Yorkers $57
million per year. Mayor Bloomberg wants to do exactly that. Otherwise, he warns, the city will have to make
painful cuts to its police and fire department budgets. “You could do a lot better things in the world with $57
million,” the Mayor says.
Source: News accounts of March 19, 2002.
NOTE: Recycling programs reduce pollution but also use resources that could be employed for other purposes.
The benefits of recycling should exceed its opportunity costs.
MARKET POWER
When either public goods or externalities exist, the market's price signal is flawed. The price consumers are
willing and able to pay for a specific good does not reflect all the benefits or costs of producing that good. As a
result, the market fails to produce the socially desired mix of output.
Even when the price signals emitted in the market are accurate, however, we may still get a suboptimal mix of
output. The response to price signals, rather than the signals themselves, may be flawed.
Restricted Supply
Market power is often the cause of a flawed response. Suppose there were only one airline company in the
world. As a monopolist, the airline could charge extremely high prices without worrying that travelers would
flock to a competing airline. Ideally, such high prices would act as a signal to producers to build and fly more
planes—to change the mix of output. But a monopolist does not have to cater to every consumer whim. It can
limit airline travel and thus obstruct our efforts to achieve an optimal mix of output.
Monopoly is the most severe form of market power. More generally, market power refers to any situation
where a single producer or consumer has the ability to alter the market price of a specific product. If the
publisher (McGrawHill) charges a high price for this book, you will have to pay the tab. McGrawHill has
market power because there are relatively few economics textbooks and your professor has required you to use
this one. You don't have power in the textbook market because your purchase decision will not alter the market
price of this text. You are only one of the million students taking an introductory economics course this year.
The market power McGrawHill possesses is derived from the copyright on this text. No matter how profitable
textbook sales might be, no one else is permitted to produce or sell this particular text. Patents are another source
of market power because they also preclude others from making or selling a specific product. Market power may
also result from control of resources, restrictive production agreements, or efficiencies of largescale production.
Whatever the source of market power, the direct consequence of market power is that one or more producers
attain discretionary power over the market's response to price signals. They may use that discretion to enrich
themselves rather than to move the economy toward the optimal mix of output. In this case, the market will
again fail to deliver the most desired goods and services. As we observed in Chapter 7, the government
concluded that Microsoft used its virtual monopoly in computer operating systems to limit consumer choice and
enrich itself.
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Antitrust Policy
A primary goal of government intervention in such cases is to prevent or dismantle concentrations of market
power. That is the essential purpose of antitrust policy. The legal foundations of federal antitrust activity are
contained in three laws:
The Sherman Act (1890). The Sherman Act prohibits “conspiracies in restraint of trade,” including
mergers, contracts, or acquisitions that threaten to monopolize an industry. Firms that violate the Sherman
Act are subject to fines of up to $1 million, and their executives may be subject to imprisonment. In
addition, consumers who are damaged—for example, via high prices—by a conspiracy in restraint of
trade may recover treble damages. The U.S. Department of Justice has used this trustbusting authority to
block attempted mergers and acquisitions, force changes in price or output behavior, require companies to
sell some of their assets, and even send corporate executives to jail for conspiracies in restraint of trade.
The Clayton Act (1914). The Clayton Act of 1914 was passed to outlaw specific antitrust behavior not
covered by the Sherman Act. The principal aim of the act was to prevent the development of monopolies.
To this end the Clayton Act prohibits price discrimination, exclusive dealing agreements, certain types of
mergers, and interlocking boards of directors among competing firms.
The Federal Trade Commission Act (1914). The increased antitrust responsibilities of the federal
government created the need for an agency that could study industry structures and behavior so as to
identify anticompetitive practices. The Federal Trade Commission was created for this purpose in 1914.
In the early 1900s this antitrust legislation was used to break up the monopolies that dominated the steel and
tobacco industries. In the 1980s the same legislation was used to dismantle AT&T's near monopoly of telephone
service. The court forced AT&T to sell off its local telephone service companies (the Baby Bells) and allow
competitors more access to longdistance service. The resulting competition pushed prices down and spawned a
new wave of telephone technology and services.
Although antitrust policy has produced some impressive results, its potential is limited. There are over 30
million businesses in the United States, and the trustbusters can watch only so many. Even when they decide to
take action, antitrust policy entails difficult decisions. What, for example, constitutes a monopoly in the real
world? Must a company produce 100 percent of a particular good to be a threat to consumer welfare? How about
99 percent? Or even 75 percent?
And what specific monopolistic practices should be prohibited? Should we be looking for specific evidence of
price gouging? Or should we focus on barriers to entry and unfair market practices? In the antitrust case against
Microsoft (see the News Wire “Barriers to Entry,” Chapter 7) the Justice Department asserted that bundling its
Internet Explorer with Windows was an anticompetitive practice. Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates responded that
the attorney general didn't understand how the fiercely competitive software market worked. Who was right?
These kinds of questions determine how and when antitrust laws will be enforced. Just the threat of
enforcement, however, may help push market outcomes in the desired direction. In the Microsoft case, for
example, the company changed some of its exclusionary licensing practices soon after the government filed its
antitrust case. Presumably, other powerful companies also became more cautious about abusing market power
when they saw the guilty verdict against Microsoft.
INEQUITY
Public goods, externalities, and market power all cause resource misallocations. Where these phenomena exist,
the market mechanism will fail to produce the optimal mix of output.
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Beyond the question of WHAT to produce, we are also concerned about FOR WHOM output is to be produced.
Is the distribution of goods and services generated by the marketplace fair? If not, government intervention may
be needed to redistribute income.
In general, the market mechanism tends to answer the basic question of FOR WHOM to produce by distributing
a larger share of total output to those with the most income. Although this result may be efficient, it is not
necessarily equitable. Individuals who are aged or disabled, for example, may be unable to earn much income
yet may still be regarded as worthy recipients of goods and services. In such cases, we may want to change the
market's answer to the basic question of FOR WHOM goods are produced.
The government alters the distribution of income with taxes and transfers. The federal income tax takes as
much as 39.6 percent of income from rich individuals. A big chunk of this tax revenue is then used to provide
income transfers for poor people.
As Figure 9.6 illustrates, poor people would get only a tiny sliver of the economic pie—about 1 percent—
without government intervention. The tax and transfer system more than quadruples the amount of income they
end up with. Although poor people still don't have enough income, government intervention clearly remedies
some of the inequities the market alone creates.
FIGURE 9.6
FIGURE 9.6 Moderating InequityThe market alone would distribute only 1.1 percent of total income to the poor.
Government taxes and transfers raise that share to 4.4 percent.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau data on income of lowest quintile (2015).
Table 9.1 indicates some of the larger income transfer programs. The largest transfer program is Social Security.
Although Social Security benefits are paid to virtually all retirees, they are particularly important to the aged
poor. In the absence of those monthly Social Security checks, almost half of this country's aged population
would be poor. For younger families, food stamps, welfare checks, and Medicaid are all important income
transfers for reducing poverty.
TABLE 9.1
TABLE 9.1 Income Transfers
The market mechanism might leave some people with too little income and others with too much. The
government uses taxes and transfers to redistribute income more fairly.
Source: Congressional Budget Office (2015 data).
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MACRO INSTABILITY
The micro failures of the marketplace imply that we are at the wrong point on the production possibilities
curve or inequitably distributing the output produced. There is another basic question we have swept under the
rug, however. How do we get to the production possibilities curve in the first place? To reach the curve, we must
utilize all available resources and technology. Can we be confident that the invisible hand of the marketplace
will use all of our resources? Or will some people remain unemployed—that is, willing to work but unable to
find a job?
And what about prices? Price signals are a critical feature of the market mechanism. But the validity of those
signals depends on some stable measure of value. What good is a doubling of salary when the price of
everything you buy doubles as well? Generally, rising prices enrich people who own property and impoverish
people who rent. That is why we strive to avoid inflation—a situation where the average price level is
increasing.
Historically, the marketplace has been wracked with bouts of both unemployment and inflation. These
experiences have prompted calls for government intervention at the macro level. The goal of macro
intervention is to foster economic growth—to get us on the production possibilities curve (full employment),
maintain a stable price level (price stability), and increase our capacity to produce (growth). The means for
achieving this goal are examined in the macro section of this course.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Will the Government Get It Right?
The potential micro and macro failures of the marketplace provide specific justifications for government
intervention. The question then turns to how well the government responds to these implied mandates. Can we
trust the government to fix the shortcomings of the market?
INFORMATION If the government is going to fix things, it must not only confirm market failure but identify
the social optimum. This is no easy task. Back in Figure 9.1 we arbitrarily designated point X as the social
optimum. In the real world, however, only the market outcome is visible. The social optimum isn't visible; it
must be inferred. To locate it, we need to know the preferences of the community as well as the dimensions of
any externalities. Likewise, if we want the government to change the market distribution of income, we need to
know what society regards as fair. No one really has all the required information. Consequently, government
intervention typically entails a lot of groping in the dark for better, if not optimal, outcomes.
VESTED INTERESTS Vested interests often try to steer the search away from the social optimum. Cigarette
manufacturers don't want people to stop smoking. Car companies don't want consumers to reject the fuel
technology they have developed. So they try to keep the government from altering market outcomes. To do so,
they may generate studies that minimize the size of external costs. They may try to sway public opinion with
public interest advertising. And they may use their wealth to finance the campaigns of sympathetic politicians.
Government officials, too, may have personal agendas that don't reflect society's interests. In these
circumstances it becomes more difficult to figure out where the social optimum is, much less how to get there.
GOVERNMENT FAILURE These are just a couple of reasons why government intervention won't always
improve market outcomes. Yes, an unregulated market might produce the wrong mix of output, generate too
much pollution, or leave too many people in poverty. However, government intervention might worsen,
rather than improve, market outcomes. In such cases, we would have to conclude that government
intervention has failed.
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The possibility of government failure is illustrated in Figure 9.7. We start with the recognition of market failure:
The market underproduces military goods at point M, relative to society's optimal mix at point X. Because
national defense is a public good, private consumers don't demand it directly. So the government intervenes.
Will the government move us to point X? Maybe. But it might also move us to point G1, where too many
resources are being allocated to the military. Or pacifists might move us to point G2, where too little military
output is produced. Maybe government procurement will be so inefficient that we end up at G3, producing less
output than possible. Any of these outcomes (G1, G2, G3) fall short of our goal; they may even be worse than
the initial market outcome (point M).
FIGURE 9.7
FIGURE 9.7 Government FailureThe goal of government intervention is to correct market failure (e.g., by
changing the mix of output from M to X). It is possible, however, that government policy might move the
economy beyond the optimal mix (to point G1), in the wrong direction (to point G2), or even inside the
production possibilities curve (to point G3).
Government failure refers to any intervention that fails to improve market outcomes. Perhaps the mix of output
or the income distribution got worse when the government intervened. Or the regulatory/administrative cost of
intervention outweighed its benefits. Clearly, there is no guarantee that the visible hand of government will be
any better than the invisible hand of the marketplace.
The average citizen clearly understands that government intervention does not always succeed as hoped.
Opinion polls reveal considerable doubt about the government's ability to improve market outcomes. As Figure
9.8 illustrates, only one out of twelve Americans has a “great deal” of confidence that the federal government
will do the right thing when it intervenes. One out of six believes this never happens. Confidence levels are
higher for state and local governments but still far short of comfort levels.
FIGURE 9.8
FIGURE 9.8 Low ExpectationsThe public has substantial doubts about the ability of government to fix market
failures.
Source: Data from Gallup, Inc., 2014.
Neither market failure nor government failure is inevitable. The challenge for public policy is to decide when
any government intervention is justified and, when deemed necessary, to intervene in a way that improves
outcomes in the least costly way.
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SUMMARY
Government intervention in the marketplace is justified by market failure—that is, suboptimal market
outcomes. LO1
The micro failures of the market originate in public goods, externalities, market power, and inequity.
These flaws deter the market from achieving the optimal mix of output or distribution of income. LO1
Public goods are those that cannot be consumed exclusively; they are jointly consumed regardless of who
pays. Because everyone seeks a free ride, no one demands public goods in the marketplace. Hence the
market underproduces public goods. LO2
Externalities are costs (or benefits) of a market transaction borne by a third party. Externalities create a
divergence of social and private costs (or benefits), causing suboptimal market outcomes. The market
overproduces goods with external costs and underproduces goods with external benefits. LO3
Market power enables a producer to thwart market signals and maintain a suboptimal mix of output.
Antitrust policy seeks to prevent or restrict market power. LO4
The marketgenerated distribution of income may be regarded as unfair. This equity concern may prompt
the government to intervene with taxes and transfer payments that redistribute incomes. LO5
The macro failures of the marketplace are reflected in unemployment and inflation. Government
intervention at the macro level is intended to achieve full employment and price stability. LO5
Government failure occurs when intervention fails to improve, or even worsens, economic outcomes.
LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
laissez faire
optimal mix of output
market mechanism
market failure
public good
private good
free rider
externalities
social costs
private costs
emission charge
market power
antitrust
income transfers
government failure
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Why should taxpayers subsidize public colleges and universities? What external benefits are generated by
higher education? LO3
2. If everyone seeks a free ride, what mix of output will be produced in Figure 9.2? Why would anyone
voluntarily contribute to the purchase of public goods like flood control or snow removal? LO2
3. Could local fire departments be privately operated, with services sold directly to customers? What
problems would be involved in such a system? LO3
4. Identify a specific government activity that is justified by each source of market failure. LO1
5. Given the effectiveness of Israel's Iron Dome (News Wire “Public Goods”), why wouldn't individuals
want to pay for its protective services? Could this be a profitable venture in the private market? LO2
6. President Obama vetoed the Keystone XL pipeline because it entailed external costs (News Wire
“External Costs”). Should any activity that generates external costs be prohibited? LO5
7. Does anyone have an incentive to maintain auto exhaust control devices in good working order? How can
we ensure that they will be maintained? LO5
8. What are the costs of New York City's recycling program (see News Wire “Opportunity Costs”)? Are
these costs justified? LO5
9. Most cities are served by only one cable company. How might this monopoly power affect prices and
service? What should the government do, if anything? LO4, LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why might the market underproduce and the government overproduce
military output? LO1
PROBLEMS
1. In Figure 9.3, by how much is the market overproducing cars? LO3
2. How much global output is lost annually as a result of adult deaths from secondhand smoke if the average
adult produces (a) $10,000 output per year, (b) $20,000 output per year? (see News Wire “Externalities”)?
LO3
3. 1. Draw a production possibilities curve (PPC) with cars on the horizontal axis and other goods on the
vertical axis.
2. Illustrate on your PPC the market failure that occurs in Figure 9.3. LO3
4. Draw market demand and social demand curves for flu shots. LO3
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5. In Figure 9.2, identify the market and optimal outcomes. Does the market under or overproduce public
goods? LO2
6. Suppose the annual cost of the Iron Dome is $50 million. What is the opportunity cost of this defense
spending in terms of private housing assuming a new home can be constructed for (a) $100,000, (b)
$150,000? (see News Wire “Public Goods”). LO2
7. The market demand for cigarettes are given in the following table. LO3
Price ($ per pack) 6.506.005.505.004.504.003.50
Quantity (packs per day) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Suppose further that smoking creates external costs valued at 50 cents per pack.
1. Draw the social and market demand curves.
Given a market price of $3.50,
2. What quantity is demanded in the market?
3. What is the socially optimal quantity?
8. Graph the following data on social and market demand: LO3
1. Does this product have external benefits or external costs?
2. How large ($) is that externality?
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES The production possibilities curve shows the tradeoff between housing and
all other goods. LO5
1. If the current mix of output is at point A and the optimal mix of output is at point C, does a market
failure exist?
2. If the government has a laissezfaire approach, will it intervene?
3. If the government intervenes and the economy moves to point D, is this a government failure?
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Source: © Topham/The Image Works
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Explain how growth of the economy is measured.
2. 2 Tell how unemployment is measured and affects us.
3. 3 Discuss why inflation is a problem and how it is measured.
4. 4 Define “full employment” and “price stability.”
5. 5 Recite the U.S. track record on growth, unemployment, and inflation.
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I
n 1929 it looked as though the sun would never set on the American economy. For eight years in a row, the U.S.
economy had been expanding rapidly. During the Roaring Twenties the typical American family drove its first
car, bought its first radio, and went to the movies for the first time. With factories running at capacity, virtually
anyone who wanted to work readily found a job.
Under these circumstances everyone was optimistic. In his acceptance address in November 1928, President
elect Herbert Hoover echoed this optimism by declaring, “We in America today are nearer to the final triumph
over poverty than ever before in the history of any land…. We shall soon with the help of God be in sight of the
day when poverty will be banished from this nation.”
The booming stock market seemed to confirm this optimistic outlook. Between 1921 and 1927, the stock
market's value more than doubled, adding billions of dollars to the wealth of American households and
businesses. The stock market boom accelerated in 1927, causing stock prices to double again in less than two
years. The roaring stock market made it look easy to get rich in America.
The party ended abruptly on October 24, 1929. On what came to be known as Black Thursday, the stock market
crashed. In a few hours, the market value of U.S. corporations fell abruptly in the most frenzied selling ever seen
(see the accompanying News Wire “The Crash of 1929”). The next day President Hoover tried to assure
America's stockholders that the economy was “on a sound and prosperous basis.” But despite his assurances and
the efforts of leading bankers to stem the decline, the stock market continued to plummet. The following
Tuesday (October 29) the pace of selling quickened. By the end of the year, over $40 billion of wealth had
vanished in the Great Crash. Rich men became paupers overnight; ordinary families lost their savings, their
homes, and even their lives.
The devastation was not confined to Wall Street. The financial flames engulfed farms, banks, and industries.
Between 1930 and 1935, millions of rural families lost their farms. Automobile production fell from 4.5 million
cars in 1929 to only 1.1 million in 1932. So many banks were forced to close that newly elected President
Roosevelt had to declare a “bank holiday” in March 1933, closing all the nation's banks for four days. It was a
desperate move to stem the outflow of cash to anxious depositors.
NEWS WIRE THE CRASH OF 1929
Market in Panic as Stocks Are Dumped in 12,894,600 Share Day; Bankers Halt It
Effect Is Felt on the Curb and throughout Nation—Financial District Goes Wild
The stock markets of the country tottered on the brink of panic yesterday as a prosperous people, gone suddenly
hysterical with fear, attempted simultaneously to sell a recordbreaking volume of securities for whatever they
would bring.
The result was a financial nightmare, comparable to nothing ever before experienced in Wall Street. It rocked
the financial district to its foundations, hopelessly overwhelmed its mechanical facilities, chilled its blood with
terror.
In a society built largely on confidence, with real wealth expressed more or less inaccurately by pieces of paper,
the entire fabric of economic stability threatened to come toppling down.
Into the frantic hands of a thousand brokers on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange poured the selling
orders of the world. It was sell, sell, sell—hour after desperate hour until 1:30 p.m.
—Laurence Stern
Source: The World, October 25, 1929.
NOTE: The stock market is often a barometer of business cycles. The 1929 crash both anticipated and worsened
the Great Depression.
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Throughout those years, the ranks of the unemployed continued to swell. In October 1929 only 3 percent of the
workforce was unemployed. A year later over 9 percent of the workforce was unemployed. Still, things got
worse. By 1933 over onefourth of the labor force was unable to find work. People slept in the streets,
scavenged for food, and sold apples on Wall Street.
The Great Depression seemed to last forever. In 1933 President Roosevelt lamented that onethird of the nation
was ill clothed, ill housed, and ill fed. Thousands of unemployed workers marched to the Capitol to demand jobs
and aid. In 1938, nine years after the Great Crash, nearly 20 percent of the workforce was still unemployed.
The Great Depression shook not only the foundations of the world economy but also the selfconfidence of the
economics profession. No one had predicted the depression, and few could explain it. How could the economy
perform so poorly for so long? What could the government do to prevent such a catastrophe? Suddenly there
were more questions than answers.
The scramble for answers became the springboard for modern macroeconomics, the study of aggregate
economic behavior. A basic purpose of macroeconomic theory is to explain the business cycle—to identify the
forces that cause the overall economy to expand or contract. Macro policy tries to control the business cycle,
using the insights of macro theory.
In this chapter we focus on the nature of the business cycle and the related problems of unemployment and
inflation. Our goal is to acquire a sense of why the business cycle is so feared. To address these concerns, we
need to know
What are business cycles?
What damage does unemployment cause?
Who is hurt by inflation?
As we answer these questions, we will get a sense of why people worry so much about the macro economy and
why they demand that Washington do something about it. We'll also see why Washington policymakers were
determined not to let the 2008–2009 recession turn into another Great Depression. ■
ASSESSING MACRO PERFORMANCE
Doctors gauge a person's health with a few simple measurements such as body temperature, blood pressure, and
blood content. These tests don't tell doctors everything they need to know about a patient, but they convey some
important clues about a patient's general health. In macroeconomics, economic “doctors” need comparable
measures of the economy's health. The macro economy is a complex construction, encompassing all kinds of
economic activity. To get a quick reading of how well it is doing, economists rely on three gauges. The three
basic measures of macro performance are
Output (GDP) growth
Unemployment
Inflation
The macro economy is in trouble when output growth slows down—or worse, turns negative, as it did during the
Great Depression. Economic doctors also worry about the macro economy when they see either unemployment
or inflation rising. Any one of these symptoms is painful and may be the precursor to a more serious ailment.
Someone has to decide whether to intervene or instead wait to see if the economy can overcome such symptoms
by itself.
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GDP GROWTH
The first test of the economy's macro health is the rate of output growth. As we first saw in Chapter 1, an
economy's potential output is reflected in its production possibilities curve. That curve tells us how much
output the economy could produce with available resources and technology. The relevant performance test is
whether we are living up to that potential. Are we fully using available resources—or producing at less than
capacity? If we are producing inside the production possibilities curve, some resources (e.g., workers) are
unnecessarily idle. If we are inside the production possibilities curve, the macro economy isn't doing well.
In reality, output has to keep increasing if an economy is to stay healthy. The population increases, and
technology advances every year. So the production possibilities curve keeps shifting outward. This means output
has to keep expanding at a healthy clip just to keep from falling further behind that expanding capacity.
Business Cycles
The central concern in macroeconomics is that the rate of output won't always keep up with everexpanding
production possibilities. Indeed, when macro doctors study the patient's charts, they often discern a pattern of
fits, starts, and stops in the growth of output. Sometimes the volume of output grows at a healthy clip. At other
times, the growth rate slips. And in some cases total output actually contracts, as it did in 2008–2009 (see the
News Wire “Declining Output”).
Figure 10.1 illustrates this typical business cycle chart. During an economic expansion total output grows
rapidly. Then a peak is reached, and output starts dropping. Once a trough is reached, the economy prospers
again. This rollercoaster pattern begins to look like a recurring cycle.
FIGURE 10.1
FIGURE 10.1 The Business CycleThe model business cycle resembles a roller coaster. Output first climbs to a
peak and then decreases. After hitting a trough, the economy recovers, with real GDP again increasing.
A central concern of macroeconomic theory is to determine whether a recurring business cycle exists and, if so,
what forces cause it.
Real GDP
When we talk about output expanding or contracting, we envision changes in the physical quantity of goods and
services produced. But the physical volume of output is virtually impossible to measure. Millions of different
goods and services are produced every year, and no one has figured out how to add up their physical quantities
(e.g., 30 million grapefruits + 128 million music downloads = ?). So we measure the volume of output by its
market value, not by its physical volume (e.g., the dollar value of grapefruits + the dollar value of electronic
commerce = a dollar value total). We refer to the dollar value of all the output produced in a year as gross
domestic product (GDP).
NEWS WIRE DECLINING OUTPUT
Economy: Sharpest Decline in 26 Years
Economic Activity Shrank by 6.3 Percent in Last Three Months of 2008
Washington, D.C.—The U.S. economy suffered its biggest slowdown in 26 years in the final months of last year.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, gross domestic product—the broadest measure of the
economy's performance—fell by 6.3 percent. Leading the decline was a 22.8 percent drop in housing
construction, accompanied by a 28.1 percent decline in equipment production.
The 6.3 percent drop in GDP was just a sliver less than the 6.4 percent decline registered in the first quarter of
1982, when the U.S. economy was in another deep recession.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, March 26, 2009.
NOTE: A contraction in output indicates that the economy has moved to a point inside its production
possibilities curve. Such contractions lower living standards and create more joblessness.
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Because prices vary from one year to the next, GDP yardsticks must be adjusted for inflation. Suppose that from
one year to the next all prices doubled. Such a general price increase would double the value of output even if
the quantity of output were totally unchanged. So an unadjusted measure of nominal GDP would give us a false
reading: We might think output was racing ahead when in fact it was standing still.
To avoid such false readings, we adjust our measure of output for changing price levels. The yardstick of real
GDP does this by valuing output at constant prices. Thus changes in real GDP are a proxy for changes in the
number of grapefruits, houses, cars, items of clothing, movies, and everything else we produce in a year.
Economic activity in 2008 illustrates the distinction between real and nominal GDP. Nominal GDP increased
from $14.498 trillion in the second quarter of 2008 to $14.547 trillion in the third quarter, a rise of $49 billion.
But that increase in nominal GDP growth was due solely to rising prices. Real GDP fell by more than $90
billion: the quantity of output was falling. This decline in real GDP was what made people anxious about their
livelihoods (see the previous News Wire “Declining Output”).
Erratic Growth
Fortunately, declines in real GDP are more the exception than the rule. As Figure 10.2 illustrates, the annual rate
of real GDP growth between 1992 and 2000 was never less than 2.7 percent and got as high as 4.7 percent.
Those may not sound like big numbers. In a $18 trillion economy, however, even small growth rates imply a lot
of added output. Moreover, the GDP growth of those years exceeded the rate of expansion in production
possibilities. Hence the economy kept moving closer to the limits of its (expanding) production possibilities. In
the process, living standards rose, and nearly every job seeker could find work.
FIGURE 10.2
FIGURE 10.2 The Business Cycle in U.S. HistoryFrom 1929 to 2015, real GDP increased at an average rate of 3
percent a year. But annual growth rates have departed widely from that average. Years of aboveaverage growth
seem to alternate with years of sluggish growth and years in which total output actually declines. Such
recessions occurred in 1980, 1981–1982, 1990–1991, 2001, and again in 2008–2009.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis
The economy doesn't always perform so well. Take a closer look at Figure 10.2. The dashed horizontal line
across the middle of the chart illustrates the longterm average real GDP growth rate, at 3.0 percent a year. Then
notice how often the economy grew more slowly than that. Notice also the periodic economic busts when the
growth rate fell below zero and total output actually decreased from one year to the next, as in 2009. This
experience confirms that real GDP increases not in consistent, smooth increments but in a pattern of steps,
stumbles, and setbacks.
THE GREAT DEPRESSION The most prolonged setback occurred during the Great Depression. Between
1929 and 1933, total U.S. output steadily declined. Real GDP fell by nearly 30 percent in those four years.
Industrial output declined even further, as investments in new plants and equipment virtually ceased. Economies
around the world came to a grinding halt (see the following News Wire “Worldwide Losses”).
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The U.S. economy started to grow again in 1934, but the rate of expansion was modest. Millions of people
remained out of work. In 1937–1938 the situation worsened again, and total output once more declined. As a
consequence, the rate of total output in 1939 was virtually identical to that in 1929. Because of continuing
population growth, GDP per capita was actually lower in 1939 than it had been in 1929. American families
had a lower standard of living in 1939 than they had enjoyed 10 years earlier. That had never happened before.
WORLD WAR II World War II greatly increased the demand for goods and services and ended the Great
Depression. During the war years, output grew at unprecedented rates—almost 19 percent in a single year
(1942). Virtually everyone was employed, either in the armed forces or in the factories. Throughout the war, our
productive capacity was strained to the limit.
Recessions vary in length and magnitude. A deep and prolonged recession is called a depression.
Rogers © 1990 Pittsburgh Post–Gazette. Reprinted by permission of Universal Uclick for UFS. All rights
reserved
RECENT RECESSIONS After World War II the U.S. economy resumed a pattern of alternating growth and
contraction. The contracting periods are called recessions. Specifically, the term recession refers to a decline in
real GDP that continues for at least two successive calendar quarters. As Table 10.1 indicates, there have been
12 recessions since 1944. The most severe recession occurred immediately after World War II ended, when
sudden cutbacks in defense production caused sharp declines in output. That first postwar recession lasted only
eight months, however, and raised the rate of unemployment to just 5.2 percent. By contrast, the recession of
1981–1982 was much longer (16 months) and pushed the national unemployment rate to 10.8 percent. That was
the highest unemployment rate since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The recession of 2008–2009 again
pushed the unemployment rate up to 10 percent.
TABLE 10.1
TABLE 10.1 Business Slumps, 1929–2009
The U.S. economy has experienced 14 business slumps since 1929. None of the post–World War II recessions
came close to the severity of the Great Depression of the 1930s. Recent slumps have averaged 10 months in
length (versus 10 years for the 1930s depression).
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NEWS WIRE WORLDWIDE LOSSES
Depression Slams World Economies
The Great Depression was not confined to the U.S. economy. Most other countries suffered substantial losses of
output and employment over a period of many years. Between 1929 and 1932, industrial production around the
world fell 37 percent. The United States and Germany suffered the largest losses, while Spain and the
Scandinavian countries lost only modest amounts of output. For specific countries, the decline in output is
shown in the accompanying table.
Some countries escaped the ravages of the Great Depression altogether. The Soviet Union, largely insulated
from Western economic structures, was in the midst of Stalin's forced industrialization drive during the 1930s.
China and Japan were also relatively isolated from world trade and finance and so suffered less damage from the
depression.
NOTE: Trade and financial links make countries interdependent. When one economy falls into a recession,
other economies may suffer as well.
UNEMPLOYMENT
Although the primary measure of the economy's health is the real GDP growth rate, that measure is a bit
impersonal. People, not just output, suffer in recessions. When output declines, jobs are eliminated. In the 2008–
2009 recession over 8 million American workers lost their jobs. Other wouldbe workers—including graduating
students—had great difficulty finding jobs. These are the human dimensions of a recession.
The Labor Force
Our concern about the human side of recession doesn't mean that we believe everyone should have a job. We do,
however, strive to ensure that jobs are available for all individuals who want to work. This requires us to
distinguish the general population from the smaller number of individuals who are ready and willing to work—
that is, those who are in the labor force. The labor force consists of everyone over the age of 16 who is
actually working plus all those who are not working but are actively seeking employment. As Figure 10.3
shows, only about half of the population participates in the labor market. The rest of the population
(nonparticipants) are too young, in school, retired, sick or disabled, institutionalized, or taking care of household
needs.
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FIGURE 10.3
FIGURE 10.3 The U.S. Labor ForceOnly half of the total U.S. population participates in the civilian labor force.
The rest of the population is too young, in school, at home, retired, or otherwise unavailable. Unemployment
statistics count only those participants who are not currently working and who are actively seeking paid
employment. Nonparticipants are neither employed nor actively seeking employment.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor and U.S. Bureau of Census (2014 data)
Note that our definition of labor force participation excludes most household and volunteer activities. A woman
who chooses to devote her energies to household responsibilities or to unpaid charity work is not counted as part
of the labor force, no matter how hard she works. Because she is neither in paid employment nor seeking such
employment in the marketplace, she is regarded as outside the labor market (a nonparticipant). But if she decides
to seek a paid job outside the home and engages in an active job search, we would say that she is “entering the
labor force.” Students, too, are typically out of the labor force until they leave school and actively look for work,
either during summer vacations or after graduation.
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The Unemployment Rate
To assess how well labor force participants are faring in the macro economy, we compute the unemployment
rate as follows:
To be counted as unemployed, a person must be both jobless and actively looking for work. A fulltime student,
for example, may be jobless but would not be counted as unemployed. Likewise, a fulltime homemaker who is
not looking for paid employment outside the home would not be included in our measure of unemployment.
Figure 10.3 indicates that 9.6 million Americans were counted as unemployed in 2014. The civilian labor force
(excluding the armed forces) at that time included 156 million individuals. Accordingly, the civilian
unemployment rate was
As Figure 10.4 illustrates, the unemployment rate in 2014 was well below the peaks reached in the Great
Recession of 2008–2009. The unemployment rate continued to fall in 2015, as the economy expanded.
FIGURE 10.4
FIGURE 10.4 The Unemployment RecordUnemployment rates reached record heights during the Great
Depression. The postwar record is much better than the prewar record, even though full employment has been
infrequent.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor
As noted earlier, the unemployment rate is our second measure of the economy's health. It is often regarded as
an index of human misery. The people who lose their jobs in a recession experience not only a sudden loss of
income but also losses of security and selfconfidence. Extended periods of unemployment may undermine
families as well as finances. One study showed that every percentage increase in the unemployment rate causes
an additional 10,000 divorces. An unemployed person's health may suffer too. Thomas Cottle, a lecturer at
Harvard Medical School, stated the case more bluntly: “I'm now convinced that unemployment is the killer
disease in this country—responsible for wife beating, infertility, and even tooth decay.” The News Wire “Social
Costs of Job Loss” documents some of the symptoms on which such diagnoses are based.
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NEWS WIRE SOCIAL COSTS OF JOB LOSS
Source: Peter D. Hart Research Associates, “Unemployed in America: The Job Market, the Realities of
Unemployment, and the Impact of Unemployment Benefits.” Survey among 413 unemployed adults, conducted
April 17–28, 2003, commissioned by National Employment Law Project.
NOTE: The cost of unemployment goes beyond the implied loss of output. Unemployment may breed despair,
crime, ill health, and other social problems.
The Full Employment Goal
In view of the human misery caused by high unemployment rates, it might seem desirable to guarantee every
labor force participant a job. But things are never that simple. The macroeconomic doctors never propose to
eliminate unemployment. They instead prescribe a low, but not a zero, unemployment rate. They come to this
conclusion for several reasons.
SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT Seasonal variations in employment conditions are a persistent source of
unemployment. Some joblessness is inevitable as long as we continue to grow crops, build houses, go skiing, or
send holiday gifts (see the News Wire “Seasonal Unemployment”) during certain seasons of the year. At the end
of each of these seasons, thousands of workers must search for new jobs, experiencing some seasonal
unemployment in the process.
Seasonal fluctuations also arise on the supply side of the labor market. Teenage unemployment rates, for
example, rise sharply in the summer as students look for temporary jobs. To avoid such unemplyoment
completely, we would either have to keep everyone in school or ensure that all students go immediately from the
classroom to the workroom. Neither alternative is likely, much less desirable.
FRICTIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT There are other reasons for prescribing some amount of unemployment.
Many workers have sound financial or personal reasons for leaving one job to look for another. In the process of
moving from one job to another, a person may well miss a few days or even weeks of work without any serious
personal or social consequences. On the contrary, people who spend more time looking for work may find better
jobs.
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NEWS WIRE SEASONAL UNEMPLOYMENT
UPS to Hire up to 95,000 Seasonal Employees For Holiday Season
United Parcel Service Inc., the world's largest courier company, said it would hire 90,000 to 95,000 seasonal
employees ahead of an expected surge in package deliveries through the holiday shopping season. That's nearly
double the number hired in 2013 and wages will begin at $10 per hour.
The McGrawHill Companies, Inc./Andrew Resek, photographer
Source: “UPS To Hire Up to 95,000 Seasonal Employees For Holiday Season,” The Associated Press,
September 16, 2014. Copyright © 2014 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: Some jobs are inherently seasonal. What happens to these UPS workers after the Christmas rush?
The same is true of students first entering the labor market. It is not likely that you will find a job the moment
you leave school. Nor should you necessarily take the first job offered. If you spend some time looking for
work, you are more likely to find a job you like. The job search period gives you an opportunity to find out what
kinds of jobs are available, what skills they require, and what they pay. Accordingly, a brief period of job search
for persons entering the labor market may benefit both the individual involved and the larger economy. The
unemployment associated with this kind of job search is referred to as frictional unemployment.
STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT For many job seekers, the period between jobs may drag on for months
or even years because they do not have the skills that employers require. In the early 1980s, the steel and auto
industries downsized, eliminating over half a million jobs. The displaced workers had years of work experience.
But their specific skills were no longer in demand. They were structurally unemployed. The same fate befell
programmers and software engineers when the “dot.com” boom burst in 2000–2001, and then skilled craft
workers in the 2006–2008 housing contraction.
High school dropouts suffer similar structural problems. They simply don't have the skills that today's jobs
require. When such structural unemployment exists, more job creation alone won't necessarily reduce
unemployment. On the contrary, more job demand might simply push wages higher for skilled workers, leaving
unskilled workers unemployed.
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CYCLICAL UNEMPLOYMENT There is a fourth kind of unemployment that is more worrisome to the
macroeconomic doctors. Cyclical unemployment refers to the joblessness that occurs when there are simply not
enough jobs to go around. Cyclical unemployment exists when the number of workers demanded falls short of
the number of persons in the labor force. This is not a case of mobility between jobs (frictional unemployment)
or even of job seekers' skills (structural unemployment). Rather, it is simply an inadequate level of demand for
goods and services and thus for labor.
The Great Depression is the most striking example of cyclical unemployment. The dramatic increase in
unemployment rates that began in 1930 (see Figure 10.4) was not due to any increase in friction or sudden
decline in workers' skills. Instead the high rates of unemployment that persisted for a decade were due to a
sudden decline in the market demand for goods and services. How do we know? Just notice what happened to
our unemployment rate when the demand for military goods and services increased in 1941!
THE POLICY GOAL In later chapters we examine the causes of cyclical unemployment and explore some
potential policy responses. At this point, all we want to do is to set some goals for macro policy. We have seen
that zero unemployment is not an appropriate goal: Some seasonal, frictional, and structural unemployment
is both inevitable and desirable. But what, then, is a desirable level of low unemployment? If we want to assess
macro policy, we need to know what specific rate of unemployment to shoot for.
There is some disagreement about the level of unemployment that constitutes full employment. Most
macroeconomists agree, however, that the optimal unemployment rate lies somewhere between 4 and 6 percent.
INFLATION
When the unemployment rate falls to its full employment level, you might expect everyone to cheer. This rarely
happens, though. Indeed, when the jobless rate declines, a lot of macroeconomists start to fret. Too much of a
good thing, they worry, might cause some harm. The harm they fear is inflation.
The fear of inflation is based on the price pressures that accompany capacity production. When the economy
presses against its production possibilities, idle resources are hard to find. An imbalance between the demand
and supply of goods may cause prices to start rising. The resulting inflation may cause a whole new type of pain.
Even a low level of inflation pinches family pocketbooks, upsets financial markets, and ignites a storm of
political protest. Runaway inflations do even more harm; they crush whole economies and topple governments.
In Germany prices rose more than twentyfivefold in only one month during the hyperinflation of 1922–1923.
As the News Wire “Hyperinflation” describes, those runaway prices forced people to change their market
behavior radically. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1989, Russia also experienced price increases that
exceeded 2,000 percent a year. Such uncontrolled inflation sent consumers scrambling for goods that became
increasingly hard to find at “reasonable” prices. In 2009 prices rose an incomprehensible 231 million percent in
Zimbabwe. At the height of Zimbabwe's inflation, prices were rising by a factor of 10 per day. That means that a
Starbucks latte that cost $4 today would cost $40 tomorrow. Such runaway inflation caused an economic and
political crisis that shrank Zimbabwe's output by 30 percent. To avoid that kind of economic disruption, every
American president since Franklin Roosevelt has expressed a determination to keep prices from rising.
Relative versus Average Prices
Although most people worry about inflation, few understand it. Most people associate inflation with price
increases on specific goods and services. The economy is not necessarily experiencing inflation, however, every
time the price of a cup of coffee goes up. We must be careful to distinguish the phenomenon of inflation from
price increases for specific goods. Inflation is an increase in the average level of prices, not a change in any
specific price.
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NEWS WIRE HYPERINFLATION
Inflation and the Weimar Republic
At the beginning of 1921 in Germany, the costofliving index was 18 times higher than its 1913 prewar base,
while wholesale prices had mushroomed by 4,400 percent. Neither of these increases are negligible, but inflation
and war have always been bedfellows. Normally, however, war ends and inflation recedes. By the end of 1921, it
seemed that way; prices rose more modestly. Then, in 1922, inflation erupted.
Zenith of German Hyperinflation
Wholesale prices rose fortyfold, an increase nearly as large as during the prior eight years, while retail prices
rose even more rapidly. The hyperinflation reached its zenith during 1923. Between May and June 1923,
consumer prices more than quadrupled; between July and August, they rose more than 15 times; in the next
month, over 25 times; and between September and October, by 10 times the previous month's increase….
The German economy was thoroughly disrupted. Businessmen soon discovered the impossibility of rational
economic planning. Profits fell as employees demanded frequent wage adjustments. Workers were often paid
daily and sometimes two or three times a day, so that they could buy goods in the morning before the inevitable
afternoon price increase….
In an age that preceded the credit card, businessmen traveling around the country found themselves borrowing
funds from their customers each stage of the way. The cash they'd allocated for the entire trip barely sufficed to
pay the way to the next stop. Speculation began to dominate production.
As a result of the decline in profitability, the inability to plan ahead, and the concern with speculation rather than
production, unemployment rose, increasing by 600 percent between September 1 and December 15, 1923. And
as the hyperinflation intensified, people found goods unobtainable.
Hyperinflation crushed the middle class. Those thrifty Germans who had placed their savings in corporate or
government bonds saw their lifetime efforts come to naught. Debtors sought out creditors to pay them in
valueless currency.
—Jonas Prager
Source: The Wall Street Journal, Midwest edition, 1980. Used with permission of the author.
NOTE: When prices are rising quickly, people are forced to change their market behavior. Runaway inflation
can derail an economy.
Suppose you wanted to know the average price of fruit in the supermarket. Surely you would not have much
success in seeking out an average fruit—nobody would be quite sure what you had in mind. You might have
some success, however, if you sought the prices of apples, oranges, cherries, and peaches. Knowing the price of
each kind of fruit, you could then compute the average price of fruit. The resultant figure would not refer to any
particular product but would convey a sense of how much a typical basket of fruit might cost. By repeating these
calculations every day, you could then determine whether fruit prices, on average, were changing. On occasion,
you might even notice that apple prices rose while orange prices fell, leaving the average price of fruit
unchanged.
The same kinds of calculations are made to measure inflation in the entire economy. We first determine the
average price of all output—the average price level—then look for changes in that average. A rise in the average
price level is referred to as inflation.
The average price level may fall as well as rise. A decline in average prices—deflation—occurs when price
decreases on some goods and services outweigh price increases on all others. Although we have not experienced
any general deflation since 1940, general price declines were common in earlier periods.
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Because inflation and deflation are measured in terms of average price levels, it is possible for individual prices
to rise or fall continuously without changing the average price level. We already noted, for example, that the
price of apples can rise without increasing the average price of fruit, so long as the price of some other fruit
(e.g., oranges) falls. In such circumstances, relative prices are changing, but not average prices. An increase in
the relative price of apples, for example, simply means that apples have become more expensive in comparison
with other fruits (or any other goods or services).
Changes in relative prices may occur in a period of stable average prices or in periods of inflation or deflation.
In fact, in an economy as vast as ours—where literally millions of goods and services are exchanged in the
factor and product markets—relative prices are always changing. Indeed, relative price changes are an essential
ingredient of the market mechanism. If the relative price of apples increases, that is a signal to farmers that they
should grow more apples and fewer other fruits.
General inflation—an increase in the average price level—does not perform this same market function. If all
prices rise at the same rate, price increases for specific goods are of little value as market signals. In less extreme
cases, when most but not all prices are rising, changes in relative prices do occur but are not so immediately
apparent.
Redistributions
The distinction between relative and average prices helps us determine who is hurt by inflation—and who is
helped. Popular opinion notwithstanding, it is simply not true that everyone is worse off when prices rise.
Although inflation makes some people worse off, it makes other people better off. Some people even get rich
when prices rise! These redistributions of income and wealth occur because people buy different combinations
of goods and services, own different assets, and sell distinct goods or services (including labor). The impact of
inflation on individuals, therefore, depends on how the prices of the goods and services each person buys or sells
actually change. In this sense, inflation acts just like a tax, taking income or wealth from some people and
giving it to others. This “tax” is levied through changes in prices, changes in incomes, and changes in wealth.
PRICE EFFECTS Price changes are the most familiar of inflation's pains. If you have been paying tuition, you
know how the pain feels. In 1975 the average tuition at public colleges and universities was $400 per year. In
2015, instate tuition was $9,139 and still rising (see the News Wire “Price Effects”). At private universities,
tuition has increased eightfold in the last 10 years, to roughly $31,000. You don't need a whole course in
economics to figure out the implications of these tuition hikes. To stay in college, you (or your parents) must
forgo increasing amounts of other goods and services. You end up being worse off, because you cannot buy as
many goods and services as you were able to buy before tuition went up.
NEWS WIRE PRICE EFFECTS
College Tuition in the U.S. Again Rises Faster Than Inflation
Nov. 13 (Bloomberg)—College prices in the U.S. have again increased faster than the rate of inflation,
extending a decadeslong pattern of highereducation costs.
Tuition and fees at private nonprofit colleges climbed 3.7 percent on average to $31,231 this academic year,
according to a report today by the College Board. For instate residents at fouryear public schools, costs rose
2.9 percent to $9,139. Inflation, measured by the personal consumption expenditures index, rose 1.4 percent in
the year through September.
—Janet Lorin
Source: Lorin, Janet. “College Tuition in the U.S. Again Rises Faster Than Inflation,” Bloomberg.com,
November 12, 2014. Copyright © 2014 Bloomberg L.P. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: An increase in tuition reduces the real income of college students, forcing them to reduce spending on
other goods and services.
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The effect of tuition increases on your economic welfare is reflected in the distinction between nominal income
and real income. Nominal income is the amount of money you receive in a particular time period; it is measured
in current dollars. Real income, by contrast, is the purchasing power of that money, as measured by the quantity
of goods and services your dollars will buy. If the number of dollars you receive every year is always the same,
your nominal income doesn't change, but your real income will fall if prices increase.
Suppose you have an income of $6,000 a year while you're in school. Out of that $6,000 you must pay for your
tuition, room and board, books, and everything else. The budget for your first year at school might look like this:
After paying for all your essential expenses, you have $700 to spend on “everything else”—the clothes,
entertainment, or whatever else you want.
Now suppose tuition increases to $3,500 in your second year, while all other prices remain the same. What will
happen to your nominal income? Nothing. You're still getting $6,000 a year. Your real income, however, will
suffer. This is evident in the second year's budget:
You now have to use more of your income to pay tuition. This means you have less income to spend on other
things. After paying for room and board, books, and the increased tuition, only $200 is left for everything else.
That means fewer pizzas, movies, dates, or anything else you'd like to buy. The pain of higher tuition will soon
be evident; your nominal income hasn't changed, but your real income has.
There are two basic lessons about inflation to be learned from this sad story:
Not all prices rise at the same rate during inflation. In our example, tuition increased substantially while
other prices remained steady. Hence the “average” rate of price increase was not representative of any
particular good or service. Typically some prices rise rapidly, others rise only modestly, and some may
actually fall. Table 10.2 illustrates some recent variations in price changes. In 2014 average prices rose by
1.66 percent. But the average rate of inflation disguised very steep price hikes for eggs, oranges, hot dogs,
college tuition, and textbooks (sorry!).
Not everyone suffers equally from inflation. This follows from our first observation. Those people who
consume the goods and services that are rising faster in price bear a greater burden of inflation; their real
incomes fall more. In 2014 people who ate oranges and eggs for breakfast were hurt badly by changing
food prices. People who preferred a diet of apples and coffee scored real gains from falling prices. By
contrast, students got ripped by rising tuition and textbook prices.
TABLE 10.2
TABLE 10.2 Not All Prices Rise at the Same Rate
The average rate of inflation conceals substantial differences in the price changes of specific goods and services.
The impact of inflation on individuals depends in part on which goods and services are consumed. People who
buy goods whose prices are rising fastest lose more real income. In 2014 college students were particularly hard
hit by inflation.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
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We conclude, then, that the price increases associated with inflation redistribute real income. In the example
we have discussed, college students end up with fewer goods and services than they had before. Other
consumers can continue to purchase at least as many goods as before, perhaps even more. Thus output is
effectively redistributed from college students to others. Naturally, most college students aren't happy with this
outcome. Fortunately for you, inflation doesn't always work out this way.
INCOME EFFECTS The redistributive effects of inflation are not limited to changes in prices. Changes in
prices automatically influence nominal incomes also.
If the price of tuition does in fact rise faster than all other prices, we can safely make three predictions:
The real income of college students will fall relative to that of nonstudents (assuming constant nominal
incomes).
The real income of nonstudents will rise relative to that of students (assuming constant nominal incomes).
The nominal income of colleges and universities will rise.
This last prediction simply reminds us that someone always pockets higher prices. What looks like a price to a
buyer looks like income to a seller. If students all pay higher tuition, the university will take in more income. It
will end up being able to buy more goods and services (including faculty, buildings, and library books) after the
price increase than it could before. Both its nominal income and its real income have risen.
Not everyone gets more nominal income when prices rise. But you may be surprised to learn that on average
people's incomes do keep pace with inflation. Again, this is a direct consequence of the circular flow: What one
person pays out, someone else takes in. If prices are rising, incomes must be rising, too. Notice in Figure 10.5
that nominal wages have pretty much risen in step with prices. As a result, real wages have been fairly stable.
From this perspective, it makes no sense to say that “inflation hurts everybody.” On average, at least, we are no
worse off when prices rise, because our (average) incomes increase at the same time.
FIGURE 10.5
FIGURE 10.5 Nominal Wages and PricesInflation implies not only higher prices but higher wages as well. What
is a price to one person is income to someone else. Hence inflation cannot make everyone worse off. This graph
confirms that average hourly wages have risen along with average prices. When nominal wages rise faster than
prices, real wages are increasing. Higher real wages reflect higher productivity (more output per worker).
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
No one is exactly “average,” of course. In reality, some people's incomes rise faster than inflation while others'
increase more slowly. Hence the redistributive effects of inflation also originate in varying rates of growth in
nominal income.
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WEALTH EFFECTS The same kind of redistribution occurs between those who hold some form of wealth and
those who do not. Suppose that on January 1 you deposit $100 in a savings account, where it earns 5 percent
interest until you withdraw it on December 31. At the end of the year you will have more nominal wealth ($105)
than you started with ($100). But what if all prices have doubled in the meantime? At the end of the year, your
accumulated savings ($105) buy less than they would have at the start of the year. In other words, inflation in
this case reduces the real value of your savings. You end up with fewer goods and services than those
individuals who spent all their income earlier in the year! Table 10.3 shows how even modest rates of inflation
alter the real value of money hidden under the mattress for 10 years. German households saw the value of their
savings approach zero when hyperinflation set in (see the News Wire “Hyperinflation”).
TABLE 10.3
TABLE 10.3 Inflation's Impact, 2016–2026
In the 1990s, the U.S. rate of inflation ranged from a low of 1.6 percent to a high of 6.1 percent. Does a range of
4–5 percentage points really make much difference? One way to find out is to see how a specific sum of money
will shrink in real value.
Here's what would happen to the real value of $1,000 from January 1, 2016, to January 1, 2026, at different
inflation rates. At 2 percent inflation, $1,000 held for 10 years would be worth $820. At 10 percent inflation that
same $1,000 would buy only $386 worth of goods in the year 2026.
Table 10.4 shows how the value of various assets actually changed in the 1990s. Between 1991 and 2001, the
average price level rose by 32 percent. The price of stocks increased much faster, however, while the price of
gold fell. Hence people who held their wealth in the form of stocks rather than gold came out far ahead. The
nominal values of bonds and silver rose as well, but their real value fell.
TABLE 10.4
TABLE 10.4 The Real Story of Wealth
As the value of various assets changes, so does a person's wealth. Between 1991 and 2001, prices rose an
average of 32 percent. But the prices of stocks, diamonds, and oil rose even faster. People who held these assets
gained in real (inflationadjusted) wealth. Home prices also rose more than average prices. Hence the real value
of homes also increased in the 1990s. Investors in silver, bonds, and gold did not fare as well.
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ROBIN HOOD? By altering relative prices, incomes, and the real value of wealth, then, inflation turns out to
be a mechanism for redistributing incomes. The redistributive mechanics of inflation include
Price effects. People who prefer goods and services that are increasing in price are the slowest to end up
with a larger share of real income.
Income effects. People whose nominal incomes rise faster than the rate of inflation end up with a larger
share of total income.
Wealth effects. People who own assets that are increasing in real value end up better off than others.
On the other hand, people whose nominal incomes do not keep pace with inflation end up with smaller shares of
total output. The same thing is true of those who enjoy goods that are rising fastest in price or who hold assets
that are declining in real value. In this sense, inflation acts like a tax, taking income or wealth from one group
and giving it to another. But we have no assurance that this particular tax will behave like Robin Hood, taking
from the rich and giving to the poor. It may do just the opposite. Not knowing who will win or lose the inflation
sweepstakes may make everyone fear rising price levels.
Uncertainty
The uncertainties of inflation may also cause people to change their consumption, saving, or investment
behavior. When average prices are changing rapidly, economic decisions become increasingly difficult. Should
you commit yourself to four years of college, for example, if you are not certain that you or your parents will be
able to afford the full costs? In a period of stable prices you can at least be fairly certain of what a college
education will cost over a period of years. But if prices are rising, you can no longer be sure how large the bill
will be. Under such circumstances, many individuals may decide not to enter college rather than risk the
possibility of being driven out later by rising costs. In extreme cases, fear of rapidly increasing prices may even
deter diners from ordering a meal (see cartoon).
Fear of rising prices may alter production, consumption, and investment behavior.
From The Wall Street Journal, permission by Cartoon Features Syndicate
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The uncertainties created by changing price levels affect production decisions as well. Imagine a firm that is
considering building a new factory. Typically the construction of a factory takes two years or more, including
planning, site selection, and actual construction. If construction costs change rapidly, the firm may find that it is
unable to complete the factory or to operate it profitably. Confronted with this added uncertainty, the firm may
decide to do without a new plant or at least to postpone its construction until a period of stable prices returns.
Measuring Inflation
Given the pain associated with inflation, it's no wonder that inflation rates are a basic barometer of
macroeconomic health. To gauge that dimension of wellbeing, the government computes several price indexes.
Of these indexes, the consumer price index (CPI) is the most familiar. As its name suggests, the CPI is a
mechanism for measuring changes in the average price of consumer goods and services. It is analogous to the
fruit price index we discussed earlier. The CPI refers not to the price of any particular good but, rather, to the
average price of all consumer goods.
By itself, the “average price” of consumer goods is not a useful number. Once we know the average price of
consumer goods, however, we can observe whether that average rises—that is, whether inflation is occurring.
By observing how prices change, we can calculate the inflation rate—that is, the annual percentage increase in
the average price level.
To compute the CPI, the Bureau of Labor Statistics periodically surveys families to determine what goods and
services consumers actually buy. The Bureau of Labor Statistics then goes shopping in various cities across the
country, recording the prices of 184 items that make up the typical market basket. This shopping survey is
undertaken every month, in 85 areas and at a variety of stores in each area.
As a result of its surveys, the Bureau of Labor Statistics can tell us what's happening to consumer prices.
Suppose, for example, that the market basket cost $100 last year and that the same basket of goods and services
cost $110 this year. On the basis of those two shopping trips, we could conclude that consumer prices had risen
by 10 percent in one year—that is, that the rate of inflation was 10 percent.
In practice, the CPI is usually expressed in terms of what the market basket cost in 1982–1984. For example, the
CPI stood at 237 in January 2016. In other words, it cost $237 in 2016 to buy the same market basket that cost
only $100 in the base period (1982–1984). Thus prices had more than doubled, on average, over that period.
Each month the Bureau of Labor Statistics updates the CPI, telling us the current cost of that same market
basket.
The Price Stability Goal
In view of the inequities, anxieties, and real losses caused by inflation, it is not surprising that price stability is a
major goal of economic policy. As we observed at the beginning of this chapter, every American president since
Franklin Roosevelt has decreed price stability to be a foremost policy goal. Unfortunately, few presidents (or
their advisers) have stated exactly what they mean by price stability. Do they mean no change in the average
price level? Or is some upward creep in the CPI consistent with the notion of price stability?
THE POLICY GOAL An explicit numerical goal for price stability was established for the first time in the
Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978. According to that act, the goal of economic policy is to
hold the rate of inflation at under 3 percent.
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Why did Congress choose 3 percent inflation rather than zero inflation as the benchmark for price stability? Two
considerations were important. First, Congress recognized that efforts to maintain absolutely stable prices (zero
inflation) might threaten full employment. Recall that our goal of full employment is defined as the lowest rate
of unemployment consistent with stable prices. The same kind of thinking is apparent here. The amount of
inflation regarded as tolerable depends in part on how antiinflation strategies affect unemployment. If policies
that promise zero inflation raise unemployment rates too high, people may prefer to accept a little inflation.
After reviewing our experiences with both unemployment and inflation, Congress concluded that 3 percent
inflation was a safe target.
QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS The second argument for setting our price stability goal above zero inflation
relates to our measurement capabilities. Although the consumer price index is very thorough, it is not a perfect
measure of inflation. In essence, the CPI simply monitors the price of specific goods over time. Over time,
however, the goods themselves change, too. Old products become better as a result of quality improvements. A
television set costs more today than it did in 1955, but today's TV also delivers a bigger, clearer picture—in
digital images, stereo sound, and even 3D. Hence increases in the price of television sets tend to exaggerate the
true rate of inflation: Part of the higher price represents more product.
The same kind of quality changes distort our view of how car prices have changed. Since 1958 the average price
of a new car has risen from $2,867 to roughly $20,000. But today's cars aren't really comparable to those of
1958. Since that time, the quality of cars has been improved with electronic ignitions, emergency flashers, rear
window defrosters, crashresistant bodies, air bags, antilock brakes, remotecontrol mirrors, seat belts, variable
speed windshield wipers, radial tires, a doubling of fuel mileage, and a hundredfold decrease in exhaust
pollutants. Accordingly, the sixfold increase in average car prices since 1958 greatly overstates the true rate of
inflation.
NEW PRODUCTS The problem of measuring quality improvements is even more apparent in the case of new
products. The smartphones most people have today did not exist when the Census Bureau conducted its 1982–
1984 survey of consumer expenditures. The 2015 survey did include smartphones, but it couldn't fully capture
the effects of their changing features. The same thing is happening now: New products and continuing quality
improvements are enriching our consumption, even though they are not reflected in the CPI. Hence there is a
significant (though unmeasured) element of error in the CPI insofar as it is intended to gauge changes in the
average prices paid by consumers. The goal of 3 percent inflation allows for such errors.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Is Another Recession Coming?
The simple answer to the above question is yes. There have been at least 47 recessions in the United States since
1790, 12 of them since 1944. So if history is any guide, we should expect to experience another recession.
But recessions don't occur on a regular schedule. Nor are they all equally severe. Recessions are like
earthquakes: We know they will happen again but don't know exactly when, much less how severe the next one
will be. Scientists (seismologists) who study the causes, magnitude, and timing of earthquakes have given us
great insights into that natural phenomenon. But seismologists still aren't able to predict exactly when or where
the next quake will erupt.
So it is with the economics profession. Economists have studied the origins, the magnitude, and the timing of
past recessions. They have isolated a variety of factors (e.g., financial crises, natural disasters) that cause
production to decline. And we know a lot about how production cutbacks spread from one industry to another,
just like the flu. We even have a pretty good idea about how to contain and ultimately end recessions, as we'll
see in later chapters. But we still don't know how to avoid them completely. The next one will probably surprise
us.
Although recessions may be inevitable, the challenge for economic policy is to postpone, mitigate, and bring a
quick end to future recessions. When we talk about business cycles, we are simply recognizing the inevitability
of future downturns. We are not suggesting that they will occur on a set schedule or with consistent force. On the
contrary, we continue to develop policy tools for taming the business cycle, even if we can't eliminate it. Our
experience since the Great Depression of the 1930s suggests we are making progress in that regard.
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SUMMARY
The health of the macro economy is gauged by three measures: real GDP growth, the unemployment rate,
and the inflation rate. LO1
The longterm growth rate of the U.S. economy is 3 percent a year. But output doesn't increase by 3
percent every year. In some years real GDP grows faster; in other years growth is slower. Sometimes total
output actually declines (recession). LO5
These shortrun variations in GDP growth are the focus of macroeconomics. Macro theory tries to explain
the alternating periods of growth and contraction that characterize the business cycle; macro policy
attempts to control the cycle. LO1
To understand unemployment, we need to distinguish the labor force from the larger population. Only
people who are working (employed) or spend some time looking for a job (unemployed) are participants
in the labor force. People who are neither working nor looking for work are outside the labor force. LO2
The most visible loss imposed by unemployment is reduced output of goods and services. Those
individuals actually out of work suffer lost income, heightened insecurity, and even reduced longevity.
LO2
There are four types of unemployment: seasonal, frictional, structural, and cyclical. Because some
seasonal and frictional unemployment is inevitable, and even desirable, full employment is not defined as
zero unemployment. These considerations, plus fear of inflation, result in full employment being defined
as an unemployment rate of 4–6 percent. LO4
Inflation is an increase in the average price level. Typically it is measured by changes in a price index
such as the consumer price index (CPI). LO3
Inflation redistributes income by altering relative prices, incomes, and wealth. Because not all prices rise
at the same rate and because not all people buy (and sell) the same goods or hold the same assets, inflation
does not affect everyone equally. Some individuals actually gain from inflation, whereas others suffer a
drop in real income. LO3
Inflation threatens to reduce total output because it increases uncertainties about the future and thereby
inhibits consumption and production decisions. LO3
The U.S. goal of price stability is defined as an inflation rate of less than 3 percent per year. This goal
recognizes potential conflicts between zero inflation and full employment, as well as the difficulties of
measuring quality improvements and new products. LO4
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
macroeconomics
business cycle
production possibilities
gross domestic product (GDP)
nominal GDP
real GDP
recession
labor force
unemployment rate
unemployment
full employment
inflation
deflation
relative price
nominal income
real income
consumer price index (CPI)
inflation rate
price stability
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. If smartphone sales are increasing but automobile |sales are declining, is the economy growing or
contracting? LO1
2. Could we ever achieve an unemployment rate below full employment? What problems might we
encounter if we did? LO2
3. Have you ever had difficulty finding a job? Why didn't you get one right away? What kind of
unemployment did you experience? LO2
4. Why might inflation accelerate as the unemployment rate declines? LO4
5. During the period shown in Table 10.4, what happened to the wealth of people holding hordes of silver?
LO3
6. According to Table 10.2, what happened to the average price of fruit in 2014? LO3
7. According to Table 10.2, how might the diet of the average consumer have been altered by relative price
changes in 2014? LO3
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8. Which of the following people would we expect to be hurt by an increase in the rate of inflation from 3
percent to 6 percent? LO3
1. A homeowner
2. A retired person
3. An automobile worker
4. A bond investor
9. Would it be advantageous to borrow money if you expected prices to rise? Why or why not? LO3
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why did the Great Depression last so long? What happened to all the jobs?
LO5
PROBLEMS
1. How much more output will the average American have next year if the $18 trillion U.S. economy grows
by LO1
1. 2 percent?
2. 5 percent?
3. −1.0 percent?
Assume a population of 320 million.
2. Suppose the following data describe a nation's population: LO2
1. What is the unemployment rate in each year?
2. Has the economy experienced an increase or a decrease in
1. The number of unemployed persons?
2. The unemployment rate?
3. If the average worker produces $100,000 of GDP, by how much will GDP increase if there are 150 million
labor force participants and the unemployment rate drops from 6.0 to 5.5 percent? LO1, LO2
4. In 2014–2015, by what percentage did (a) the nominal price and (b) the real price of tuition at private
colleges increase (see the News Wire “Price Effects”)? LO3
5. Nominal GDP increased from roughly $10 trillion in 2000 to $16 trillion in 2012. In the same period
prices rose on average by roughly 30 percent. By how much did real GDP increase? LO3
6. What will the real value of $100 be in 10 years if you hide the money under your mattress and the
inflation rate is: LO3
1. 0%
2. 2%
3. 8%
(Hint: Table 10.3 provides clues.)
7. According to the following data, LO3
1. By what percentage did nominal wages increase between 2000 and 2015?
2. By what percentage did real wages increase?
8. In Zimbabwe the rate of inflation hit 90 sextillion percent in 2009, with prices increasing tenfold every
day. At that rate, how much would a $100 textbook cost one week later? LO3
9. The following table lists the prices of a small market basket purchased in both 2005 and 2015. Assuming
that this basket of goods is representative of all goods and services, LO3
1. Compute the cost of the market basket in 2005.
2. Compute the cost of the market basket in 2015.
3. By how much has the average price level risen between 2005 and 2015?
4. The average household's nominal income increased from $40,000 to $60,000 between 2005 and
2015. What happened to its real income?
10. According to the information in Table 10.2, which product had (a) the largest price increase in 2014? (b)
the biggest price decline in 2014? LO3
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Since 1940,
1. when did the longest recession begin?
2. when did the shortest recession begin?
3. When did the recession with the highest unemployment rate begin?
4. when did the recession with the biggest decline in output begin?
(See Table 10.1.) LO5
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Source: © Flat Earth Images, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Cite the major macro outcomes and their determinants.
2. 2 Explain how classical and Keynesian macro views differ.
3. 3 Interpret the shapes of the aggregate demand and supply curves.
4. 4 Tell how macro failure occurs.
5. 5 Outline the major policy options for macro government intervention.
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R
ecurrent recessions, unemployment, and inflation indicate that the economy isn't always in perfect health. Now
it's time to start thinking about causes and cures. Why does the economy slip into recession? What causes
unemployment or inflation rates to flare up? And what, if anything, can the government do to cure these
ailments?
The central focus of macroeconomics is on these questions—that is, what causes business cycles and what, if
anything, the government can do about them. Can government intervention prevent or correct market excesses?
Or is government intervention likely to make things worse?
To answer these questions, we need a model of how the economy works. The model must show how the various
pieces of the economy interact. The model must not only show how the macro economy works but also pinpoint
potential causes of macro failure.
To develop such a macro model, some basic questions must be answered:
What are the major determinants of macro outcomes?
How do the forces of supply and demand fit into the macro picture?
Why are there disagreements about causes and cures of macro ailments?
Answers to these questions will go a long way toward explaining the continuing debates about the causes of
business cycles. A macro model can also be used to identify policy options for government intervention. ■
A MACRO VIEW
Macro Outcomes
Figure 11.1 provides a bird'seye view of the macro economy. The primary outcomes of the macro economy are
arrayed on the right side of the figure. These basic macro outcomes include
Output: Total volume of goods and services produced (real GDP).
Jobs: Levels of employment and unemployment.
Prices: Average prices of goods and services.
Growth: Yeartoyear expansion in production capacity.
International balances: International value of the dollar; trade and payments balances with other
countries.
FIGURE 11.1
FIGURE 11.1 The Macro EconomyThe primary outcomes of the macro economy are output of goods and
services, jobs, prices, economic growth, and international balances (trade, currency). These outcomes result
from the interplay of internal market forces (e.g., population growth, innovation, spending patterns), external
shocks (e.g., wars, weather, trade disruptions), and policy levers (e.g., tax and budget decisions).
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These macro outcomes define our nation's economic welfare. As observed in Chapter 10, we gauge the health of
the macro economy by its real GDP (output) growth, unemployment (jobs), and inflation (prices). To this list we
now add an international measure—the balances in our trade and financial relations with the rest of the world.
Macro Determinants
Figure 11.1 also provides an overview of the separate forces that affect macro outcomes. Three broad forces are
depicted. These determinants of macro performance include
Internal market forces: Population growth, spending behavior, invention and innovation, and the like.
External shocks: Wars, natural disasters, terrorist attacks, trade disruptions, and so on.
Policy levers: Tax policy, government spending, changes in interest rates, credit availability and money,
trade policy, immigration policy, and regulation.
In the absence of external shocks or government policy, an economy would still function—it would still produce
output, create jobs, establish prices, and maybe even grow. The U.S. economy operated this way for much of its
history. Even today, many less developed countries and areas operate in relative isolation from government and
international events. In these situations, macro outcomes depend exclusively on internal market forces.
STABLE OR UNSTABLE?
The central concern of macroeconomic theory is whether the internal forces of the marketplace will generate
desired outcomes. Will the market mechanism assure us full employment? Will the market itself maintain price
stability? Or will the market fail, subjecting us to recurring bouts of unemployment, inflation, and declining
output?
Classical Theory
Prior to the 1930s, macro economists thought there could never be a Great Depression. The economic thinkers
of the time asserted that the economy was inherently stable. During the nineteenth century and the first 30 years
of the twentieth century, the U.S. economy had experienced some bad years—years in which the nation's output
declined and unemployment increased. But most of these episodes were relatively shortlived. The dominant
feature of the industrial era was growth—an expanding economy, with more output, more jobs, and higher
incomes nearly every year.
SELFADJUSTMENT In this environment, classical economists, as they later became known, propounded an
optimistic view of the macro economy. According to the classical view, the economy selfadjusts to deviations
from its longterm growth trend. Producers might occasionally reduce their output and throw people out of
work. But these dislocations would cause little damage. If output declined and people lost their jobs, the internal
forces of the marketplace would quickly restore prosperity. Economic downturns were viewed as temporary
setbacks, not permanent problems.
FLEXIBLE PRICES The cornerstones of classical optimism were flexible prices and flexible wages. If
producers were unable to sell all their output at current prices, they had two choices. They could reduce the rate
of output and throw some people out of work. Or they could reduce the price of their output, thereby stimulating
an increase in the quantity demanded. According to the law of demand, price reductions cause an increase in
unit sales. If prices fall far enough, all the output produced can be sold. Thus flexible prices—prices that would
drop when consumer demand slowed—virtually guaranteed that all output could be sold. No one would have to
lose a job because of weak consumer demand.
FLEXIBLE WAGES Flexible prices had their counterpart in factor markets. If some workers were temporarily
out of work, they would compete for jobs by offering their services at lower wages. As wage rates declined,
producers would find it profitable to hire more workers. Ultimately, flexible wages would ensure that everyone
who wanted a job would have a job.
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SAY'S LAW These optimistic views of the macro economy were summarized in Say's Law. Say's Law—named
after the nineteenthcentury economist JeanBaptiste Say—decreed that “supply creates its own demand.” In
Say's view, if you produce something, somebody will buy it. All you have to do is find the right price. In this
classical view of the world, unsold goods could appear in the market. But they would ultimately be sold when
buyers and sellers found an acceptable price.
The same selfadjustment was expected in the labor market. Sure, some people could lose jobs, especially when
output growth slowed. But they could find new jobs if they were willing to accept lower wages. With enough
wage flexibility, no one would remain unemployed.
There could be no Great Depression—no protracted macro failure—in this classical view of the world. Indeed,
internal market forces (e.g., flexible prices and wages) could even provide an automatic adjustment to external
shocks (e.g., wars, droughts, trade disruptions) that threatened to destabilize the economy. The classical
economists saw no need for the box labeled “policy levers” in Figure 11.1; government intervention in the
(selfadjusting) macro economy was unnecessary.
The Great Depression was a stunning blow to classical economists. At the onset of the depression, classical
economists assured everyone that the setbacks in production and employment were temporary and would soon
vanish. Andrew Mellon, secretary of the U.S. Treasury, expressed this optimistic view in January 1930, just a
few months after the stock market crash. Assessing the prospects for the year ahead, he said, “I see nothing … in
the present situation that is either menacing or warrants pessimism … I have every confidence that there will be
a revival of activity in the spring and that during the coming year the country will make steady progress.”1
Merrill Lynch, one of the nation's largest brokerage houses, was urging people to buy stocks. But the depression
deepened. Indeed, unemployment grew and persisted despite falling prices and wages (see Figure 11.2). The
classical selfadjustment mechanism simply did not work.
FIGURE 11.2
FIGURE 11.2 Inflation and Unemployment, 1900–1940In the early twentieth century, prices responded to both
upward and downward changes in aggregate demand. Periods of high unemployment also tended to be brief. In
the 1930s, however, unemployment rates rose to unprecedented heights and stayed high for a decade. Falling
wages and prices did not restore full employment. This macro failure prompted calls for new theories and
policies to control the business cycle.
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, 1957.
The Keynesian Revolution
The Great Depression destroyed the credibility of classical economic theory. As John Maynard Keynes wrote in
1935, classical economists
were apparently unmoved by the lack of correspondence between the results of their theory and the facts of
observation:—a discrepancy which the ordinary man has not failed to observe….
The celebrated optimism of [classical] economic theory … is … to be traced, I think, to their having neglected to
take account of the drag on prosperity which can be exercised by an insufficiency of effective demand. For there
would obviously be a natural tendency towards the optimum employment of resources in a Society which was
functioning after the manner of the classical postulates. It may well be that the classical theory represents the
way in which we should like our Economy to behave. But to assume that it actually does so is to assume our
difficulties away.2
NO SELFADJUSTMENT Keynes went on to develop an alternative view of the macro economy. Whereas the
classical economists viewed the economy as inherently stable, Keynes asserted that the private economy was
inherently unstable. Small disturbances in output, prices, or unemployment were likely to be magnified, not
muted, by the invisible hand of the marketplace. The Great Depression was not a unique event, Keynes argued,
but a calamity that would recur if we relied on the market mechanism to selfadjust. Macro failure was the rule,
not the exception, for a purely private economy.
In Keynes's view, the inherent instability of the marketplace required government intervention. When the
economy falters, we cannot afford to wait for some assumed selfadjustment mechanism. We must instead
intervene to protect jobs and income. Keynes concluded that policy levers (see Figure 11.1) were both effective
and necessary. Without such intervention, he believed, the economy was doomed to bouts of repeated macro
failure.
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Modern economists hesitate to give policy intervention that great a role. Nearly all economists recognize that
policy intervention affects macro outcomes. But there are great arguments about just how effective any policy
lever is. A vocal minority of economists even echoes the classical notion that policy intervention may be either
ineffective or, worse still, inherently destabilizing.
1 David A. Shannon, The Great Depression (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1960), p. 4.
2 John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (London: Macmillan, 1936),
pp. 33–34.
THE AGGREGATE SUPPLY–DEMAND MODEL
These persistent debates can best be understood in the familiar framework of supply and demand—the most
commonly used tools in an economist's toolbox. All of the macro outcomes depicted in Figure 11.1 are the result
of market transactions—an interaction between supply and demand. Hence any influence on macro outcomes
must be transmitted through supply or demand. In other words, if the forces depicted on the left side of Figure
11.1 affect neither supply nor demand, they will have no impact on macro outcomes. This makes our job easier.
We can resolve the question about macro stability by focusing on the forces that shape supply and demand in the
macro economy.
Aggregate Demand
Economists use the term “aggregate demand” to refer to the collective behavior of all buyers in the marketplace.
Specifically, aggregate demand refers to the various quantities of output that all market participants are willing
and able to buy at alternative price levels in a given period. Our view here encompasses the collective demand
for all goods and services rather than the demand for any single good.
To understand the concept of aggregate demand better, imagine that everyone is paid on the same day. With their
income in hand, people then enter the product market. The question is, How much will people buy?
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To answer this question, we have to know something about prices. If goods and services are cheap, people will
be able to buy more with their given income. On the other hand, high prices will limit both the ability and
willingness of people to purchase goods and services. Note that we are talking here about the average price
level, not the price of any single good.
REAL GDP (OUTPUT) This simple relationship between average prices and real spending is illustrated in
Figure 11.3. On the horizontal axis we depict the various quantities of output that might be purchased. We are
referring here to real GDP, an inflationadjusted measure of physical output.
FIGURE 11.3
FIGURE 11.3 Aggregate DemandAggregate demand refers to the total output demanded at alternative price
levels (ceteris paribus). The vertical axis here measures the average level of all prices rather than the price of
any single good. Likewise, the horizontal axis refers to the real value of all goods, not the quantity of any one
product.
PRICE LEVEL On the vertical axis we measure prices. Specifically, Figure 11.3 depicts alternative levels of
average prices. As we move up the vertical axis, the average price level rises (inflation); and as we move down,
the average price level falls (deflation).
The aggregate demand curve in Figure 11.3 has a familiar shape. The message of this downwardsloping macro
curve is a bit different, however. The aggregate demand curve illustrates how the volume of purchases varies
with average prices. The downward slope of the aggregate demand curve suggests that with a given (constant)
level of income, people will buy more goods and services at lower prices. The curve doesn't tell us which goods
and services people will buy; it simply indicates the total volume (quantity) of their intended purchases.
At first blush, a downwardsloping demand curve hardly seems remarkable. But because aggregate demand
refers to the total volume of spending, Figure 11.3 requires a distinctly macro explanation. That explanation
includes three separate phenomena:
Real balances effect: The primary explanation for the downward slope of the aggregate demand curve is
that cheaper prices make the dollars you hold more valuable. That is to say, the real value of money is
measured by how many goods and services each dollar will buy. In this respect, lower prices make you
richer: The cash balances you hold in your pocket, in your bank account, or under your pillow are worth
more when the price level falls. Lower prices also increase the value of other dollardenominated assets
(e.g., bonds), thus increasing the wealth of consumers.
When their real incomes and wealth increase because of a decline in the price level, consumers respond by
buying more goods and services. They end up saving less of their incomes and spending more. This
causes the aggregate demand curve to slope downward to the right.
Foreign trade effect: The downward slope of the aggregate demand curve is reinforced by changes in
imports and exports. When Americanmade products become cheaper, U.S. consumers will buy fewer
imports and more domestic output. Foreigners will also step up their purchases of Americanmade goods
when American prices are falling.
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The opposite is true as well. When the domestic price level rises, U.S. consumers are likely to buy more
imports. At the same time, foreign consumers may cut back on their purchases of Americanmade
products when American prices increase.
Interest rate effect: Changes in the price level also affect the amount of money people need to borrow and
so tend to affect interest rates. At lower price levels, consumer borrowing needs are smaller. As the
demand for loans diminishes, interest rates tend to decline as well. This cheaper money stimulates more
borrowing and loanfinanced purchases.
The combined forces of these real balances, foreign trade, and interest rate effects give the aggregate demand
curve its downward slope. People buy a larger volume of output when the price level falls (ceteris paribus).
This makes perfect sense.
Aggregate Supply
While lower price levels tend to increase the volume of output demanded, they have the opposite effect on the
aggregate quantity supplied.
PROFIT MARGINS If the price level falls, producers are being squeezed. In the short run, producers are
saddled with some relatively constant costs, such as rent, interest payments, negotiated wages, and inputs
already contracted for. If output prices fall, producers will be hardpressed to pay these costs, much less earn a
profit. Their response will be to reduce the rate of output.
Rising output prices have the opposite effect. Because many costs are fixed in the short run, higher prices for
goods and services tend to widen profit margins. As profit margins widen, producers will want to produce and
sell more goods. Thus we expect the rate of output to increase when the price level rises. This expectation is
reflected in the upward slope of the aggregate supply curve in Figure 11.4. Aggregate supply reflects the
various quantities of real output that firms are willing and able to produce at alternative price levels in a given
time period. The higher the price level, the greater the willingness to produce (supply).
FIGURE 11.4
FIGURE 11.4 Aggregate SupplyAggregate supply refers to the total volume of output producers are willing and
able to bring to the market at alternative price levels (ceteris paribus). The upward slope of the aggregate supply
curve reflects the fact that profit margins widen when output prices rise (especially when shortrun costs are
constant). Producers respond to wider profit margins by supplying more output.
COSTS The upward slope of the aggregate supply curve is also explained by rising costs. To increase the rate of
output, producers must acquire more resources (e.g., labor) and use existing plants and equipment more
intensively. These greater strains on our productive capacity tend to raise production costs. Producers must
therefore charge higher prices to recover the higher costs that accompany increased capacity utilization.
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Cost pressures tend to intensify as capacity is approached. If there is a lot of excess capacity, output can be
increased with little cost pressure. Hence the lower end of the aggregate supply (AS) curve is fairly flat. As
capacity is approached, however, business isn't so easy. Producers may have to pay overtime wages, raise base
wages, and pay premium prices to get needed inputs. This is reflected in the steepening slope of the AS curve at
higher output levels, as shown in Figure 11.4.
Macro Equilibrium
What we end up with here are two rather conventionallooking supply and demand curves. But these particular
curves have special significance. Instead of describing the behavior of buyers and sellers in a single market,
aggregate supply and demand curves summarize the market activity of the whole (macro) economy. These
curves tell us what total amount of goods and services will be supplied or demanded at various price levels.
These graphic summaries of buyer and seller behavior provide some initial clues to how macro outcomes are
determined. The most important clue is point E in Figure 11.5, where the aggregate demand and supply curves
intersect. This is the only point at which the behavior of buyers and sellers is compatible. We know from the
aggregate demand curve that people are willing and able to buy the quantity QE when the price level is at PE.
From the aggregate supply curve we know that businesses are prepared to sell the quantity QE at the price level
PE. Hence buyers and sellers are willing to trade exactly the same quantity (QE) at that price level. We call this
situation macro equilibrium—the unique combination of price level and output that is compatible with both
buyers' and sellers' intentions. At macro equilibrium, the rate of desired spending is exactly equal to the
rate of production: Everything produced is sold.
FIGURE 11.5
FIGURE 11.5 Macro EquilibriumThe aggregate demand and supply curves intersect at only one point (E). At
that point, the price level (PE) and output (QE) combination is compatible with both buyers' and sellers'
intentions. The economy will gravitate to those equilibrium price (PE) and output (QE) levels. At any other price
level the behavior of buyers and sellers is incompatible. At P1, firms supply more output (S1) than market
participants demand (D1).
DISEQUILIBRIUM To appreciate the significance of macro equilibrium, suppose that another price or output
level existed. Imagine, for example, that prices were higher, at the level P1 in Figure 11.5. How much output
would people want to buy at that price level? How much would businesses want to produce and sell?
The aggregate demand curve tells us that people would want to buy only the quantity D1 at the higher price level
P1. But business firms would want to sell the larger quantity, S1. This is a disequilibrium situation in which the
intentions of buyers and sellers are incompatible. The aggregate quantity supplied (S1) exceeds the aggregate
quantity demanded (D1). Accordingly, a lot of the goods being produced will remain unsold at price level P1.
MARKET ADJUSTMENTS To unload these unsold goods, producers have to reduce their prices. As prices
drop, producers will decrease the volume of goods sent to market. At the same time, the quantities consumers
want to buy will increase. This adjustment process will continue until point E is reached and the quantities
demanded and supplied are equal. At that macro equilibrium, the lower price level PE will prevail.
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The same kind of adjustment process would occur if a lower price level first existed. At lower prices, the
aggregate quantity demanded would exceed the aggregate quantity supplied. As sales outpaced production,
inventories would dwindle and shortages would emerge. The resulting shortages would permit sellers to raise
their prices. As they did so, the aggregate quantity demanded would decrease, and the aggregate quantity
supplied would increase. Eventually we would return to point E, where the aggregate quantities demanded and
supplied are equal.
Equilibrium is unique; it is the only price–output combination that is mutually compatible with aggregate
supply and demand. In terms of graphs, it is the only place where the aggregate supply and demand curves
intersect. At point E there is no reason for the level of output or prices to change. The behavior of buyers and
sellers is compatible: Desired spending equals current production. By contrast, any other level of output or
prices creates a disequilibrium that requires market adjustments. All other price and output combinations,
therefore, are unstable. They will not last. Eventually the economy will return to point E.
MACRO FAILURE
There are two potential problems with the macro equilibrium depicted in Figure 11.5:
Undesirability: The price–output relationship at equilibrium may not satisfy our macroeconomic goals.
Instability: Even if the designated macro equilibrium is optimal, it may be displaced by macro
disturbances.
Undesirable Outcomes
The macro equilibrium depicted in Figure 11.5 is simply the intersection of two curves. All we know for sure is
that people want to buy the same quantity of goods and services that businesses want to sell at the price level PE.
This quantity (QE) may be more or less than our full employment capacity. This contingency is illustrated in
Figure 11.6.
FIGURE 11.6
FIGURE 11.6 An Undesired EquilibriumEquilibrium establishes the only levels of prices and output that are
compatible with both buyers' and sellers' intentions. These outcomes may not satisfy our policy goals. In the
case shown here, the equilibrium output rate (QE) falls short of full employment GDP (QF). Unemployment
results.
What's new in Figure 11.6 is the designation of full employment GDP—that is, capacity output. The output
level QF in the figure represents society's full employment goal. QF refers to the quantity of output that could
be produced if the labor force were fully employed. If we produce less output than that, some workers will
remain unemployed. This is exactly what happens at the macro equilibrium depicted here: Only the quantity QE
is being produced. Since QE is less than QF, the economy is not fully utilizing its production possibilities. This
is the dilemma that the U.S. economy confronted in 2008–2009 (see the following News Wire “Undesirable
Outcomes”).
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UNEMPLOYMENT The shortfall in equilibrium output illustrated in Figure 11.6 implies that the economy
will be burdened with cyclical unemployment. Full employment is attained only if we produce at QF. Market
forces, however, lead us to the lower rate of output at QE. Some workers can't find jobs.
INFLATION Similar problems may arise with the equilibrium price level. Suppose that P* represents the most
desired price level. In Figure 11.6 we see that the equilibrium price level PE exceeds P*. If market behavior
determines prices, the price level will rise above the desired level. The resulting increase in average prices is
what we call inflation.
MACRO FAILURE It could be argued, of course, that our apparent macro failures are simply an artifact. We
could have drawn our aggregate supply and demand curves to intersect at point F in Figure 11.6. At that
intersection we would be assured both price stability and full employment. Why didn't we draw them there,
rather than intersecting at point E?
On the graph we can draw curves anywhere we want. In the real world, however, only one set of curves will
correctly express buyers' and sellers' behavior. We must emphasize here that those realworld curves may not
intersect at point F, thus denying us price stability, full employment, or both. That is the kind of economic
outcome illustrated in Figure 11.6. When that happens, we are saddled with macro failure.
Unstable Outcomes
Figure 11.6 is only the beginning of our macro worries. Suppose that the aggregate supply and demand curves
actually intersected in the perfect spot. That is, imagine that macro equilibrium yielded the optimal levels of
both employment and prices. This is pretty much the happy situation we enjoyed in 2007: We had full
employment (4.6 percent unemployment), price stability (2.8 percent inflation), and decent real GDP growth
(2.1 percent). With such good macro outcomes, can't we just settle back and enjoy our good fortune?
NEWS WIRE UNDESIRABLE OUTCOMES
Job Losses Surge as U.S. Downturn Accelerates
Layoffs Spread beyond Construction to Rest of Economy
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported Friday that the economy shed another 533,000 jobs in
November, bringing the total of jobs lost so far in the current recession to nearly 3 million. The downward job
spiral that began in construction has spilled over into a broad range of industries. Since its employment peak in
September 2006 the construction industry has hemorrhaged 780,000 jobs. Now unemployment is surging in
other industries: Last month 91,000 jobs were lost in retailing, 85,000 in manufacturing, 76,000 in the leisure
and hospitality industry, and 136,000 in business services.
“It's remarkable how fast the unemployment rate is increasing” in several states, said Luke Tilley, a senior
economist at IHS Global Insight. “We are now seeing the full ripple effects.” …
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 8, 2008.
NOTE: A contraction in one industry (such as housing) can have “ripple effects” that reduce aggregate demand
across the entire economy, destroying jobs.
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Unhappily, even a perfect macro equilibrium doesn't ensure a happy ending. The aggregate supply and demand
curves that momentarily bring us macro bliss are not necessarily permanent. They can shift—and they will
whenever the behavior of buyers and sellers changes.
SHIFT OF AGGREGATE DEMAND The behavior of U.S. producers and consumers did change in 2007,
pushing the economy out of its full employment equilibrium. The problem began in the construction industry.
From 2001 to 2006 home prices rose every year. That made homeowning consumers wealthier and kept
construction companies busy building new homes. The party started to peter out in July 2006, however, when
home prices stopped rising. Things got worse a few months later when home prices actually started falling. By
2007 the demand for new homes began falling rapidly. As it did, the aggregate demand (AD) curve shifted to the
left. Suddenly more output (including new homes) was being produced at QF than people were willing to buy.
Builders responded by cutting back construction and laying off workers. As the economy moved to a new and
lower equilibrium (point H in Figure 11.7a), more and more workers lost their jobs and joined the ranks of the
unemployed. The economy moved from the full employment equilibrium (point F) of 2007 to the recessionary
equilibrium (point H) of 2008–2009. (See the News Wire Shifting Aggregate Demand.)
FIGURE 11.7
FIGURE 11.7 Macro DisturbancesPoint F represents the “perfect” macro equilibrium of full employment (QF)
and price stability (P*). But that outcome may be upset by
(a) Aggregate demand shifts: A decrease (leftward shift) in aggregate demand (AD) tends to reduce output and
price levels. A fall in demand may be due to a plunge in housing prices or the stock market, an increased taste
for imports, changes in expectations, higher taxes, or other events.
(b) Aggregate supply shifts: A decrease (leftward shift) of the aggregate supply (AS) curve tends to reduce real
GDP and raise average prices. When supply shifts from AS0 to AS1, the equilibrium moves from F to G. Such a
supply shift may result from natural disasters, higher import prices, changes in tax policy, or other events.
SHIFT OF AGGREGATE SUPPLY A shift of the aggregate supply (AS) curve can also push the economy
out of full employment equilibrium. When Hurricane Sandy struck the East Coast in October 2012, it destroyed
roads, bridges, and ports, making transportation of goods more expensive. Refinery shutdowns also caused the
price of oil to shoot up. This oil price hike directly increased the cost of production in a wide range of U.S.
industries, making producers less willing and able to supply goods at prevailing prices. Thus the aggregate
supply curve shifted to the left, as shown in Figure 11.7b.
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The impact of a leftward supply shift on the economy is evident. Whereas macro equilibrium was originally
located at the optimal point F, the new equilibrium was located at point G. At point G, less output was produced,
and prices were higher. Full employment and price stability vanished before our eyes. This is the kind of
“external shock” that can destabilize any economy.
RECURRENT SHIFTS The situation gets even crazier when the aggregate supply and demand curves shift
repeatedly in different directions. A leftward shift of the aggregate demand curve can cause a recession as the
rate of output falls. A later rightward shift of the aggregate demand curve can cause a recovery, with real GDP
(and employment) again increasing. Shifts of the aggregate supply curve can cause similar upswings and
downswings. Thus business cycles result from recurrent shifts of the aggregate supply and demand curves.
Shift Factors
There is no reason to believe that the aggregate supply and demand curves will always shift in such undesired
ways. However, there are lots of reasons to expect them to shift on occasion.
DEMAND SHIFTS The aggregate demand curve might shift, for example, if consumer sentiment were to
change. As noted, a plunge in home prices not only reduces consumers' wealth but also saps their confidence in
their future. This combination of reduced wealth and shattered confidence might cause consumers to pare their
spending plans—even if their current incomes remain unchanged. (See the News Wire “Shifting Aggregate
Demand.”) This would shift the AD curve to the left. A tax hike might have a similar effect. Higher taxes reduce
disposable (aftertax) incomes, forcing consumers to cut back spending. Higher interest rates make credit
financed spending more expensive and so might also reduce aggregate demand (especially on bigticket items
like cars and houses).
NEWS WIRE SHIFTING AGGREGATE DEMAND
Consumer Confidence Plummets
NEW YORK—A key measure of consumer sentiment fell in February, to the lowest level since its 1967
inception. The index, which is based on a survey of 5,000 U.S. households, revealed that American consumers
are wary of spending while the economy is contracting and unemployment is rising. This is a dire omen for the
months ahead.
The Conference Board, a New Yorkbased business research group, said its Consumer Confidence Index fell to
25 in February from a revised reading of 37.4 in January. The index has been touching historic lows since
September.
“All in all, not only do consumers feel overall economic conditions have grown more dire, but just as
disconcerting, they anticipate no improvement in conditions over the next six months,” said Lynn Franco,
director of the Conference Board Consumer Research Center.
Source: Content reproduced with permission from The Conference Board, Inc. © 2009 The Conference
Board, Inc.
NOTE: Declining home and stock prices sap not only consumer wealth but consumer confidence as well. This
prompts consumers to spend less, shifting the aggregate demand curve leftward.
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NEWS WIRE SHIFTING AGGREGATE SUPPLY
Sandy Pummels New York Area
With wind speeds up to 100 miles an hour and a storm surge of 14 feet, Hurricane Sandy left a path of
destruction across New York and New Jersey. Thousands of homes and hundreds of businesses were destroyed,
as well as 250,000 vehicles. An estimated 2.2 million homes and businesses lost electricity, some for as long as a
week. All three of the area's major airports closed, canceling over 8,000 flights. Flooding closed down the
subway system, the railroads, and most tunnels leading into Manhattan. The New York Stock Exchange shut
down for two days, the longest closure since 911. Even Starbucks had to close all of its stores in Manhattan.
Economists estimate that Sandy caused $32 billion of damage in New York state and another $33 billion in
damages along the entire Eastern seaboard.
Source: Liz Roll/Federal Emergency Management Agency
Source: News accounts of November 2012.
NOTE: An external shock can disrupt both the demand and supply sides of the economy. The damage caused by
Hurricane Sandy to transportation and production systems made supplying output more difficult, more time
consuming, and more expensive.
The September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, DC, caused dramatic and abrupt shifts of
aggregate demand. As fear and uncertainty gripped the nation, companies and consumers postponed spending
plans. The resulting AD shift made it difficult to reach or maintain full employment.
SUPPLY SHIFTS External forces may also shift aggregate supply. As noted earlier, rising oil prices are another
brake on GDP growth. Higher oil prices raise the cost of producing goods and services (e.g., airline travel,
heating, delivery services), making producers less willing to supply output at a given price level. A similar shift
occurred in the wake of the September 2001 terrorist attacks. Higher costs for steppedup security made it more
expensive to produce and ship goods. As a result, a smaller quantity of goods was available at any given price
level. The same kind of leftward AS shift occurred when Hurricane Sandy destroyed transportation systems in
October 2012 (see the News Wire “Shifting Aggregate Supply”).
Higher business taxes could also discourage production, thereby shifting the aggregate supply curve to the left.
Tougher environmental or workplace regulations could raise the cost of doing business, inducing less supply at a
given price level. On the other hand, more liberal immigration rules might increase the supply of labor and
increase the supply of goods and services (a rightward shift).
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COMPETING THEORIES OF SHORTRUN INSTABILITY
Although it is evident that either aggregate supply or aggregate demand might shift, economists disagree about
how often such shifts might occur or what consequences they might have. What we have seen in Figures 11.6
and 11.7 is how things might go poorly in the macro economy.
Figure 11.6 suggests that the odds of the market generating an equilibrium at full employment and price stability
are about the same as finding a needle in a haystack. Figure 11.7 suggests that if we are lucky enough to find the
needle, we will probably drop it again when AS or AD shifts. From this perspective, it appears that our worries
about the business cycle are well founded.
The classical economists had no such worries. As we saw earlier, they believed that the economy would
gravitate toward full employment. Keynes, on the other hand, worried that the macro equilibrium might start out
badly and get worse in the absence of government intervention.
Aggregate supply and demand curves provide a convenient framework for comparing these and other theories
on how the economy works. Essentially, macro controversies focus on the shape of aggregate supply and
demand curves and the potential to shift them. With the right shape—or the correct shift—any desired
equilibrium could be attained. As we will see, there are differing views as to whether and how this happy
outcome might come about. These differing views can be classified as demandside explanations, supplyside
explanations, or some combination of the two.
DEMANDSIDE THEORIES
Keynesian Theory Keynesian theory is the most prominent of the demandside theories. Whereas the classical
economists asserted that supply creates its own demand, Keynes argued the reverse: Demand it, and it will be
supplied.
The downside of this demanddriven view is that a lack of spending will cause the economy to contract. If
aggregate spending isn't sufficient, some goods will remain unsold and some production capacity will be idled.
This contingency is illustrated by point E1 in Figure 11.8a. Note again that the resulting equilibrium at Q1 falls
short of full employment output (QF).
FIGURE 11.8
FIGURE 11.8 Origins of a RecessionUnemployment can result from several kinds of market phenomena,
including (a) Demand shifts: Total output will fall if aggregate demand (AD) declines. The shift from AD0 to
AD1 changes equilibrium from point E0 to E1 (reducing output from QF to Q1).
(b) Supply shifts: Unemployment can also emerge if aggregate supply (AS) declines, as the shift from AS0 to
AS1 shows.
(c) AS/AD shifts: If aggregate demand and aggregate supply both decline, output and employment also fall (from
E0 to E3).
Keynes developed his theory during the Great Depression, when the economy seemed to be stuck at a very low
level of equilibrium output, far short of full employment GDP. The only way to end the depression, he argued,
was for someone to start demanding more goods. He advocated a big increase in government spending to start
the economy moving toward full employment. At the time, his advice was largely ignored. When the United
States mobilized for World War II, however, the sudden surge in government spending shifted the AD curve to
the right, restoring full employment.
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In the late 1990s, the U.S. economy didn't need that kind of surge in government spending. A spectacular rise in
the stock market provided the impetus for a surge in consumer spending. The increase in consumption shifted
the AD curve to the right, increasing GDP growth.
When consumer spending is not so buoyant, Keynesian economists might advocate tax cuts to energize
consumers. With more aftertax dollars in their pockets, consumers are likely to spend more. Hence Keynesian
theory urges increased government spending or tax cuts as mechanisms for increasing (shifting) aggregate
demand. President Bush used this Keynesian argument to convince Congress to cut taxes in 2001 and again in
2003. President Obama also followed the Keynesian formula for restoring full employment, but chose more
government spending rather than tax cuts to make that happen.
The Keynesian strategy can also be used to dampen inflation. If too much aggregate demand were pushing the
price level up, Keynes advocated moving these policy levers in the opposite direction—that is, shifting the AD
curve to the left.
MONETARY THEORIES Another demandside theory emphasizes the role of money in financing aggregate
demand. Money and credit affect the ability and willingness of people to buy goods and services. If credit isn't
available or is too expensive, consumers won't be able to buy as many cars, homes, or other expensive products.
Tight money might also curtail business investment. In these circumstances, aggregate demand might prove to
be inadequate. In this case, an increase in the money supply may be required to shift the aggregate demand curve
into the desired position. Monetary theories thus focus on the control of money and interest rates as mechanisms
for shifting the aggregate demand curve. To boost aggregate demand, the Federal Reserve cut interest rates 13
times between January 2001 and July 2003. To restrain aggregate demand, the Fed reversed course and raised
interest rates throughout 2005 and early 2006. In September 2007 the Fed again reversed course, pushing
interest rates down to historic lows by 2012. Interest rates stayed extremely low until December 2015,
encouraging customers to buy more homes and cars.
SupplySide Theories
Figure 11.8b illustrates an entirely different explanation of the business cycle. Notice that the aggregate supply
curve is on the move in Figure 11.8b. The initial equilibrium is again at point E0. This time, however, aggregate
demand remains stationary while aggregate supply shifts. The resulting decline of aggregate supply causes
output and employment to decline (to Q2 from QF).
Figure 11.8b tells us that aggregate supply may be responsible for downturns as well. Our failure to achieve full
employment may result from the unwillingness of producers to provide more goods at existing prices. That
unwillingness may originate in rising costs, resource shortages, natural or terrorist disasters, or changes in
government taxes and regulations. Whatever the cause, if the aggregate supply curve is AS1 rather than AS0,
full employment will not be achieved with the demand AD0. To get more output, the supply curve must shift
back to AS0. The mechanisms for shifting the aggregate supply curve in the desired direction are the focus of
supplyside theories.
Eclectic Explanations
Not everyone blames either the demand side or the supply side exclusively. The various macro theories tell us
that both supply and demand can help us achieve our policy goals—or cause us to miss them. These theories
also demonstrate how various shifts of the aggregate supply and demand curves can achieve any specific output
or price level. Figure 11.8c illustrates how undesirable macro outcomes can be caused by simultaneous shifts of
both aggregate curves. Eclectic explanations of the business cycle draw from both sides of the market.
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POLICY OPTIONS
Aggregate supply and demand curves not only help illustrate the causes of the business cycle; they also imply a
fairly straightforward set of policy options. Essentially, the government has three policy options:
Shift the aggregate demand curve. Find and use policy tools that stimulate or restrain total spending.
Shift the aggregate supply curve. Find and implement policy levers that reduce the costs of production or
otherwise stimulate more output at every price level.
Do nothing. If we can't identify or control the determinants of aggregate supply or demand, we shouldn't
interfere with the market.
Historically, all three approaches have been adopted.
The classical approach to economic policy embraced the “do nothing” perspective. Prior to the Great
Depression, most economists were convinced that the economy would selfadjust to full employment. If the
initial equilibrium rate of output was too low, the resulting imbalances would alter prices and wages, inducing
changes in market behavior. The aggregate supply and demand curves would naturally shift until they reached
the intersection at point E0, where full employment (QF) prevails in Figure 11.8.
Recent versions of the classical theory—dubbed the new classical economics—stress not only the market's
natural ability to selfadjust to longrun equilibrium but also the inability of the government to improve short
run market outcomes.
Fiscal Policy
The Great Depression cast serious doubt on the classical selfadjustment concept. According to Keynes's view,
the economy would not selfadjust. Rather, it might stagnate at point E1 in Figure 11.8a until aggregate demand
was forcibly shifted. An increase in government spending on goods and services might provide the necessary
shift. Or a cut in taxes might be used to stimulate greater consumer and investor spending. These budgetary tools
are the hallmark of fiscal policy. Specifically, fiscal policy is the use of government tax and spending powers to
alter economic outcomes.
Fiscal policy is an integral feature of modern economic policy. Every year the president and the Congress debate
the budget. They argue about whether the economy needs to be stimulated or restrained. They then argue about
the level of spending or taxes required to ensure the desired outcome. This is the heart of fiscal policy.
Monetary Policy
The government budget doesn't get all the action. As suggested earlier, the amount of money in circulation may
also affect macro equilibrium. If so, the policy arsenal must include some levers to control the money supply.
These are the province of monetary policy. Monetary policy refers to the use of money and interest rates to alter
economic outcomes.
The Federal Reserve (the Fed) has direct control over monetary policy. The Fed is an independent regulatory
body charged with maintaining an “appropriate” supply of money. In practice, the Fed adjusts interest rates and
the money supply in accordance with its views of macro equilibrium.
SupplySide Policy
Fiscal and monetary policies focus on the demand side of the market. Both policies are motivated by the
conviction that appropriate shifts of the aggregate demand curve can bring about desired changes in output or
price levels. Supplyside policies offer an alternative; they seek to shift the aggregate supply curve.
There are scores of supplyside levers. The most famous are the tax cuts implemented by the Reagan
administration in 1981. Those tax cuts were designed to increase supply, not just demand (as traditional fiscal
policy does). By reducing tax rates on wages and profits, the Reagan tax cuts sought to increase the willingness
to supply goods at any given price level. The promise of greater aftertax income was the key incentive for the
supply shift.
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Republicans used a similar argument in 2003 to reduce the tax on capital gains (profits from the sale of acquired
property) from 20 percent to 15 percent. Lower capital gains tax rates encourage people to invest more in
factories, equipment, and office buildings. As investment increases, so does the capacity to supply goods and
services.
Other supplyside levers are less well recognized but nevertheless important. Your economics class is an
example. The concepts and skills you learn here should increase your productive capabilities. This expands the
economy's capacity. With a more educated workforce, a greater supply of goods and services can be produced at
any given price level. Hence government subsidies to higher education might be viewed as part of supplyside
policy. Government employment and training programs also shift the aggregate supply curve to the right.
Immigration policies that increase the inflow of workers get even quicker supplyside effects.
Government regulation is another staple of supplyside policy. Regulations that slow innovation or raise the cost
of doing business reduce aggregate supply. Removing unnecessary red tape can facilitate more output and
reduce inflationary pressures.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Which Policy Lever to Use?
The various policy levers in our basic macro model have all been used at one time or another. The “do nothing”
approach prevailed until the Great Depression. Since that devastating experience, more active policy roles have
predominated.
1960s: FISCAL POLICY EMPHASIS Fiscal policy dominated economic debate in the 1960s. When the
economy responded vigorously to tax cuts and increased government spending, it appeared that fiscal policy
might be the answer to our macro problems. Many economists even began to assert that they could finetune the
economy—generate very specific changes in macro equilibrium with appropriate tax and spending policies.
The promise of fiscal policy was tarnished by our failure to control inflation in the late 1960s. It was further
compromised by the simultaneous outbreak of both inflation and unemployment in the 1970s. This new macro
failure appeared to be chronic, immune to the cures proposed by fiscal policy. Solutions to our macro problems
were sought elsewhere.
1970s: MONETARY POLICY EMPHASIS Monetary policy was next in the limelight. The flaw in fiscal
policy, it was argued, originated in its neglect of monetary constraints. More government spending, for example,
might require so much of the available money supply that private spending would be crowded out. To ensure a
net boost in aggregate demand, more money would be needed—a response only the Fed could make.
In the late 1970s the Fed dominated macro policy. It was hoped that appropriate changes in the money supply
would foster greater macro stability. Reduced inflation and lower interest rates were the immediate objectives.
Both were to be accomplished by placing greater restraints on the supply of money.
The heavy reliance on monetary policy lasted only a short time. When the economy skidded into yet another
recession, the search for more effective policy tools resumed.
1980s: SUPPLYSIDE EMPHASIS Supplyside policies became important in 1980. In his 1980 presidential
campaign, Ronald Reagan asserted that supplyside tax cuts, deregulation of markets, and other supplyfocused
policies would reduce both inflation and unemployment. According to Figure 11.8c, such an outcome appeared
at least plausible. A rightward shift of the aggregate supply curve does reduce both prices and unemployment.
Although the Reagan administration later embraced an eclectic mix of fiscal, monetary, and supplyside policies,
its initial supplyside emphasis was distinctive.
1990s: POLICY RESTRAINT The George H. Bush administration pursued a less activist approach. Bush
Senior initially resisted tax increases but later accepted them as part of a budget compromise that also reduced
government spending. When the economy slid into recession in 1990, President Bush maintained a handsoff
policy. Like classical economists, Bush kept assuring the public that the economy would come around on its
own. Not until the 1992 elections approached did he propose more active intervention. By then it was too late
for him, however. Voters were swayed by Bill Clinton's promises to use tax cuts and increased government
spending (fiscal policy) to create “jobs, jobs, jobs.”
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After he was elected, President Clinton reversed policy direction. Rather than delivering the promised tax cuts,
Clinton pushed a tax increase through Congress. He also pared the size of his planned spending increases.
2000s: ECLECTIC POLICY The fiscal restraint of the late 1990s helped the federal budget move from
deficits to surpluses. These budget surpluses grew so large and so fast that they prompted another turn in fiscal
policy. One of the most heated issues in the 2000 presidential campaign was whether to use the federal budget
surplus to cut taxes, increase government spending, or pay down the debt. By the time George W. Bush took
office in January 2001, the economy had slowed so much that people feared another recession was imminent.
This helped convince Congress to pull the fiscal policy lever in the direction of stimulus, with two more rounds
of tax cuts in 2002 and 2003.
The fiscal stimulus and low interest rates of 2001–2004 gave the AD curve a big rightward boost. In fact, the
economy started growing so fast again that people worried that inflation might accelerate. Since neither the
White House nor the Congress wanted to raise taxes or cut government spending, the Federal Reserve had to
take the lead role again in managing the macro economy.
2008–2016: OBAMANOMICS By the time President Obama took office in January 2009 the economy was
deep into another recession. Moreover, the Fed had already exhausted its arsenal of interest rate cuts. So it
appeared that only a renewed emphasis on fiscal policy could save the day. President Obama preferred the
option of increased government spending rather than tax cuts. He vastly underestimated, however, how much
time it would take for increased government spending on roads, bridges, and other infrastructure to actually take
place. As a consequence, unemployment stayed high much longer than anticipated. President Obama also paid
little heed to how increased regulation and taxes were dampening supplyside incentives. It was left to the Fed to
keep interest rates at rockbottom levels, using monetary policy to restore full employment.
2016 As the 2016 presidential elections approached, the U.S. economy was in pretty good shape.
Unemployment was approaching “full employment” levels and inflation was under control. The economy was
growing, although still well below the historical norm. This put the new president in an enviable position. Still,
there are choices to be made. Clearly, past presidents have used every macro policy tool at one time or another.
Those tools have worked well on occasion but sometimes failed as well. The challenge for the new president is
to prioritize our macro policy goals and choose the right tools to achieve them. While perfection may be beyond
our capabilities, the next couple of chapters offer some ideas about which policy levers to pull at any given time.
SUMMARY
The primary outcomes of the macro economy are output, prices, jobs, and international balances. These
outcomes result from the interplay of internal market forces, external shocks, and policy levers. LO1
All the influences on macro outcomes are transmitted through aggregate supply or aggregate demand.
Aggregate supply and demand determine the equilibrium rate of output and prices. The economy will
gravitate to that unique combination of output and price levels. LO3
The market's macro equilibrium may not be consistent with our nation's employment or price goals.
Macro failure occurs when the economy's equilibrium is not optimal—when unemployment or inflation is
too high. LO4
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Macro equilibrium may be disturbed by changes in aggregate supply (AS) or aggregate demand (AD).
Such changes are illustrated by shifts of the AS and AD curves, and they lead to a new equilibrium.
Recurring AS and AD shifts cause business cycles. LO4
Competing economic theories try to explain the shape and shifts of the aggregate supply and demand
curves, thereby explaining the business cycle. Specific theories tend to emphasize demand or supply
influences. LO2
Macro policy options range from doing nothing (the classical approach) to various strategies for shifting
either the aggregate demand curve or the aggregate supply curve. LO5
Fiscal policy uses government tax and spending powers to alter aggregate demand. Monetary policy uses
money and credit availability for the same purpose. LO5
Supplyside policies include all interventions that shift the aggregate supply curve. Examples include tax
incentives, (de)regulation, immigration, and resource development. LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
macroeconomics
Say's Law
aggregate demand
real GDP
aggregate supply
macro equilibrium
full employment GDP
unemployment
inflation
business cycle
fiscal policy
monetary policy
supplyside policy
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. If the price level were below PE in Figure 11.5, what macro problems would we observe? Why is PE
considered an equilibrium? LO4
2. What factors might cause a rightward shift of the aggregate demand curve? What might induce a
rightward shift of aggregate supply? LO3
3. What kind of external shock would benefit an economy? LO1
4. What would a horizontal aggregate supply curve imply about producer behavior? How about a vertical AS
curve? LO3
5. If equilibrium is compatible with both buyers' and sellers' intentions, how can it be undesirable? LO4
6. From March 2009 to 2013, the U.S. stock market more than doubled in value. How might this have
affected aggregate demand? What happens to aggregate demand when the stock market plunges? LO3
7. Why would job losses in the construction industry cause a loss of retail jobs, as the News Wire
“Undesirable Outcomes” suggests? LO4
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES President George H. Bush maintained a handsoff policy during the 1990–
1991 recession. How did he expect the economy to recover on its own? LO2
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Why did President Obama assert that government intervention was needed
to get the economy out of the 2008–2009 recession? Could the economy have recovered on its own? LO4,
LO5
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES What should the new president do in 2017? Is more government
intervention in the macro economy needed? For what purpose? Which policy tools should be used? LO5
PROBLEMS
1. In Figure 11.8, (a) what is the level of full employment? How much is the rate of output reduced when (b)
AD shifts leftward ? (c) AS shifts leftward? (d) both AD and AS shift leftward? LO4
2. In Figure 11.8 does the price level increase or decrease when (a) AD shifts leftward? (b) AS shifts
leftward? LO3
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3. Illustrate these events with AS or AD shifts: LO3
4. Based on the News Wire “Shifting Aggregate Supply,” LO4
1. Illustrate the AS shift that occurs.
2. Identify the old (E0) and new (E1) macro equilibrium.
3. What are the macro results?
4. How can the economy stay healthy in this case?
5. Graph the following aggregate supply and demand curves (be sure to draw to scale). LO3
1. What is the equilibrium price level?
2. What is the equilibrium output?
3. If the quantity of output demanded at every price level increases by $2 trillion, what happens to
equilibrium output and prices? Graph your answer.
6. Draw a conventional aggregate demand curve on a graph. Then add three different aggregate supply
curves, labeled LO1, LO3
S1: Horizontal curve
S2: Upwardsloping curve
S3: Vertical curve
all intersecting the AD curve at the same point. If AD were to increase (shift to the right), which AS
curve would lead to
1. The biggest increase in output?
2. The largest jump in prices?
3. The least inflation?
7. The following schedule provides information with which to draw both an aggregate demand curve and an
aggregate supply curve. Both curves are assumed to be straight lines. LO4
1. At what price level does equilibrium occur?
2. What curve would have shifted if a new equilibrium were to occur at an output level of 700 and a
price level of $700?
3. What curve would have shifted if a new equilibrium were to occur at an output level of 700 and a
price level of $500?
4. What curve would have shifted if a new equilibrium were to occur at an output level of 700 and a
price level of $300?
5. Compared to the initial equilibrium (a), how have the outcomes in (b), (c), and (d) changed price
levels or output?
8. If AD shifts by $60 for every $1,000 change in consumer wealth, by how much will AD increase when the
stock market rises in value by $400 billion? LO3
9. If AS decreases by $50 billion for every 1 percentage point increase in business tax rates, by how much
will AS shift to the left when the tax rate is raised from 35 percent to 40 percent? LO3
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Suppose a nation's maximum GDP (with 0 percent unemployment) is $20
trillion. LO5
1. Assuming that full employment occurs when there is 5 percent unemployment, how much is full
employment GDP?
2. If equilibrium GDP is $18 trillion, how far from full employment GDP is this economy?
3. Which of the following shifts will move this economy closer to full employment?
1. AD shifts to the right.
2. AD shifts to the left.
3. AS shifts to the right.
4. AS shifts to the left.
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Source: © Bloomberg/Getty
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Define what fiscal policy is.
2. 2 Explain why fiscal policy might be needed.
3. 3 Illustrate what the multiplier is and how it works.
4. 4 Tell how fiscal stimulus or restraint is achieved.
5. 5 Specify how fiscal policy affects the federal budget.
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D
uring the Great Depression of the 1930s, as many as 13 million Americans were out of work. They were capable
people and eager to work. But no one would hire them. As sympathetic as employers might have been, they
simply could not use any more workers. Consumers were not buying the goods and services already being
produced. Employers were more likely to cut back production and lay off still more workers than to hire any
new ones. As a consequence, an “army of the unemployed” was created in 1929 and continued to grow for
nearly a decade. It was not until the outbreak of World War II that enough jobs could be found for the
unemployed, and most of those “jobs” were in the armed forces.
The Great Depression was the springboard for the Keynesian approach to economic policy. John Maynard
Keynes concluded that the ranks of unemployed persons were growing because of problems on the demand side
of product markets. People simply were not able and willing to buy all the goods and services the economy was
capable of producing. As a consequence, producers had no incentive to increase output or to hire more labor. So
long as the demand for goods and services was inadequate, unemployment was inevitable.
Keynes sought to explain how a deficiency of demand could arise in a market economy and then to show how
and why the government had to intervene. Keynes was convinced that government intervention was necessary to
achieve our macroeconomic goals, particularly full employment. To that end, Keynes advocated aggressive use
of fiscal policy—that is, deployment of the government's tax and spending powers to alter macro outcomes. He
urged policymakers to use these powers to minimize the swings of the business cycle.
In this chapter we take a closer look at what Keynes intended. We focus on the following questions:
Why did Keynes think the market was inherently unstable?
How can fiscal policy help stabilize the economy?
How will the use of fiscal policy affect the government's budget deficit?
We'll also examine how the Keynesian strategy of fiscal stimulus was used to help end the Great Recession of
2008–2009. ■
COMPONENTS OF AGGREGATE DEMAND
The premise of fiscal policy is that the aggregate demand for goods and services will not always be compatible
with economic stability. As we observed in Chapter 11 (e.g., Figure 11.7), recessions occur when aggregate
demand declines; recessions persist when aggregate demand remains below the economy's capacity to
produce. Inflation results from similar imbalances. If aggregate demand increases faster than output, prices tend
to rise. The price level will keep rising until aggregate demand is compatible with the rate of production.
But why do such macro failures occur? Why wouldn't aggregate demand always reflect the economy's full
employment potential?
To determine whether we are likely to have the right amount of aggregate demand, we need to take a closer look
at spending behavior. Who buys the goods and services on which output decisions and jobs depend?
The four major components of aggregate demand are:
C: Consumption
I: Investment
G: Government spending
X – IM: Net exports (exports minus imports)
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Consumption
Consumption refers to all household expenditures on goods and services—everything from groceries to college
tuition. Just look around and you can see the trappings of our consumeroriented economy. In the aggregate,
consumption spending accounts for over twothirds of total spending in the U.S. economy (Figure 12.1).
FIGURE 12.1
FIGURE 12.1 Components of Aggregate DemandIn 2015, the output of the U.S. economy was $18 trillion. Over
twothirds of that output consisted of consumer goods and services. The government sectors (federal, state, and
local) demanded 18 percent of total output. Investment spending took another 16 percent. Finally, because
imports exceeded exports, the impact of net exports on aggregate demand was negative.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce
Because consumer spending looms so large in aggregate demand, any change in consumer behavior can have a
profound impact on employment and prices. Life would be simple for policymakers if consumers kept spending
their incomes at the same rate. Then there wouldn't be any consumerinduced shifts of aggregate demand (AD).
But life isn't that simple: Consumers do change their behavior. From 2002 to 2005, for example, consumers went
on a buying spree, purchasing new homes, new cars, bigscreen TVs, and iPods. The consumption component of
AD kept the AD curve shifting rightward, increasing equilibrium GDP.
By late 2007, however, the rush to consume appeared to be slowing. Declining home sales and prices, high
gasoline prices, and continuing concerns about terrorism and the war in Iraq were giving consumers pause. As
the following News Wire “Shifts in Aggregate Demand” confirms, economists feared that a slowdown in
consumer spending might reverse the path of the AD curve (they were right, as the 2008–2009 recession
confirmed).
To anticipate such changes in consumer behavior, the economic doctors regularly take consumers' pulse. Every
month the University of Michigan and the Conference Board survey a crosssection of U.S. households to see
how they are feeling. They ask how confident consumers are about their jobs and incomes and how optimistic
they are about their economic future. The responses to such questions are combined into an index of consumer
confidence, which is reported monthly. If confidence is rising, consumers are likely to keep spending. When
consumer confidence declines, as in January 2009 (see the News Wire “Shifting Aggregate Demand” in Chapter
11), the economic doctors worry that the AD curve may shift backward.
Investment
The second component of AD—investment—is similarly prone to behavioral shifts. Investment refers to
business spending on new plant and equipment. When a corporation decides to build a new factory or modernize
an old one, the resulting expenditure adds to aggregate demand. When farmers replace their old tractors, their
purchases also increase total spending on goods and services. Construction of new homes is also counted as part
of (residential) investment.
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NEWS WIRE SHIFTS IN AGGREGATE DEMAND
Recession Looming
You don't have to be an economist to foresee a recession coming. There are ample warning signs everywhere.
Housing prices have been falling sharply, depleting both the purchasing power and the confidence of American
consumers. The 1,000point drop in the Dow Jones Industrial Average since early October has added to the
consumer malaise. As if those trends in wealth were not depressing enough, job growth has slowed and wages
gains have all but disappeared. More and more households are feeling a budget squeeze. This has got to put a
dent in consumer spending soon.
Another bleak sign of looming recession is apparent at the gas station. Gasoline prices are rising, making the
cost of driving, heating, and airconditioning more expensive. Forced to pay more for energy, consumers will
have to cut back their spending on other goods. Walmart and Target have already reported a slowdown in retail
sales.
These early warning signs are more than just troubling. As David Rosenberg, the chief economist at Merrill
Lynch, sees it, wealth and income trends make a recession next year inevitable. “Right now, the question is how
bad it's going to get. The question is one of magnitude”.
Source: News accounts of November 2007
NOTE: Consumer spending accounts for twothirds of aggregate demand. If consumer spending slows, the AD
curve shifts left, increasing the risk of recession.
Changes in business inventory are counted as investment too. Retail stores stock their shelves with goods bought
from other firms. Ecommerce firms also rely on someone stocking goods for sale. Although they hope to resell
these goods later, the inventory buildup reflects a demand for goods and services. If companies allow their
inventories to shrink, then inventory investment is negative. During the Great Depression not only was inventory
investment negative but spending on plant and equipment also plummeted. As a result, total business investment
plunged by 70 percent between 1929 and 1933. This plunge in investment spending wracked aggregate demand
and eliminated millions of jobs.
Near the end of 2009, businesses had a more optimistic outlook. Sensing that the 2008–2009 recession was
ending, businesses increased their inventories by roughly 40 percent. They wanted to be sure their shelves were
stocked when consumers started shopping again. That inventory buildup added to aggregate demand and created
more jobs.
Government Spending
Government spending is a third source of aggregate demand. The federal government currently spends nearly $4
trillion a year, and state and local governments collectively spend even more. Not all of that spending gets
counted as part of aggregate demand, however. Aggregate demand refers to spending on goods and services.
Much of what the government spends, however, is merely income transfers—payments to individuals for which
no services are exchanged. Uncle Sam, for example, mails out over $900 billion a year in Social Security checks
—a fourth of all federal spending. These Social Security checks don't represent a demand for goods and
services. That money will become part of aggregate demand only when the Social Security recipients spend their
transfer income on goods and services.
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Only that portion of government budgets that gets spent on goods and services represents part of aggregate
demand. Aggregate demand includes federal, state, and local spending on highways, schools, police, national
defense, and all other goods and services the public sector provides. Such spending now accounts for nearly one
fifth of aggregate demand.
Net Exports
The fourth component of aggregate demand, net exports, is the difference between export and import spending.
The demand of foreigners for Americanmade products shows up as U.S. exports. At the same time, Americans
spend some of their income on goods imported from other countries. The difference between exports and
imports represents the net demand for domestic output.
U.S. net exports are negative. This means that Americans are buying more goods from abroad than foreigners
are buying from us. The net effect of trade is thus to reduce domestic aggregate demand. That is why net exports
is a negative amount in Figure 12.1.
Net export flows are also subject to abrupt changes. Strong growth in foreign nations may spur demands for U.S.
exports. On the other hand, a spike in oil prices will increase the value of U.S. imports. Such changes in the flow
of net exports will shift the AD curve.
Equilibrium
The four components of aggregate demand combine to determine the shape, position, and potential shifts of the
aggregate demand curve. Notice that aggregate demand is not a single number but instead a schedule of
planned purchases. The quantity of output market participants desire to purchase depends in part on the price
level.
Suppose the existing price level is P1, as seen in Figure 12.2, and the curve AS represents aggregate supply. Full
employment is represented by the output level QF. We want to know whether aggregate demand will be just
enough to ensure both price stability and full employment. This happy equilibrium occurs only if the aggregate
demand curve intersects the aggregate supply curve at point a. The curve AD* achieves this goal.
FIGURE 12.2
FIGURE 12.2 The Desired EquilibriumThe goal of fiscal policy is to achieve price stability and full
employment, the desired equilibrium represented by point a. This equilibrium will occur only if aggregate
demand is equal to AD*. Less demand (e.g., AD1) will cause unemployment; more demand (e.g., AD2) will
cause inflation.
INADEQUATE DEMAND Aggregate demand may turn out to be less than perfect, however. Keep in mind
that aggregate demand includes four different types of spending:
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There is no evident reason why these four distinct components of aggregate demand would generate exactly the
output QF at the price level P1 in Figure 12.2. They could in fact generate less spending, as illustrated by the
curve AD1. In this case, aggregate demand falls short, leaving some potential output unsold at the equilibrium
point b.
EXCESSIVE DEMAND In contrast, the curve AD2 illustrates a situation of excessive aggregate demand. In
this case, the combined expenditure plans of market participants exceed the economy's full employment output.
The resulting scramble for available goods and services pushes prices up to the level P2. This inflationary
equilibrium is illustrated by the AS/AD2 intersection at point c.
THE NATURE OF FISCAL POLICY
Clearly, we will fulfill our macroeconomic goals only if we get the right amount of aggregate demand (the curve
AD* in Figure 12.2). But what are the chances of such a fortunate event? Keynes asserted that the odds are
stacked against such an outcome. Indeed, Keynes concluded that it would be a minor miracle if C + I + G + (X
− IM) added up to exactly the right amount of aggregate demand. Consumers, investors, and foreigners all
make independent decisions on how much to spend. Why should those separate decisions result in just enough
demand to ensure either full employment or price stability? It is far more likely that the level of aggregate
demand will turn out to be wrong. In these circumstances, government spending must be the safety valve that
expands or contracts aggregate demand as needed. The use of government spending and taxes to adjust
aggregate demand is the essence of fiscal policy. Figure 12.3 puts fiscal policy into the framework of our basic
macro model. In this figure, fiscal policy appears as a policy lever for adjusting macro outcomes.
FIGURE 12.3
FIGURE 12.3 Fiscal PolicyFiscal policy refers to the use of the government tax and spending powers to alter
macro outcomes. Fiscal policy works principally through shifts of the aggregate demand curve.
FISCAL STIMULUS
Suppose that aggregate demand has fallen short of our goals and unemployment rates are high. This scenario is
illustrated in Figure 12.4. Full employment is reached when $6 trillion of output is demanded at current price
levels, as indicated by QF. The quantity of output actually demanded at current price levels, however, is only
$5.6 trillion (Q1), as determined by the intersection at point b. Hence there is a gap between the economy's
ability to produce (QF) and the amount of output people are willing to buy (Q1) at the current price level (P1).
The difference between equilibrium output and full employment output is called the GDP gap. In Figure 12.4,
this GDP gap amounts to $400 billion. If nothing is done, $400 billion of productive facilities will be idled and
millions of workers will be unemployed.
FIGURE 12.4
FIGURE 12.4 Deficient DemandThe aggregate demand curve AD1 results in only $5.6 trillion of final sales at
current price levels (P1). This is well short of full employment (QF), which occurs at $6.0 trillion of output. The
fiscal policy goal is to close the GDP gap by shifting the AD curve rightward until it passes through point a.
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The goal here is to eliminate the GDP gap by shifting the aggregate demand curve to the right. In this case,
spending has to increase by $400 billion per year to close the GDP gap. How can fiscal policy make this
happen?
President Obama relied on this policy lever when he convinced Congress to pass the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act in February 2009 (see the accompanying News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Government
Spending”). The largest chunk of that act was a $308.3 billion increase in government spending on goods and
services (e.g., highways, bridges, railroads, energy). President Obama expected that increased spending to push
the AD curve so far to the right that 3 million to 4 million jobs would be restored. He envisioned the GDP gap
eventually closing.
NEWS WIRE FISCAL STIMULUS: GOVERNMENT SPENDING
U.S. Congress Gives Final Approval to $787 Billion Stimulus
Feb. 13 (Bloomberg)—The U.S. Congress gave final approval to President Obama's $787 billion economic
stimulus package in hopes of wresting the economy out of recession.
Democrats predict the plan would save or create 3.5 million jobs…. The stimulus plan would provide a half
trillion dollars for jobless benefits, renewable energy projects, highway construction, food stamps, broadband,
Pell college tuition grants, highspeed rail projects and scores of other programs.
The plan would pump $185 billion into the economy this year and $399 billion next year, the agency said.
—Brian Faler
Source: Faler, Brian. “U.S. Congress Gives Final Approval to $787 Billion Stimulus,” Bloomberg.com,
February 13, 2009. Copyright © 2009 Bloomberg L.P. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: President Obama counted on increased government spending to shift the AD curve to the right,
increasing GDP and employment.
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More Government Spending
The simplest solution to the demand shortfall does appear to be increased government spending. If the
government were to step up its purchases of tanks, highways, schools, and other goods, the increased spending
would add directly to aggregate demand. This would shift the aggregate demand curve rightward, moving us
closer to full employment. Hence increased government spending is a form of fiscal stimulus.
MULTIPLIER EFFECTS It isn't necessary for the federal government to fill the entire gap between desired
and current spending in order to regain full employment. In fact, if government spending did increase by $400
billion in Figure 12.4, aggregate demand would shift beyond point a. In that case we would quickly move from a
situation of inadequate aggregate demand (AD1) to a situation of excessive aggregate demand.
The solution to this riddle lies in the circular flow of income. According to the circular flow, an increase in
spending results in increased incomes. When the government increases its spending, it creates additional
income for market participants. The recipients of this income will in turn spend it. Hence each dollar gets spent
and respent several times. As a result, every dollar of government spending has a multiplied impact on
aggregate demand.
Suppose that the government decided to spend an additional $100 billion per year on a fleet of cruise missiles.
This $100 billion of new defense expenditure would add directly to aggregate demand. But that is only the
beginning of a long story. The people who build cruise missiles will be on the receiving end of a lot of income.
Their fatter paychecks, dividends, and profits will enable them to increase their own spending.
What will the aerospace workers do with all that income? They have only two choices: all income is either
spent or saved. Hence every dollar of income must go to consumer spending or to saving. From a
macroeconomic perspective, the only important decision the aerospace workers have to make is what percentage
of income to spend and what percentage to save (i.e., not spend). Any additional consumption spending
contributes directly to aggregate demand. The portion of income that is saved (not spent) goes under the
mattress or into banks or other financial institutions.
Suppose the aerospace workers decide to spend 75 percent of any extra income they get and to save the rest (25
percent). We call these percentages the marginal propensity to consume and the marginal propensity to save,
respectively. The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the fraction of additional income people spend.
The marginal propensity to save (MPS) is the fraction of new income that is saved.
Figure 12.5 illustrates how the spending and saving decisions are connected. In this case we have assumed that
the MPC equals 0.75. Hence 75 cents out of any extra dollar get spent. By definition, the remaining 25 cents get
saved. The MPC and MPS tell us how the aerospace workers will behave when their incomes rise.
FIGURE 12.5
FIGURE 12.5 MPC and MPSThe marginal propensity to consume (MPC) tells us what portion of an extra dollar
of income will be spent. The remaining portion will be saved. The MPC and MPS help us predict consumer
responses to changes in income.
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According to these behavioral patterns, the aerospace workers will use their additional $100 billion of income as
follows:
Thus all of the new income is either spent ($75 billion) or saved ($25 billion).
According to our MPC calculations, the aerospace workers increase their consumer spending by $75 billion.
This $75 billion of new consumption adds directly to aggregate demand. Hence aggregate demand has now been
increased twice: first by the government expenditure on missiles ($100 billion) and then by the additional
consumption of the aerospace workers ($75 billion). Thus aggregate demand has increased by $175 billion as a
consequence of the steppedup defense expenditure. The fiscal stimulus to aggregate demand includes both the
initial increase in government spending and all subsequent increases in consumer spending triggered by the
government outlays. That combined stimulus is already up to $175 billion.
The stimulus of new government spending doesn't stop with the aerospace workers. The circular flow of income
is a continuing process. The money spent by the aerospace workers becomes income to other workers. As their
incomes rise, we expect their spending to increase as well. In other words, income gets spent and respent in the
circular flow. This multiplier process is illustrated in Figure 12.6.
FIGURE 12.6
FIGURE 12.6 The Circular FlowIn the circular flow of income, money gets spent and respent multiple times. As
a result of this multiplier process, aggregate demand increases by much more than the initial increase in
government spending. An MPC of 0.75 is assumed here.
SPENDING CYCLES Table 12.1 fills in the details of the multiplier process. Suppose the aerospace workers
spend their $75 billion on new boats. This increases the income of boat builders. They, too, are then in a position
to increase their spending.
TABLE 12.1
TABLE 12.1 The Multiplier Process at Work
Purchasing power is passed from hand to hand in the circular flow. The cumulative change in total expenditure
that results from a new injection of spending into the circular flow depends on the MPC and the number of
spending cycles that occur.
The limit to multiplier effects is established by the ratio 1/(1 − MPC). In this case MPC = 0.75, so the multiplier
equals 4. That is, total spending will ultimately rise by $400 billion per year as a result of an increase in G of
$100 billion per year.
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Suppose the boat builders also have a marginal propensity to consume of 0.75. They will then spend 75 percent
of their new income ($75 billion). This will add another $56.25 billion to consumption demand.
Notice in Table 12.1 what is happening to cumulative spending as the multiplier process continues. When the
boat builders go on a spending spree, the cumulative increase in spending becomes:
Cycle 1: Government expenditure on cruise missiles$100.00 billion
Cycle 2: Aerospace workers, purchase of boats 75.00 billion
Cycle 3: Boat builders' expenditure on beer 56.25 billion
Cumulative increase in spending after three cycles $231.25 billion
As a result of the circular flow of spending and income, the impact of the initial government expenditure has
already more than doubled.
Table 12.1 follows the multiplier process to its logical end. Each successive cycle entails less new income and
smaller increments to spending. Ultimately the changes get so small that they are not even noticeable. By that
time, however, the cumulative change in spending is huge. The cumulative change in spending is $400 billion:
$100 billion of initial government expenditure and an additional $300 billion of consumption induced by
multiplier effects. Thus the demand stimulus initiated by increased government spending is a multiple of the
initial expenditure.
MULTIPLIER FORMULA To compute the cumulative change in spending, we need not examine each cycle
of the multiplier process. There is a shortcut. The entire sequence of multiplier cycles is summarized in a single
number, aptly named the multiplier. The multiplier tells us how much total spending will change in response to
an initial spending stimulus. The multiplier is computed as
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In our case, where MPC = 0.75, the multiplier is
Using this multiplier, we can confirm the conclusion of Table 12.1 by observing that
The impact of the multiplier on aggregate demand is illustrated in Figure 12.7. The AD1 curve represents the
inadequate aggregate demand that caused the initial unemployment problem (Figure 12.4). When the
government increases its defense spending, the aggregate demand curve shifts rightward by $100 billion to AD2.
This increase in defense expenditure sparks a consumption spree, shifting aggregate demand further to AD3.
This combination of increased government spending ($100 billion) and induced consumption ($300 billion) is
sufficient to restore full employment.
FIGURE 12.7
FIGURE 12.7 Multiplier EffectsA $100 billion increase in government spending shifts the aggregate demand
curve to the right by a like amount (i.e., AD1 to AD2). Aggregate demand gets another boost from the additional
consumption induced by multiplier effects. In this case, an MPC of 0.75 results in $300 billion of additional
consumption.
The multiplier packs a lot of punch. Every dollar of fiscal stimulus has a multiplied impact on aggregate
demand. This makes fiscal policy easier. The multiplier also makes fiscal policy riskier, however, by
exaggerating any intervention mistakes.
Tax Cuts
Although government spending (G) is capable of moving the economy to its full employment potential,
increased G is not the only way to get there. The stimulus required to raise output and employment levels from
Q1 to QF could originate in consumption (C) or investment (I) as well as from G. It could also come from
abroad, in the form of increased demand for our exports. In other words, any Big Spender would help. Of
course, the reason we are initially at Q1 instead of QF in Figure 12.7 is that consumers and investors have
chosen not to spend as much as is required for full employment.
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NEWS WIRE FISCAL STIMULUS: TAX CUTS
The 2008 Economic Stimulus: First Take on Consumer Response
In a new study, business school professors Christian Broda of the University of Chicago and Jonathan Parker of
Northwestern University conclude the stimulus payments “are providing a substantial stimulus to the national
economy, helping to ameliorate the ongoing 2008 downturn.” U.S. households are “doing a significant amount
of extra spending” because of the $90 billion in government payments that have gone out so far, they say.
As outlined in The Wall Street Journal today, the preliminary assessment found that the typical family increased
its spending on food, mass merchandise, and drug products by 3.5 percent once the rebates arrived relative to a
family that hadn't received its rebate yet. The average family spent about 20 percent of its rebate in the first
month after receipt, a slightly faster pace than with the 2001 rebates.
The authors estimate that nondurable consumption—a piece of consumer spending that excludes bigticket items
such as refrigerators and televisions—rose by 2.4 percent in the second quarter as a direct result of the stimulus
payments. It'll be boosted by 4.1 percent in the current quarter, they estimate.
—Sudeep Reddy
Source: The Wall Street Journal online blog post, July 30, 2008. Reprinted by permission of The Wall Street
Journal Blog, Copyright © 2008 Dow Jones & Company, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide.
NOTE: Tax cuts increase disposable income and boost consumer spending. This shifts the AD curve rightward.
The government might be able to stimulate more consumer and business spending with a tax cut. A tax cut
directly increases the disposable income of the private sector. As soon as people get more income in their
hands, they're likely to spend it. When they do, aggregate demand gets a lift. This is what happened in 2008. In
February 2008 Congress approved tax rebates of $300 to $600 per person. That amounted to over $100 billion in
tax cuts, paid directly to consumers. What did consumers do with that added income? Spend much of it, of
course, as the News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Tax Cuts” reveals. That taxcutinduced spending shifted the AD
curve to the right, increasing both GDP and employment in the spring of 2008.
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TAXES AND CONSUMPTION How much of an AD shift we get from a personal tax cut depends on the
marginal propensity to consume (MPC). If consumers squirreled away their entire tax cut, AD wouldn't budge.
But an MPC of zero is an alien concept. People do increase their spending when their disposable income
increases. So long as the MPC is greater than zero, a tax cut will stimulate more consumer spending.
Suppose again the MPC is 0.75. If taxes are cut by $100 billion, the resulting consumption spree amounts to
Hence a tax cut that increases disposable incomes stimulates consumer spending.
The initial consumption spree induced by a tax cut starts the multiplier process in motion. Once in motion, the
multiplier picks up steam. The new consumer spending creates additional income for producers and workers,
who will then use the additional income to increase their own consumption. This will propel us along the
multiplier path already depicted in Table 12.1. The cumulative change in total spending will be
In this case, the cumulative change is
Here again we see that the multiplier increases the impact of a tax cut on aggregate demand. The cumulative
increase in aggregate demand is a multiple of the initial tax cut. Thus the multiplier makes both increased
government spending and tax cuts powerful policy levers.
TAXES AND INVESTMENT A tax cut may also be an effective mechanism for increasing investment
spending. Investment decisions are guided by expectations of future profit, particularly aftertax profits. If a cut
in corporate taxes raises aftertax profits, it should encourage additional investment. Once increased investment
spending enters the circular flow, it has a multiplier effect on total spending like that which follows an initial
change in consumer spending. Thus tax cuts for consumers or investors provide an alternative to increased
government spending as a mechanism for stimulating aggregate spending.
Tax cuts designed to stimulate consumption (C) and investment (I) have been used frequently. In 1963 President
John F. Kennedy announced his intention to reduce taxes in order to stimulate the economy, citing the fact that
the marginal propensity to consume for the average American family at that time appeared to be exceptionally
high. His successor, Lyndon Johnson, concurred with Kennedy's reasoning. Johnson agreed to “shift emphasis
sharply from expanding federal expenditure to boosting private consumer demand and business investment.” He
proceeded to cut personal and corporate taxes by $11 billion.
One of the largest tax cuts in history was initiated by President Ronald Reagan in 1981. The Reagan
administration persuaded Congress to cut personal taxes by $250 billion over a threeyear period and to cut
business taxes by another $70 billion. The resulting increase in disposable income stimulated consumer
spending and helped push the economy out of the 1981–1982 recession.
President George W. Bush proposed even larger tax cuts in 2001. He urged a $1.6 trillion tax cut, spread out
over 10 years. One of the principal arguments for the tax cut was the weak condition of the U.S. economy in
early 2001. A tax cut, Bush argued, would not only increase disposable income but also raise expectations for
future income. Congress concurred, ultimately passing a $1.35 trillion tax cut, spread out over 10 years.
Continued weakness in the U.S. economy prompted further tax cuts in 2002 and again in 2003.
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Inflation Worries
President Clinton had used the Keynesian argument when he ran for president in 1992. With the economy still
far short of its productive capacity (QF), he called for more fiscal stimulus. After he was elected, however,
President Clinton changed his mind about the need for fiscal stimulus. Rather than delivering the middleclass
tax cut he had promised, Clinton instead decided to raise taxes. This abrupt policy Uturn was motivated in part
by the recognition of how powerful the multiplier is. The economy was already expanding when Clinton was
elected, and the multiplier was at work. As each successive spending cycle developed, the economy would move
closer to full employment. Any new fiscal stimulus would accelerate that movement. As a result, the economy
might end up expanding so fast that it would overshoot the full employment goal.
The pressure from any more fiscal stimulus could easily force prices higher. This risk was illustrated in Figure
12.2. Whenever the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping, an increase in aggregate demand increases
prices as well as output. Notice in Figure 12.2 how the price level starts creeping up as aggregate demand
increases from AD1 to AD*. If aggregate demand expands further to AD2, the price level really jumps. This
suggests that the degree of inflation caused by increased aggregate demand depends on the slope of the
aggregate supply curve. Only if the AS curve were horizontal would there be no risk of inflation when AD
increases. Keynes thought this might have been the case during the Great Depression. With so much excess
capacity available, businesses were willing and able—indeed, eager—to supply more output at the existing price
level.
President Obama had a similar view. With the unemployment rate still hovering in the 8–10 percent range two
years after his initial 2009 stimulus package, he believed more stimulus would not cause price levels to rise. He
convinced Congress to pass additional tax cuts and spending increases in 2011. Were the economy closer to
capacity, the risk of inflation would have been greater.
FISCAL RESTRAINT
The threat of inflation suggests that fiscal restraint may be an appropriate policy strategy at times. If excessive
aggregate demand is causing prices to rise, the goal of fiscal policy will be to reduce aggregate demand, not
stimulate it (see Figure 12.8).
FIGURE 12.8
FIGURE 12.8 Fiscal RestraintFiscal restraint is used to reduce inflationary pressures. The strategy is to shift the
aggregate demand curve to the left with budget cuts or tax hikes.
The means available to the federal government for restraining aggregate demand emerge again from both sides
of the budget. The difference here is that we use the budget tools in reverse. We now want to reduce government
spending or increase taxes.
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Budget Cuts
Cutbacks in government spending on goods and services directly reduce aggregate demand. As with spending
increases, the impact of spending cuts is magnified by the multiplier.
MULTIPLIER CYCLES Suppose the government cut military spending by $100 billion. This would throw a
lot of aerospace employees out of work. Thousands of workers would get smaller paychecks, or perhaps none at
all. These workers would be forced to cut back on their own spending. Hence aggregate demand would take two
hits: first a cut in government spending and then induced cutbacks in consumer spending. The multiplier
process works in both directions.
The marginal propensity to consume again reveals the power of the multiplier process. If the MPC is 0.75, the
consumption of aerospace workers will drop by $75 billion when the government cutbacks reduce their income
by $100 billion. (The rest of the income loss will be covered by a reduction in savings balances.)
From this point on the story should sound familiar. As detailed in Table 12.1, the $100 billion government
cutback will ultimately reduce consumer spending by $300 billion. The total drop in spending is thus $400
billion. Like their mirror image, government cutbacks have a multiplied effect on aggregate demand. The total
impact is equal to
Tax Hikes
Tax increases can also be used to shift the aggregate demand curve to the left. The direct effect of a tax increase
is a reduction in disposable income. People will pay the higher taxes by reducing their consumption and
depleting their savings. The reduced consumption results in less aggregate demand. As consumers tighten their
belts, they set off the multiplier process, leading to a much larger cumulative shift of aggregate demand.
In 1982 there was great concern that the 1981 tax cuts had been excessive and that inflationary pressures were
building up. To reduce that inflationary pressure, Congress withdrew some of its earlier tax cuts, especially those
designed to increase investment spending. The net effect of the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of
1982 was to increase taxes by roughly $90 billion for the years 1983–1985. This shifted the aggregate demand
curve leftward, reducing inflationary pressures (see Figure 12.8).
The same kind of leftward shift of the AD curve occurred in 2013 when Congress increased the payroll (FICA)
tax. Raising the tax rate from 4.2 to 6.2 percent reduced consumers' disposable income by $110 billion (see the
accompanying News Wire “Fiscal Restraint”).
Fiscal Guidelines
The basic rules for fiscal policy are so simple that they can be summarized in a small table. The policy goal is to
match aggregate demand with the full employment potential of the economy. The fiscal strategy for attaining
that goal is to shift the aggregate demand curve. The tools for doing so are (1) changes in government spending
and (2) changes in tax rates. Table 12.2 summarizes the guidelines developed by John Maynard Keynes for
using those tools.
TABLE 12.2
TABLE 12.2 Fiscal Policy Guidelines
The Keynesian emphasis on aggregate demand results in simple guidelines for fiscal policy: Reduce aggregate
demand to fight inflation; increase aggregate demand to fight unemployment. Changes in government spending
and taxes are the tools used to shift AD.
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NEWS WIRE FISCAL RESTRAINT
WalMart Woes: Consumer Spending Curbed by Payroll Tax
Retailers are bracing for losses as the return of the payroll tax, increased gas prices, stagnant wages, and
continued unemployment are hurting consumers' disposable income, meaning less to spend on retail goods.
Will people buy less when their paychecks shrink?
Source: © The McGrawHill Companies, Inc./John Flournoy
In recent survey, the National Retail Federation (NRF) reported that some 46 percent of consumers won't spend
as much as a result of the payroll tax increase. A third of respondents indicated they plan to dine out less and
onequarter will spend less on “little luxuries,” like manicures and trips to coffee shops.
While the payroll tax cut offered taxpayers some relief when it was enacted in December 2010 providing an
influx of spending at retail locations), the payroll tax cut expired as of January 1, 2013. The return of the tax
raised the rate from 4.2 percent in 2012 to 6.2 percent in 2013, reducing consumer's takehome pay by 2 percent.
For retailers, that means consumers will spend $1,500 less on groceries, household goods, and dining out.
Considering that the 153.6 million participants in the labor force will each have an average of $1500 less to
spend each year, this is a significant problem for retailers. According to an estimate by Citigroup, the expiration
of the payroll tax cut will move $110 billion out of consumers' pockets.
Source: Christian Science Monitor, February 22, 2013.
NOTE: Tax increases leave consumers with less income to spend, reducing aggregate demand.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Must the Budget Be Balanced?
The primary lever of fiscal policy is the federal government's budget. As we have observed, changes in either
federal taxes or outlays are the mechanism for shifting the aggregate demand curve. The use of this mechanism
has a troubling implication: The use of the budget to manage aggregate demand implies that the budget will
often be unbalanced. In the face of a recession, for example, the government has sound reasons both to cut
taxes and to increase its own spending. By reducing tax revenues and increasing expenditures simultaneously,
however, the federal government will throw its budget out of balance.
BUDGET DEFICIT Whenever government expenditures exceed tax revenues, a budget deficit exists. The
deficit is measured by the difference between expenditures and receipts
where spending exceeds revenues. In the years 2010–2012 the federal budget deficit was more than $1 trillion
every year. To pay for such enormous deficit spending, the government had to borrow money, either directly
from the private sector or from the banking sector. As Figure 12.9 reveals, the deficits of 2010–2012 were far
larger than any earlier deficits. The series of deficits from 1970 to 1997 were tiny by comparison. Yet even those
deficits caused recurrent political crises. Several times the federal government had to shut down for days at a
time while Republicans and Democrats in Congress battled over how to cut the deficit. A majority of citizens
even supported adding an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that would force Congress to balance the budget
every year.
FIGURE 12.9
FIGURE 12.9 Unbalanced BudgetsFrom 1970 until 1997 the federal budget was in deficit every year. From
1998 to 2001 the budget was briefly in surplus due to strong GDP growth and slowed federal spending.
An economic slowdown, tax cuts, and a surge in defense spending returned the budget to deficit in 2002. The
recession of 2008–2009 and subsequent fiscal stimulus sent the deficit soaring to over $1 trillion for four years
running (2009—2012). Since then, economic growth and tax increases have shrunk the deficit.
Source: Congressional Budget Office
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BUDGET SURPLUS Ironically, while the U.S. Congress was debating such an amendment, the deficit started
shrinking. The recordbreaking expansion of the U.S. economy and the stock market boom of the late 1990s
swelled tax collections. The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 also slowed the growth of government spending. This
combination of growing tax revenues and slower government spending shrunk the deficit dramatically.
By 1998 the deficit had completely vanished, and a budget surplus appeared. For the first time in 30 years, tax
revenues exceeded government spending.
The surpluses started out small but grew rapidly as the economy kept expanding.
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The budget surpluses of 1998–2001 created a unique problem: what to do with the “extra” revenue. Should the
government give it back to taxpayers? Expand government programs? Pay down accumulated debt? The
government had not confronted that problem since 1969.
DEFICITS RESURFACE The problem of managing a budget surplus vanished with the surplus itself in 2002.
The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, DC, contributed to an economic
contraction that reduced tax revenues. A subsequent surge in defense spending and new tax cuts widened the
deficit further.
2008–2009 RECESSION The Great Recession of 2008–2009 threw the federal budget completely out of
whack. GDP growth turned negative in the last quarter of 2008 and stayed negative throughout 2009. As
employment, payrolls, and profits shrank, so did tax revenues. The 2008 tax rebates took another $100 billion
out of the revenue stream. Then the gigantic 2009 fiscal stimulus program (News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus:
Government Spending”) ratcheted up federal spending. All these policies helped widen the annual deficit to
more than $1 trillion for several years' running (2010–2012).
COUNTERCYCLICAL POLICY For John Maynard Keynes, the 2010–2012 deficit explosion would seem
perfectly normal. From a Keynesian perspective, the desirability of a budget deficit or surplus depends on the
health of the economy. If the economy is ailing, an injection of government spending or a tax cut is appropriate.
On the other hand, if the economy is booming, some fiscal restraint (spending cuts, tax hikes) would be called
for. Hence Keynes would first examine the economy and then prescribe fiscal restraint or stimulus. He might
even prescribe neither, sensing that the economy was in optimal health. In Keynes's view, an unbalanced
budget is perfectly appropriate if macro conditions call for a deficit or surplus. A balanced budget is
appropriate only if the resulting aggregate demand is consistent with full employment equilibrium.
DEFICIT WORRIES Not everyone is as comfortable as Keynes with soaring deficits. Most people understand
that recessions can throw government budgets deep into the red. But those cyclical displacements should be
temporary. What worried people so much in 2010–2012 was the perception that those trilliondollar deficits
would continue. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 authorized infrastructure and energy
projects that would continue for years, long after the recession was over. Without cutbacks in other government
programs or tax increases—both politically unpopular—huge deficits were bound to persist.
In early 2013 public anxiety over massive deficits triggered a heated political battle. Republicans in Congress
insisted that the growth of government spending had to be reined in. President Obama, on the other hand,
refused to consider cuts in spending, especially for entitlements like Social Security. He preferred additional tax
increases, especially for the rich. In February 2013 the issue came to a head when Congress had to authorize
additional government borrowing (the debt ceiling). Both sides dug their heels in, threatening a temporary
shutdown of the federal government (as had happened in 1995 for much the same reason). In the end, both
parties took the easy way out, promising future deficit reduction but delivering little immediate fiscal restraint.
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) foresees greater problems down the road. CBO projects that the federal
budget deficit will remain in the $450–$500 billion range until 2018 but then start rising again, surpassing $1
trillion a year again by 2025. Increasing Social Security and Medicare outlays for the retiring Baby Boomers are
the culprit in this scenario. To avoid this deficit expansion, Congress will have to cut other programs, raise taxes,
or change Social Security benefits. None of these options are easy.
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SUMMARY
The Keynesian explanation of macro instability requires government intervention to shift the aggregate
demand curve to the desired rate of output. LO2
To boost aggregate demand, the government may either increase its own spending or cut taxes. To restrain
aggregate demand, the government may reduce its own spending or raise taxes. LO4
Any change in government spending or taxes will have a multiplied impact on aggregate demand. The
additional impact comes from changes in consumption caused by changes in disposable income. LO3
The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) indicates how changes in disposable income affect consumer
spending. The MPC is the fraction of each additional dollar spent (i.e., not saved). LO3
The size of the multiplier depends on the marginal propensity to consume. The higher the MPC, the larger
the multiplier, where the multiplier = 1/(1 − MPC). LO3
Fiscal stimulus carries the risk of inflation. The steeper the upward slope of the aggregate supply (AS)
curve, the greater the risk of inflation. LO4
A balanced budget is appropriate only if the resulting aggregate demand is compatible with full
employment and price stability. Otherwise unbalanced budgets (deficits or surpluses) are appropriate.
LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
fiscal policy
aggregate demand
consumption
investment
net exports
equilibrium (macro)
GDP gap
fiscal stimulus
saving
marginal propensity to consume (MPC)
marginal propensity to save (MPS)
multiplier
disposable income
fiscal restraint
budget deficit
budget surplus
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Why was the author of the News Wire “Shifts in Aggregate Demand” so confident that a recession was
coming? LO2
2. How long does it take you to spend any income you receive? Where do the dollars you spend end up?
LO3
3. What is your MPC? Would a welfare recipient and a millionaire have the same MPC? What determines a
person's MPC? LO3
4. Why was Walmart worried about the 2013 payroll tax hike (News Wire “Fiscal Restraint”)? LO4
5. If the guidelines for fiscal policy (Table 12.2) are so simple, why does the economy ever suffer from
unemployment or inflation? LO2
6. At the end of 2012 businesses bought more inventory, increasing GDP. What would happen if consumers
didn't buy those goods? LO2
7. What did consumers buy with their 2008 tax rebates (News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Tax Cuts”)? Why did
food purchases increase so little? LO4
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Would a constitutional amendment that would require the federal
government to balance its budget (incur no deficits) be desirable? Explain. LO5
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES What government programs would you cut in the pursuit of fiscal restraint?
LO4
PROBLEMS
1. In Figure 12.2, (a) identify the GDP gap when the demand curve is at AD1, and (b) identify the shortfall
when the demand curve is at AD. LO2
2. If the marginal propensity to save is 0.20, (a) what is the MPC? (b) How large is the multiplier? LO3
3. What was the shortrun (onemonth) MPC for the 2008 tax rebates (News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Tax
Cuts”)? LO3
4. If the MPC were 0.8, (a) how much spending would occur in the third cycle of Figure 12.6? (b) How
many spending cycles would occur before consumer spending increased by $200 billion? LO3
5. 1. The multiplier process depicted in Table 12.1 is based on an MPC of 0.75. Recompute the first four
cycles using an MPC of 0.80.
2. How much more consumption occurs in the first four cycles?
3. What is the value of the multiplier in this case? LO3
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6. Suppose the government increases education spending by $20 billion. If the marginal propensity to
consume is 0.80, how much will total spending increase? LO4
7. By how much would the 2008 tax rebates have shifted aggregate demand if the MPC was 0.95? (See the
News Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Tax Cuts.”) LO4
8. If taxes were cut by $1 trillion and the MPC was 0.75, by how much would total spending LO3
1. Increase in the first year with two spending cycles per year?
2. Increase over three years, with two spending cycles per year?
3. Increase over an infinite time period per year?
9. If consumers had an MPC of 0.90, by how much would aggregate demand have eventually increased with
Obama's firstyear spending stimulus assuming the stimulus was entirely government spending (News
Wire “Fiscal Stimulus: Government Spending”)? LO3
10. If the MPC was 0.90, (a) how much did consumer spending decline initially in response to the 2013
expiration of the payroll tax cut (essentially, a tax hike to consumers)? (News Wire “Fiscal Restraint”)?
(b) What was the ultimate decline in aggregate demand after all multiplier effects? LO3
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If an initial fiscal restraint of $100 billion is desired, by how much must
1. Government spending be reduced? or
2. Taxes be raised? Assume MPC = 0.75. LO4
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Source: © RoyaltyFree/Corbis, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Detail what the features of “money” are.
2. 2 Specify what is included in the “money supply.”
3. 3 Describe how a bank creates money.
4. 4 Explain how the money multiplier works.
5. 5 Discuss why the money supply is important.
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S
ophocles, the ancient Greek playwright, had strong opinions about the role of money. As he saw it, “Of evils
upon earth, the worst is money. It is money that sacks cities, and drives men forth from hearth and home; warps
and seduces native intelligence, and breeds a habit of dishonesty.”
In modern times, people may still be seduced by the lure of money and fashion their lives around its pursuit.
Nevertheless, it is hard to imagine an economy functioning without money. Money affects not only morals and
ideals but also the way an economy works.
The purpose of this chapter and the following chapter is to examine the role of money in the economy today. We
begin with a very simple question:
What is money?
As we shall discover, money isn't exactly what you think it is. Once we have established the characteristics of
money, we go on to ask,
Where does money come from?
What role do banks play in the macro economy?
In the next chapter we look at how the Federal Reserve System controls the supply of money and thereby affects
macroeconomic outcomes. We will then have a second policy lever in our basic macro model. ■
THE USES OF MONEY
To appreciate the significance of money in a modern economy, imagine for a moment that there were no such
thing as money. How would you get something for breakfast? If you wanted eggs for breakfast, you would have
to tend your own chickens or go see Farmer Brown. But how would you pay Farmer Brown for her eggs?
Without money, you would have to offer her goods or services that she could use. In other words, you would
have to engage in primitive barter—the direct exchange of one good for another. You would get those eggs only
if Farmer Brown happened to want the particular goods or services you had to offer and if the two of you could
agree on the terms of the exchange.
The use of money greatly simplifies market transactions. It's a lot easier to exchange money for eggs at the
supermarket than to go into the country and barter with farmers. Our ability to use money in market transactions,
however, depends on the grocer's willingness to accept money as a medium of exchange. The grocer sells eggs
for money only because he can use the same money to pay his help and buy the goods he himself desires. He,
too, can exchange money for goods and services. Accordingly, money plays an essential role in facilitating the
continuous series of exchanges that characterizes a market economy.
Money has other desirable features. The grocer who accepts your money in exchange for a carton of eggs
doesn't have to spend his income immediately. He can hold on to the money for a few days or months without
worrying about it spoiling. Hence money is also a useful store of value—that is, a mechanism for transforming
current income into future purchases. Finally, common use of money serves as a standard of value for
comparing the market worth of different goods. A dozen eggs are more valuable than a dozen onions if they cost
more at the supermarket.
We may identify, then, several essential characteristics of what we call money. Specifically, anything that serves
all the following purposes can be thought of as money:
Medium of exchange: It is accepted as payment for goods and services.
Store of value: It can be held for future purchases.
Standard of value: It serves as a yardstick for measuring the prices of goods and services.
The great virtue of money is that it facilitates the market exchanges that permit specialization in production. In
fact, efficient division of labor requires a system whereby people can exchange the things they produce for the
things they desire. Money makes this system of exchange possible.
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NEWS WIRE BARTER
BRAS: The Currency of Russia in the 1990s
SIBERIA—Igor Dimitrikov doesn't wear bras. But he was grateful when he got them. His employer at the state
brassiere factory could have paid him in rubles, the Russian currency. But rubles are virtually worthless.
Runaway inflation has driven the value of a ruble down to near nothing. No one wants them. If he was paid in
rubles, he wouldn't be able to buy food or anything else. The bras, however, have value. He can trade the bras
for food at the little grocery store run by the old woman, Anastasia.
Barter has replaced money payments in most of Russia. You have to have something to trade if you want to
acquire food, clothes, or even firewood. Movie theaters in the Siberian city of Altai are charging two eggs for
admission. If people don't have eggs, they can also pay with empty bottles.
Source: Media accounts of January 1997
NOTE: When people lose faith in a nation's currency, they must use something else as a medium of exchange.
This greatly limits market activity.
Many Types of Money
Although markets cannot function without money, they can get along without dollars. U.S. dollars are just one
example of money. In the early days of colonial America, there were no U.S. dollars. A lot of business was
conducted with Spanish and Portuguese gold coins. Later people used Indian wampum, then tobacco, grain, fish,
and furs, as media of exchange. Throughout the colonies, gunpowder and bullets were frequently used for small
change. These forms of money weren't as convenient as U.S. dollars, but they did the job. So long as they served
as a medium of exchange, a store of value, and a standard of value, they were properly regarded as money.
The first paper money issued by the U.S. federal government consisted of $10 million worth of “greenbacks,”
printed in 1861 to finance the Civil War. The Confederate states also issued paper money to finance their side of
the Civil War. Confederate dollars became worthless, however, when the South lost and people no longer
accepted Confederate currency in exchange for goods and services.
When communism collapsed in Eastern Europe, similar problems arose. In Poland, the zloty was shunned as a
form of money in the early 1980s. Poles preferred to use cigarettes and vodka as media of exchange and stores
of value. So much Polish currency (zlotys) was available that its value was suspect. The same problem
undermined the value of the Russian ruble in the 1990s. Russian consumers preferred to hold and use American
dollars rather than the rubles that few people would accept in payment for goods and services. Cigarettes, vodka,
and even potatoes were a better form of money than Russian rubles. Notice in the News Wire “Barter” how
movie tickets were sold in 1997 for eggs, not cash, and workers were paid in goods, not rubles.
THE MONEY SUPPLY
Cash versus Money
In the U.S. economy today, such unusual forms of money are rarely used. Nevertheless, the concept of money
includes more than the dollar bills and coins in your pocket or purse. Most people realize this when they offer to
pay for goods with a check or debit card rather than cash. The money you have in a checking account can be
used to buy goods and services, or it can be retained for future use. In these respects, your checking account
balance is as much a part of your money as are the coins and dollars in your pocket or purse. In fact, you could
get along without any cash if everyone accepted your checks and debit cards (and if they worked in vending
machines and parking meters).
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There is nothing unique about cash, then, insofar as the market is concerned. Checking accounts can and do
perform the same market functions as cash. Accordingly, we must include checking account balances in our
concept of money. The essence of money is not its taste, color, or feel but, rather, its ability to purchase goods
and services.
Transactions Accounts
In their competition for customers, banks have created all kinds of different checking accounts. Credit unions
and other financial institutions have also created checking account services. Although they have a variety of
distinctive names, all checking accounts have a common feature: They permit depositors to spend their deposit
balances easily without making a special trip to the bank to withdraw funds. All you need is a checkbook, a
debit card, an ATM card, or a payment app on your smartphone.
Because all such checking account balances can be used directly in market transactions (without a trip to the
bank), they are collectively referred to as transactions accounts. The distinguishing feature of all transactions
accounts is that they permit direct payment to a third party without requiring a trip to the bank to make a
withdrawal. The payment itself may be in the form of a check, a debit card transfer, or an automatic payment
transfer. In all such cases, the balance in your transactions account substitutes for cash, and is therefore a
form of money.
Basic Money Supply
Because all transactions accounts can be spent as readily as cash, they are counted as part of our money supply.
Adding transactions account balances to the quantity of coins and currency held by the public gives us one
measure of the amount of “money” available—that is, the basic money supply. The basic money supply is
typically referred to by the abbreviation M1.
Figure 13.1 illustrates the actual composition of our money supply. The first component of M1 is the cash
people hold (currency in circulation outside of commercial banks). Clearly, cash is only part of the money
supply; a lot of “money” consists of balances in transactions accounts. This really should not come as too
much of a surprise. Most market transactions are still conducted in cash. But those cash transactions are
typically small (e.g., for coffee, lunch, small items). They are vastly outspent by the 80 billion noncash retail
payments made each year. People prefer to use checks rather than cash for most large market transactions and
use debit cards just about everywhere (see the following News Wire “Media of Exchange”). Checks and debit
cards are more convenient than cash because they eliminate trips to the bank. Checks and debit cards are also
safer: Lost or stolen cash is gone forever; checkbooks and debit cards are easily replaced at little or no cost.
FIGURE 13.1
FIGURE 13.1 Composition of the Basic Money Supply (M1)The money supply (M1) includes all cash held by
the public plus balances people hold in transactions accounts (e.g., checking, ATS, and credit union share draft
accounts). Cash is only part of our money supply.
Source: Federal Reserve Board of Governors, January 2016.
ApplePay is a payment service, not a form of money.
Source: © Marcio Jose Sanchez/AP Images
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Credit cards are another popular medium of exchange. People use credit cards for about onethird of all
purchases. This use is not sufficient, however, to qualify credit cards as a form of money. Credit card balances
must be paid by check or cash. Hence credit cards are simply a payment service, not a final form of payment
(credit card companies charge fees and interest for this service). The cards themselves are not a store of value, in
contrast to cash or bank account balances.
Mobile payment services like ApplePay don't qualify as “money” either. Before you can pay for a skinny
Frappuccino at Starbucks (see photo), you must first register a credit or debit card with ApplePay. All ApplePay
does is allow you to access your credit or debit card through your iWatch, iPhone, or iPad. You just click and the
payment is transmitted to Starbucks. You don't have to pull out your credit or debit card. ApplePay makes
paying for coffee easier, but it isn't money—it's a payment service that gives you access to money (with the debit
card) or credit (that must later be paid with money).
The last component of our basic money supply consists of traveler's checks issued by nonbank firms (e.g.,
American Express). These, too, can be used directly in market transactions, just like cash.
Near Money
Transactions accounts are not the only substitute for cash. Even a conventional savings account can be used to
finance market purchases. This use of a savings account may require a trip to the bank for a special withdrawal.
But that is not too great a barrier to consumer spending. Many savings banks make that trip unnecessary by
offering computerized withdrawals and transfers from their savings accounts—some even at supermarket service
desks or cash machines. Others offer to pay your bills if you phone in instructions.
Not all savings accounts are so easily spendable. Certificates of deposit, for example, require a minimum
balance to be kept in the bank for a specified number of months or years; early withdrawal results in a loss of
interest. Funds held in certificates of deposit cannot be transferred automatically to a checking account (like
passbook savings balances) or to a third party. As a result, certificates of deposit are seldom used for everyday
market purchases. Nevertheless, such accounts still function like “near money” in the sense that savers can go to
the bank and withdraw cash if they really want to buy something.
Another popular way of holding money is to buy shares of money market mutual funds. Deposits into money
market mutual funds are pooled and used to purchase interestbearing securities (e.g., Treasury bills). The
resultant interest payments are typically higher than those paid on regular checking accounts. Moreover, money
market funds can often be withdrawn immediately, just like those in transactions accounts. However, such
accounts allow only a few checks to be written each month without paying a fee. Hence consumers don't use
money market funds as readily as other transactions accounts to finance everyday spending.
Additional measures of the money supply (M2, M3, etc.) have been constructed to account for the possibility of
using money market mutual funds and various other deposits to finance everyday spending. At the core of all
such measures, however, are cash and transactions account balances, the key elements of the basic money
supply (M1). Accordingly, we limit our discussion to just M1.
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NEWS WIRE MEDIA OF EXCHANGE
How Would You Like to Pay for That?
As new payment technologies have developed, consumers have changed the way they pay for the goods and
services they buy. But cash is still the most popular form of payment, accounting for 40 percent of all consumer
purchases. Those cash payments are typically small, however. Cash payments account for only 14 percent of the
value of consumer purchases. More expensive purchases are made electronically or by check, debit card, or
credit card.
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, April 2014.
NOTE: People pay for goods and services in many ways. Cash is still the most common form of payment but
other payment methods account for most of the dollar value of purchases.
Aggregate Demand
Why do we care so much about the specifics of money? Who cares what forms money comes in or how much of
it is out there?
Our concern about the specific nature of money stems from our broader interest in macro outcomes. As we have
observed, total output, employment, and prices are all affected by changes in aggregate demand. How much
money people have (in whatever form) directly affects their spending behavior. That's why it's important to
know what “money” is and where it comes from.
CREATION OF MONEY
When people ponder where money comes from, they often have a simple answer: The government prints it.
They may even have toured the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Washington, DC, and seen dollar bills
running off the printing presses. Or maybe they visited the U.S. Mint in Denver or Philadelphia and saw coins
being stamped.
There is something wrong with this explanation of the origin of money, however. As Figure 13.1 illustrates,
most of what we call money is not cash but bank balances. Hence the Bureau of Engraving and the two
surviving U.S. mints play only a minor role in creating money. The real power over the money supply lies
elsewhere.
Deposit Creation
To understand the origins of money, think about your own bank balance. How did you acquire a balance in your
checking account? Did you deposit cash? Did you deposit a check? Or did you receive an automatic payroll
transfer?
Less than half of our money supply consists of coins and currency. Most banking transactions entail check or
electronic deposits and payments, not cash.
FRANK & ERNEST © (2007) Thaves Reprinted by permission of Universal Uclick for UFS. All rights reserved
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If you typically make noncash deposits, your behavior is quite typical. Most deposits into transactions accounts
are checks or computer transfers; hard cash is seldom used. When people get paid, for example, they typically
deposit their paychecks at the bank. Some employers even arrange automatic payroll deposits, thereby
eliminating the need for employees to go to the bank at all. The employee never sees or deposits cash in these
cases (see the accompanying cartoon).
If checks are used to make deposits, then the supply of checks provides an initial clue about where money comes
from. Anyone can buy blank checks and sign them, of course. But banks won't cash checks unless there are
funds on deposit to make the check good. Banks, in fact, hold checks for a few days to confirm the existence of
sufficient account balances to cover the checks. Likewise, retailers won't accept checks unless they get some
deposit confirmation or personal identification. The constraint on check writing, then, is not the supply of paper
but the availability of transactions account balances. The same is true of debit cards: If you don't have enough
funds in your bank account, the purchase will be rejected.
Like a good detective novel, the search for the origins of money seems to be going in a circle. It appears that
transactions account deposits come from transactions account balances. This seeming riddle suggests that money
creates money. But it offers no clue regarding how the money got there in the first place. Who created the first
transactions account balance? What was used as a deposit?
The solution to this mystery is totally unexpected: Banks themselves create money. They don't print dollar bills.
But they do make loans. The loans, in turn, become transactions account balances and therefore part of the
money supply. This is the answer to the riddle. Quite simply, in making a loan, a bank effectively creates
money because the resulting transactions account balance is counted as part of the money supply. And you
are free to spend that money, just as if you had earned it yourself.
To understand where money comes from, then, we must recognize two basic principles:
Transactions account balances are the largest part of the money supply.
Banks create transactions account balances by making loans.
In the following two sections we examine this process of creating money—deposit creation—more closely.
A Monopoly Bank
Suppose, to keep things simple, that there is only one bank in town, University Bank, and no one regulates bank
behavior. Imagine also that you have been saving some of your income by putting loose change into a piggy
bank. Now, after months of saving, you break the bank and discover that your thrift has yielded $100. You
immediately deposit this money in a new checking account at University Bank.
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Your initial deposit will have no immediate effect on the money supply (M1). The coins in your piggy bank
were already counted as part of the money supply because they represented cash held by the public (see Figure
13.1 again). When you deposit cash or coins in a bank, you are changing the composition of the money
supply, not its size. The public (you) now holds $100 less of coins but $100 more of transactions deposits.
Accordingly, no money is lost or created by the demise of your piggy bank (the initial deposit).
What will University Bank do with your deposit? Will it just store the coins in its safe until you withdraw them
(in person or by check)? That doesn't seem likely. After all, banks are in business to earn a profit. And
University Bank won't make much profit just storing your coins. To earn a profit on your deposit, University
Bank will have to put your money to work. This means using your deposit as the basis for making a loan to
someone else—someone who wants to buy something but is short on cash and willing to pay the bank interest
for the use of money.
Typically a bank does not have much difficulty finding someone who wants to borrow money. Many firms and
individuals have spending plans that exceed their current money balances. These market participants are eager to
borrow whatever funds banks are willing to lend. The question is, How much money can a bank lend? Can it
lend your entire deposit? Or must University Bank keep some of your coins in reserve, in case you want to
withdraw them? The answer may surprise you.
AN INITIAL LOAN Suppose that University Bank decided to lend the entire $100 to Campus Radio. Campus
Radio wants to buy a new antenna but doesn't have any money in its own checking account. To acquire the
antenna, Campus Radio must take out a loan from University Bank.
How does University Bank lend $100 to Campus Radio? The bank doesn't hand over $100 in cash. Instead it
credits the account of Campus Radio. University Bank simply adds $100 to Campus Radio's checking account
balance. That is to say, the loan is made electronically with a simple bookkeeping entry.
This simple bookkeeping entry is the key to creating money. At the moment University Bank lends $100 to the
Campus Radio account, it creates money. Keep in mind that transactions deposits are counted as part of the
money supply. Once the $100 loan is credited to its account, Campus Radio can use this new money to purchase
its desired antenna without worrying that its check will bounce.
Or can it? Once University Bank grants a loan to Campus Radio, both you and Campus Radio have $100 in your
checking accounts to spend. But the bank is holding only $100 of reserves (your coins). Yet the increased
checking account balance obtained by Campus Radio does not limit your ability to write checks. There has been
a net increase in the value of transactions deposits, but no increase in bank reserves. How is that possible?
USING THE LOAN What happens if Campus Radio actually spends the $100 on a new antenna? Won't this
use up all the reserves held by the bank and endanger your checkwriting privileges? Happily, the answer is no.
Consider what happens when Atlas Antenna receives the check from Campus Radio. What will Atlas do with
the check? Atlas could go to University Bank and exchange the check for $100 of cash (your coins). But Atlas
probably doesn't have any immediate need for cash. Atlas may prefer to deposit the check in its own checking
account at University Bank (still the only bank in town). In this way, Atlas not only avoids the necessity of
going to the bank (it can deposit the check by mail, ATM, or smartphone) but also keeps its money in a safe
place. Should Atlas later want to spend the money, it can simply write a check or use a debit card. In the
meantime, the bank continues to hold its entire reserves (your coins), and both you and Atlas have $100 to
spend.
FRACTIONAL RESERVES Notice what has happened here. The money supply has increased by $100 as a
result of deposit creation (the loan to Campus Radio). Moreover, the bank has been able to support $200 of
transaction deposits (your account and either the Campus Radio or Atlas account) with only $100 of reserves
(your coins). In other words, bank reserves are only a fraction of total transactions deposits. In this case,
University Bank's reserves (your $100 in coins) are only 50 percent of total deposits. Thus the bank's reserve
ratio is 50 percent—that is,
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The ability of University Bank to hold reserves that are only a fraction of total deposits results from two facts:
(1) People use checks for most transactions, and (2) there is no other bank. Accordingly, reserves are rarely
withdrawn from this monopoly bank. In fact, if people never withdrew their deposits in cash and all transactions
accounts were held at University Bank, University Bank would not really need any reserves. Indeed, it could
melt your coins and make a nice metal sculpture. So long as no one ever came to see or withdraw the coins,
everybody would be blissfully ignorant. Merchants and consumers would just continue using checks, presuming
that the bank could cover them when necessary. In this most unusual case, University Bank could continue to
make as many loans as it wanted. Every loan made would increase the supply of money.
Reserve Requirements
If a bank could create money at will, if would have a lot of control over aggregate demand. In reality, no private
bank has that much power. First, there are many banks available, not just a single monopoly bank. Hence the
power to create money resides in the banking system, not in any single bank. Each of the thousands of banks
in the system plays a relatively small role.
The second constraint on bank power is government regulation. The Federal Reserve System (the Fed) regulates
bank lending. The Fed decides how many loans banks can make with their available reserves. Hence even an
assumed monopoly bank could not make unlimited loans with your piggy bank's coins. The Federal Reserve
System requires banks to maintain some minimum reserve ratio. The reserve requirement directly limits the
ability of banks to grant new loans.
To see how Fed regulations limit bank lending (money creation), we have to do a little accounting. Suppose the
Federal Reserve had imposed a minimum reserve requirement of 75 percent on University Bank. That means the
bank must hold reserves equal to at least 75 percent of total deposits.
A 75 percent reserve requirement would have prohibited University Bank from lending $100 to Campus Radio.
That loan would have brought total deposits up to $200 (your $100 plus the $100 Campus Radio balance). But
reserves (your coins) would still be only $100. Hence the ratio of reserves to deposits would have been 50
percent ($100 of reserves ÷ $200 of deposits). That would have violated the Fed's assumed 75 percent reserve
requirement. A 75 percent reserve requirement means that University Bank must hold at all times required
reserves equal to 75 percent of total deposits, including those created through loans.
The bank's dilemma is evident in the following equation:
To support $200 of total deposits, University Bank would need to satisfy this equation:
But the bank has only $100 of reserves (your coins) and so would violate the reserve requirement if it increased
total deposits to $200 by lending $100 to Campus Radio.
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University Bank can still issue a loan to Campus Radio. But the loan must be less than $100 to keep the bank
within the limits of the required reserve formula. Thus a minimum reserve requirement directly limits deposit
creation possibilities.
Excess Reserves
Banks will sometimes hold reserves in excess of the minimum required by the Fed. Such reserves are called
excess reserves and are calculated as
Suppose again that University Bank's only asset is the $100 in coins you deposited. Assume also a Fed reserve
requirement of 75 percent. In this case, the initial ledger of the bank would look like this:
Notice two things in this “Taccount” ledger. First, total assets equal total liabilities: There are $100 in total
assets on the left side of the Taccount and $100 on the right. This equality must always exist because someone
must own every asset. Second, the bank has $25 of excess reserves. It is required to hold only $75 (0.75 ×
$100); the remainder of its reserves ($25) are thus excess.
This bank is not fully using its lending capacity. So long as a bank has excess reserves, it can make additional
loans. If it does, the nation's money supply will increase.
A Multibank World
In reality, there is more than one bank in town. Hence any loan University Bank makes may end up as a deposit
in another bank rather than at its own. This complicates the arithmetic of deposit creation but doesn't change its
basic character. Indeed, the existence of a multibank system makes the money creation process even more
powerful.
In a multibank world, the key issue is not how much excess reserves any specific bank holds but how much
excess reserves exist in the entire banking system. If excess reserves exist anywhere in the system, then some
banks still have unused lending authority.
THE MONEY MULTIPLIER
Excess reserves are the source of bank lending authority. If there are no excess reserves in the banking system,
banks can't make any more loans.
Although an absence of excess reserves precludes further lending activity, the amount of excess reserves doesn't
define the limit to further loans. This surprising conclusion emerges from the way a multibank system works.
Consider again what happens when someone borrows all of a bank's excess reserves. Suppose University Bank
uses its $25 excess reserves to support a loan. If someone borrows that much money from University Bank,
those excess reserves will be depleted. The money won't disappear, however. Once the borrower spends the
money, someone else will receive $25. If that person deposits the $25 elsewhere, then another bank will acquire
a new deposit.
If another bank gets a new deposit, the process of deposit creation will continue. The new deposit of $25
increases the second bank's required reserves as well as its excess reserves. We're talking about a $25 deposit. If
the Federal Reserve minimum is 75 percent, then required reserves increase by $18.75. The remaining $6.25,
therefore, represents excess reserves. This second bank can now make additional loans in the amount of $6.25.
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Perhaps you are beginning to get a sense that the process of deposit creation will not come to an end quickly. On
the contrary, it can continue indefinitely as loans get made and the loans are spent—over and over again. Each
loan made creates new excess reserves, which help fund the next loan. This recurring sequence of loans and
spending is much like the income multiplier, which creates additional income every time income is spent. People
often refer to deposit creation as the money multiplier process, with the money multiplier expressed as the
reciprocal of the required reserve ratio:
We've been assuming a 75 percent reserve requirement in this example. In that case, the money multiplier would
be:
If the reserve requirement were only 20 percent, the money multiplier would be 5.
The money multiplier process is illustrated in Figure 13.2. When a new deposit enters the banking system at
University Bank, it creates both excess and required reserves. The required reserves represent leakage from the
flow of money because they cannot be used to create new loans. Excess reserves, on the other hand, can be used
for new loans. Once University Bank makes those loans, they become transactions deposits elsewhere in the
banking system (Bank #2 in Figure 13.2). Then some additional leakage into required reserves occurs, and
further loans are made (Banks #3 and #4). The process continues until all excess reserves have leaked into
required reserves. Once excess reserves have all disappeared, the total value of new loans will equal initial
excess reserves multiplied by the money multiplier.
FIGURE 13.2
FIGURE 13.2 The Money Multiplier ProcessEach bank can use its excess reserves to make a loan. The loans
will end up as deposits at other banks. These banks will then have some excess reserves and lending capacity of
their own. If the required reserve ratio is 0.75, Bank #2 can lend 25 percent of the $25 deposit it receives. In this
case, it lends $6.25, continuing the deposit creation process.
Limits to Deposit Creation
The potential of the money multiplier to create loans is summarized by the equation
Notice how the money multiplier worked in our previous example. The value of the money multiplier was equal
to 1.33, which is 1.0 divided by the required reserve ratio of 0.75. The banking system started out with the $25
of excess reserves created by your initial $100 deposit. According to the money multiplier, then, the deposit
creation potential of the banking system was
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If all the banks fully utilize their excess reserves at each step of the money multiplier process, the banking
system could make loans in the amount of $33.25. Not very impressive, but in the real world all these numbers
would be in the billions—and that would be impressive.
Excess Reserves as Lending Power
While you are reviewing the arithmetic of deposit creation, notice the critical role that excess reserves play in
the process. A bank can make loans only if it has excess reserves. Without excess reserves, all of a bank's
reserves are required, and no further liabilities (transactions deposits) can be created with new loans. On the
other hand, a bank with excess reserves can make additional loans. In fact,
Each bank may lend an amount equal to its excess reserves and no more.
As such loans enter the circular flow and become deposits elsewhere, they create new excess reserves and
further lending capacity. As a consequence,
The entire banking system can increase the volume of loans by the amount of excess reserves
multiplied by the money multiplier.
By keeping track of excess reserves, then, we can gauge the lending capacity of any bank or, with the aid of the
money multiplier, the entire banking system.
THE MACRO ROLE OF BANKS
The bookkeeping details of bank deposits and loans are complex, frustrating, and downright boring. But they
demonstrate convincingly that banks can create money. Since virtually all market transactions involve the use
of money, banks must have some influence on macro outcomes.
Financing Aggregate Demand
What we have demonstrated in this chapter is that banks perform two essential functions:
Banks transfer money from savers to spenders by lending funds (reserves) held on deposit.
The banking system creates additional money by making loans in excess of total reserves.
In performing these two functions, banks change not only the size of the money supply but aggregate demand as
well. The loans banks offer to their customers will be used to purchase new cars, homes, business equipment,
and other output. All of these purchases will add to aggregate demand. Hence increases in the money supply
tend to increase aggregate demand.
When banks curtail their lending activity, the opposite occurs. People can't get the loans or credit they need to
finance desired consumption or investment. As a result, aggregate demand declines when the money supply
shrinks.
The central role of the banking system in the economy is emphasized in Figure 13.3. In this depiction of the
circular flow, income flows from product markets through business firms to factor markets and returns to
consumers in the form of disposable income. Consumers spend most of their income but also save (don't spend)
some of it. This consumer saving could pose a problem for the economy if no one else were to step up and buy
the goods and services consumers leave unsold.
FIGURE 13.3
FIGURE 13.3 Banks in the Circular FlowBanks help transfer income from savers to spenders. They do this by
using their deposits to make loans to business firms and consumers who desire to spend more money than they
have. By lending money, banks help maintain any desired rate of aggregate spending.
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The banking system is the key link between consumer savings and the demand originating in other sectors of the
economy. To see how important that link is, imagine that all consumer saving was deposited in piggy banks
rather than depository institutions (banks) and that no one used checks. Under these circumstances, banks could
not transfer money from savers to spenders by holding deposits and making loans. The banks could not create
the money needed to boost aggregate demand.
In reality, a substantial portion of consumer saving is deposited in banks. These and other bank deposits can be
used as the basis of loans, thereby returning purchasing power to the circular flow. Moreover, because the
banking system can make multiple loans from available reserves, banks don't have to receive all consumer
saving in order to carry out their function. On the contrary, the banking system can create any desired level of
money supply if allowed to expand or reduce loan activity at will.
Constraints on Money Creation
If banks had unlimited power to create money (make loans), they could control aggregate demand. Their power
isn't quite so vast, however. There are four major constraints on their lending activity.
BANK DEPOSITS The first constraint on the lending activity of banks is the willingness of people to keep
deposits in the bank. If people preferred to hold cash rather than debit cards and checkbooks, banks would not be
able to acquire or maintain the reserves that are the foundation of bank lending activity.
WILLING BORROWERS The second constraint on deposit creation is the willingness of consumers,
businesses, and governments to borrow the money that banks make available. If no one wanted to borrow any
money, deposit creation would never begin.
WILLING LENDERS The banks themselves may not be willing to satisfy all credit demands. This was the
case in the 1930s when the banks declined to use their excess reserves for loans they perceived to be too risky.
In the recession of 2008–2009 many banks again closed their loan windows. Consumers couldn't get mortgages
to buy new homes; businesses couldn't get loans to purchase equipment or inventory.
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GOVERNMENT REGULATION The last and most important constraint on deposit creation is the Federal
Reserve System. In the absence of government regulation, individual banks would have tremendous power over
the money supply and therewith all macroeconomic outcomes. The government limits this power by regulating
bank lending practices. The levers of Federal Reserve policy are examined in the next chapter.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Are Bitcoins the New Money?
Not everyone likes the idea that the government (mostly the Federal Reserve system) controls the supply of
money. And many people worry about the privacy of their market purchases, especially those made with checks,
credit cards, and debit cards: There is always a record of those transactions somewhere in the financial system.
And consumers and merchants alike complain about the fees they have to pay to the financial institutions that
process their payments. Is there a better way to buy goods and services? A way that would offer lower fees,
more secure transactions, and anonymity?
Satoshi Nakamoto believes he invented such an alternative. In 2009 he unveiled a peertopeer online payment
system, using a digital currency called “bitcoins.” In this opensource software system, people can acquire, hold,
and spend bitcoins. The bitcoins are identified digital entries in an electronic database maintained by computer
programmers around the world. Individuals have “private keys,” like passcodes, that allow them to access their
bitcoins and transfer them to others. Such transfers can finance market purchases, much like debit or credit card
payments. But there is no middleman in bitcoin transfers, nor is there any public disclosure of the buyer and
seller.
At first blush, bitcoins sound like money. But they don't quite make the grade. Remember that to qualify as
money, an item must possess three characteristics: (1) be accepted as a medium of exchange, (2) serve as a store
of value, and (3) function as a standard of value. Bitcoins can pretty much pass the first test; they are accepted as
a medium of exchange by many merchants and individuals. But even on that score, their acceptability is limited
to just a tiny fraction of the marketplace. As for being a store of value, bitcoins don't come close to qualifying.
In just a twoyear period (2011–2013) the value of a bitcoin varied from a low of 30 cents to a high of $1,242!
And that wasn't because the value kept going up; the value of a bitcoin has plummeted repeatedly. By early
2015, its value had fallen 80 percent from its November 29, 2013, peak. Given its incredible volatility, it would
be hard to think of bitcoins as a standard of value. So, bitcoins aren't about to become the new “money.”
What has kept bitcoins in the news is their potential for anonymity. Bitcoin transactions can be used to move
assets around without anyone knowing. This makes it an ideal vehicle for illicit activities, including money
laundering, drug sales, tax evasion, and terrorism. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the FBI, and
other international agencies have disrupted numerous bitcoin exchanges, seizing bitcoin assets.
SUMMARY
In a market economy, money serves a critical function in facilitating exchanges and specialization, thus
permitting increased output. “Money” refers to anything that serves as a medium of exchange, store of
value, and standard of value. LO1
The most common measure of the money supply (M1) includes both cash and balances people hold in
transactions accounts (e.g., checking accounts). LO2
Banks have the power to create money simply by making loans. In making loans, banks create new
transactions deposits (bank balances), which become part of the money supply. LO3
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The ability of banks to make loans—create money—depends on their reserves. Only if a bank has excess
reserves—reserves greater than those required by federal regulation—can it make new loans. LO3
As loans are spent, they create deposits elsewhere, making it possible for other banks to make additional
loans. The money multiplier (1 ÷ required reserve ratio) indicates the total value of deposits that can be
created by the banking system from excess reserves. LO4
The role of banks in creating money includes the transfer of money from savers to spenders as well as
deposit creation in excess of deposit balances. Taken together, these two functions give banks direct
control over the amount of purchasing power available in the marketplace. LO5
The deposit creation potential of the banking system is limited by government regulation. It is also limited
by the willingness of market participants to hold deposits or borrow money. At times, banks themselves
may be unwilling to use all their lending ability. LO4
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
barter
money
transactions account
money supply (M1)
aggregate demand
deposit creation
bank reserves
reserve ratio
required reserves
excess reserves
money multiplier
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Do eggs satisfy the three conditions for money? Did barter make it easier or more difficult to go to the
movies in Russia? (See the News Wire “Barter.”) LO1
2. Why aren't mobile payments counted as money? LO2
3. What percentage of your monthly spending do you pay with (a) cash, (b) check, (c) credit card, (d) debit
card, or (e) automatic transfers? How does your behavior compare to others (see the News Wire “Media of
Exchange”)? LO2
4. If a friend asked you how much money you had to spend, what items would you include in your response?
LO2
5. Does money have any intrinsic value? If not, why are people willing to accept money in exchange for
goods and services? LO1
6. Have you ever borrowed money to buy a car, pay tuition, or for any other purpose? In what form did you
receive the money? How did your loan affect the money supply? Aggregate demand? LO3
7. Does the fact that your bank keeps only a fraction of your account balance in reserve worry you? Why
don't people rush to the bank and retrieve their money? What would happen if they did? LO3
8. If all banks heeded Shakespeare's admonition “Neither a borrower nor a lender be,” what would happen to
the supply of money? LO3
9. Why would a bank ever hold excess reserves rather than make new loans? LO3
10. If banks stopped making new loans, how would aggregate demand be affected? LO5
11. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If people want more anonymity in their market transactions, why don't they
simply use cash instead of bitcoins? LO1
PROBLEMS
1. What percent of the money supply depicted in Figure 13.1 is cash? LO2
2. If a bank has $100 million in deposits and $18 million in reserves with a reserve requirement of 0.15, LO3
1. How much are its required reserves?
2. How much excess reserves does it have?
3. How much can it lend?
3. How large is the money multiplier when the required reserve ratio is 0.20? If the required reserve ratio
increases to 0.25, what happens to the money multiplier? LO4
4. If a bank has total reserves of $200,000 and $1 million in deposits, how much money can it lend if the
required reserve ratio is LO3
1. 5 percent?
2. 10 percent?
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5. How large a loan can Bank #2 in Figure 13.2 make? LO3
6. What volume of loans can the banking system in Figure 13.2 support? If the reserve requirement were 80
percent rather than 75 percent, what would the system's lending capacity be? LO3, LO4
7. Suppose that a lottery winner deposits $5 million in cash into her transactions account at the Bank of
America. Assume a reserve requirement of 20 percent and no excess reserves in the banking system prior
to this deposit. Show the changes on the Bank of America balance sheet when the $5 million is initially
deposited. LO3
8. In December 1994, a man in Ohio decided to deposit all of the 8 million pennies he had been saving for
nearly 65 years. (His deposit weighed over 48,000 pounds!) With a reserve requirement of 10 percent,
how did his deposit change the lending capacity of LO3, LO4
1. His bank?
2. The banking system?
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If the value of bitcoins increases from $250 to $500 this year, by how much
will M1 increase? LO2
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The Washington, D.C. headquarters of the Federal Reserve
Source: © Jonathan Larsen/Getty Images
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Describe how the Federal Reserve is organized.
2. 2 Identify the Fed's three primary policy tools.
3. 3 Explain how open market operations work.
4. 4 Tell how monetary stimulus or restraint is achieved.
5. 5 Discuss how monetary policy affects macro outcomes.
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R
arely do all the members of a congressional committee attend a committee hearing. But when the chair of the
Fed is the witness, all 21 members of the U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
typically show up. So do staffers, lobbyists, and a throng of reporters and camera crews from around the world.
They don't want to miss a word that Janet Yellen utters.
Why do so many people listen intently to Janet Yellen, the Fed chair?
Source: © The Asahi Shimbun/Getty Images
Tourists visiting the U.S. Capitol are often caught up in the excitement. Seeing all the press and the crowds, they
assume some movie star is testifying. Maybe George Clooney is pleading for humanitarian aid for Sudan. Or
Lars Ulrich, the drummer for Metallica, is asking for more copyright protection for music. Maybe Angelina Jolie
is urging Congress to increase funding for AIDS research and global poverty. Or Clint Eastwood is asking
Congress to ease the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Curious to see who's getting all the
attention, the tourists often stand in line to get a brief look into the hearing room. Imagine their bewilderment
when they finally get in: The star witness is an economics professor droning on about economic statistics. Who
is this person? they wonder, as they head for the exit.
“This person” is often described as the most powerful person in the U.S. economy. Even the president seeks her
advice and approval. Why? Because this is the chair of the Federal Reserve—the government agency that
controls the nation's money supply. As we saw in the previous chapter, changes in the money supply can alter
aggregate demand. So whoever has a hand on the money supply lever has a lot of power over macroeconomic
outcomes—which explains why so many people want to know what the Fed chair thinks about the health of the
economy.
Figure 14.1 offers a bird'seye view of how monetary policy fits into our macro model. Clearly a lot of people
think the monetary policy lever is important. Otherwise no one would be attending those boring congressional
hearings at which the Fed chair testifies. To understand why monetary policy is so important, we must answer
two basic questions:
How does the government control the amount of money in the economy?
How does the money supply affect macroeconomic outcomes? ■
FIGURE 14.1
FIGURE 14.1 Monetary PolicyMonetary policy tries to alter macro outcomes by managing the amount of
money available in the economy. By changing the money supply and/or interest rates, monetary policy seeks to
shift aggregate demand.
THE FEDERAL RESERVE SYSTEM
Control of the money supply in the United States starts with the Fed. The Federal Reserve System is actually a
system of regional banks and central controls, headed by a chair of the board.
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Federal Reserve Banks
The core of the Federal Reserve System consists of 12 Federal Reserve banks, located in the various regions of
the country. Each of these banks acts as a central banker for the private banks in its region. In this role, the
regional Fed banks perform many critical services, including the following:
Clearing checks between private banks. Suppose the Bank of America in San Francisco receives a
deposit from one of its customers in the form of a check written on a Chase Manhattan bank branch in
New York. The Bank of America doesn't have to go to New York to collect the cash or other reserves that
support that check. Instead the Bank of America can deposit the check at its account with the Federal
Reserve Bank of San Francisco. The Fed then collects from Chase Manhattan. This vital clearinghouse
service saves the Bank of America and other private banks a great deal of time and expense. In view of the
fact that over 35 billion checks are written every year, this clearinghouse service is an important feature of
the Federal Reserve System.
Holding bank reserves. What makes the Fed's clearinghouse service work is the fact that the Bank of
America and Chase Manhattan both have their own accounts at the Fed. Recall from Chapter 13 that
banks are required to hold some minimum fraction of their transactions deposits in reserve. Nearly all
these reserves are held in accounts at the regional Federal Reserve banks. Only a small amount of reserves
are held as cash in a bank's vaults. The accounts at the regional Fed banks provide greater security and
convenience for bank reserves. They also enable the Fed to monitor the actual level of bank reserves.
Providing currency. Because banks hold little cash in their vaults, they turn to the Fed to meet sporadic
cash demands. A private bank can simply call the regional Federal Reserve bank and order a supply of
cash to be delivered (by armored truck) before a weekend or holiday. The cash will be deducted from the
bank's own account at the Fed. When all the cash comes back in after the holiday, the bank can reverse the
process, sending the unneeded cash back to the Fed.
Providing loans. The Federal Reserve banks may also lend reserves to private banks. This practice, called
discounting, will be examined more closely in a moment.
The Board of Governors
At the top of the Federal Reserve System's organization chart (Figure 14.2) is the Board of Governors. The
Board of Governors is the key decision maker for monetary policy. The Fed Board, located in Washington, DC,
consists of seven members appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
Board members are appointed for 14year terms and cannot be reappointed. Their exceptionally long tenure is
intended to give the Fed governors a measure of political independence. They are not beholden to any elected
official and will hold office longer than any president.
FIGURE 14.2
FIGURE 14.2 Structure of the Federal Reserve SystemThe broad policies of the Fed are determined by the
sevenmember Board of Governors. Janet Yellen is the chair of the Fed Board.
The 12 Federal Reserve banks provide central banking services to individual banks in their respective regions.
The private banks must follow Fed rules on reserves and loan activity.
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The intent of the Fed's independence is to keep control of the nation's money supply beyond the immediate reach
of politicians (especially members of the House of Representatives, elected for twoyear terms). The designers
of the Fed system feared that political control of monetary policy would cause wild swings in the money supply
and macro instability. Critics argue, however, that the Fed's independence makes it unresponsive to the majority
will.
The Fed Chair
The most visible member of the Fed system is the Board's chair. The chair is selected by the president of the
United States, subject to congressional approval. The chair is appointed for four years but may be reappointed
for successive terms. Alan Greenspan was first appointed chairman by President Reagan and then reappointed
by Presidents George H. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. When his term as a governor expired on
January 31, 2006, he was replaced by Ben Bernanke, a former economics professor from Princeton University.
President Obama reappointed Bernanke for another fouryear term in January 2010. In January 2014 the
president appointed a new chair, Janet Yellen—another economist. She will serve until 2018.
MONETARY TOOLS
Our immediate interest is not in the structure of the Federal Reserve System but in the way the Fed can use its
powers to alter the money supply (M1). The basic tools of monetary policy are
Reserve requirements.
Discount rates.
Open market operations.
Reserve Requirements
In Chapter 13 we emphasized the need for banks to maintain some minimal level of reserves. The Fed requires
private banks to keep a certain fraction of their deposits in reserve. These required reserves are held either in
the form of actual vault cash or, more commonly, as credits (deposits) in a bank's reserve account at a regional
Federal Reserve bank.
The Fed's authority to set reserve requirements gives it great power over the lending behavior of individual
banks. By changing the reserve requirement, the Fed can directly alter the lending capacity of the banking
system.
Recall that the ability of the banking system to make additional loans—create deposits—is determined by two
factors: (1) the amount of excess reserves banks hold and (2) the money multiplier:
Changes in reserve requirements affect both variables on the right side of this equation, giving this policy tool a
one–two punch.
The impact of reserve requirements on the first of these variables is straightforward. Excess reserves are simply
the difference between total reserves and the amount required by Fed rules:
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Accordingly, with a given amount of total reserves, a decrease in required reserves directly increases excess
reserves. The opposite is equally apparent: An increase in the reserve requirement reduces excess reserves.
A change in the reserve requirement also increases the money multiplier. Recall that the money multiplier is the
reciprocal of the reserve requirement (i.e., 1 ÷ reserve requirement). Hence a lower reserve requirement
increases the value of the money multiplier. Both determinants of bank lending capacity thus are affected by
reserve requirements.
A DECREASE IN REQUIRED RESERVES The impact of a decrease in the required reserve ratio is
summarized in Table 14.1. In this case, the required reserve ratio is decreased from 25 to 20 percent. Notice that
this change in the reserve requirement has no effect on the amount of initial deposits in the banking system (row
1 of Table 14.1) or the amount of total reserves (row 2). They remain at $100 billion and $30 billion,
respectively.
TABLE 14.1
TABLE 14.1 The Impact of a Decreased Reserve Requirement
A decrease in the required reserve ratio raises both excess reserves (row 4) and the money multiplier (row 5). As
a consequence, changes in the reserve requirement have a huge impact on the lending capacity of the banking
system (row 6).
What the decreased reserve requirement does affect is the way those reserves can be used. Before the decrease,
$25 billion in reserves was required (row 3), leaving $5 billion of excess reserves (row 4). Now, however, banks
are required to hold only $20 billion (0.20 × $100 billion) in reserves, leaving them with $10 billion in excess
reserves. Thus a decrease in the reserve requirement immediately increases excess reserves, as illustrated in row
4 of Table 14.1.
There is a second effect also. Notice in row 5 of Table 14.1 what happens to the money multiplier (1 ÷ reserve
ratio). Previously it was 4 (= 1 ÷ 0.25); now it is 5 (= 1 ÷ 0.20). Consequently, a lower reserve requirement not
only increases excess reserves but boosts their lending power as well.
A change in the reserve requirement, therefore, hits banks with a double whammy. A change in the reserve
requirement causes
A change in excess reserves.
A change in the money multiplier.
These changes lead to a sharp rise in bank lending power. Whereas the banking system initially had the power to
increase the volume of loans by only $20 billion (= $5 billion of excess reserves × 4), it now has $50 billion (=
$10 billion × 5) of unused lending capacity, as noted in row 6 of Table 14.1. Were all this extra lending capacity
put to use, the aggregate demand (AD) curve would shift noticeably to the right.
Changes in reserve requirements are a powerful weapon for altering the lending capacity of the banking system.
The Fed uses this power sparingly, so as not to cause abrupt changes in the money supply and severe disruptions
of banking activity. From 1970 to 1980, for example, reserve requirements were changed only twice, and then
by only half a percentage point each time (e.g., from 12.0 to 12.5 percent). In December 1990 the Fed lowered
reserve requirements, hoping to create enough extra lending power to push the stalled U.S. economy out of
recession.
The central bank of China pushed this policy lever in February 2015. Fearful that its economy wasn't growing
fast enough, China lowered the reserve requirement (see the accompanying News Wire “Reserve
Requirements”). In so doing, it increased the lending capacity of Chinese banks and helped stimulate AD.
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NEWS WIRE RESERVE REQUIREMENTS
China Cuts Reserve Requirements
BEIJING—China's central bank reduced the amount of reserves commercial banks are required to hold, freeing
up money for lending in the latest easing measure to shore up the world's secondlargest economy.
The People's Bank of China's one percentage point cut in the reserve requirement … lowers the reserve
requirement ratio, or RRR, to 18.5% [and] takes effect Monday. The move frees up about 1.2 trillion Chinese
yuan (US$194 billion) in additional funds that banks can now lend.
Source: News reports, April 20, 2015.
NOTE: A change in reserve requirements is such a powerful monetary lever that it is rarely used. A change in
the reserve requirements immediately changes both the amount of excess reserves and the money multiplier.
The Discount Rate
The second tool in the Fed's monetary policy toolbox is the discount rate. This is the interest rate the Fed
charges for lending reserves to private banks.
To understand how this policy tool is used, you have to recognize that banks are profit seekers. They don't want
to keep idle reserves; they want to use all available reserves to make interestbearing loans. In their pursuit of
profits, banks try to keep reserves at or close to the bare minimum established by the Fed. In fact, banks have
demonstrated an uncanny ability to keep their reserves close to the minimum federal requirement. As Figure
14.3 illustrates, the only two times banks held huge excess reserves were during the Great Depression of the
1930s and again in 2008–2014. Banks didn't want to make any more loans during the depression and were
fearful of panicky customers withdrawing their deposits. Excess reserves spiked up briefly again after the
terrorist attacks of September 2001, when the future looked unusually uncertain. In 2008–2014 excess reserves
flew off the charts (see Figure 14.3) as banks were waiting for clarity about the economic outlook and
government regulation of lending practices.
FIGURE 14.3
FIGURE 14.3 Excess Reserves and BorrowingsExcess reserves represent unused lending capacity. Hence banks
strive to keep excess reserves at a minimum. The only exception to this practice occurred during the Great
Depression, when banks were hesitant to make any loans, and again in 2008–2014, when both the economic and
regulatory outlooks were uncertain.
In trying to minimize excess reserves, banks occasionally fall short of required reserves. At such times they may
borrow from other banks (the federal funds market), or they may borrow reserves from the Fed. Borrowing from
the Fed is called discounting.
Source: Federal Reserve System.
Because banks typically seek to keep excess reserves at a minimum, they run the risk of occasionally falling
below reserve requirements. A large borrower may be a little slow in repaying a loan, or deposit withdrawals
may exceed expectations. At such times a bank may find that it doesn't have enough reserves to satisfy Fed
requirements.
Banks could ensure continual compliance with reserve requirements by maintaining large amounts of excess
reserves. But that is an unprofitable practice. On the other hand, a strategy of maintaining minimum reserves
runs the risk of violating Fed rules. Banks can pursue this strategy only if they have some lastminute source of
extra reserves.
FEDERAL FUNDS MARKET There are three possible sources of lastminute reserves. A bank that finds
itself short of reserves can turn to other banks for help. If a reservepoor bank can borrow some reserves from a
reserverich bank, it may be able to bridge its temporary deficit and satisfy the Fed. Interbank borrowing is
referred to as the federal funds market. The interest rate banks charge each other for lending reserves is called
the federal funds rate.
SECURITIES SALES Another option available to reservepoor banks is the sale of securities. Banks use some
of their excess reserves to buy government bonds, which pay interest. If a bank needs more reserves to satisfy
federal regulations, it may sell these securities and deposit the proceeds at the regional Federal Reserve bank. Its
reserve position is thereby increased.
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DISCOUNTING A third option for avoiding a reserve shortage is to borrow reserves from the Federal Reserve
System itself. The Fed not only establishes rules of behavior for banks but also functions as a central bank, or
banker's bank. Banks maintain accounts with the regional Federal Reserve banks, much the way you and I
maintain accounts with a local bank. Individual banks deposit and withdraw reserve credits from these accounts,
just as we deposit and withdraw dollars. Should a bank find itself short of reserves, it can go to the Fed's
discount window and borrow some reserves.
The discounting operation of the Fed provides private banks with an important source of reserves, but not
without cost. The Fed, too, charges interest on the reserves it lends to banks, a rate of interest referred to as the
discount rate.
The discount window provides a mechanism for directly influencing the size of bank reserves. By raising or
lowering the discount rate, the Fed changes the cost of money for banks and therewith the incentive to
borrow reserves. At high discount rates, borrowing from the Fed is expensive. High discount rates also signal
the Fed's desire to restrain money supply growth. Low discount rates, on the other hand, make it profitable for
banks to borrow additional reserves and to exploit one's lending capacity to the fullest. This was the objective of
the Fed's October 2008 discount rate reduction (see the accompanying News Wire “Discount Rates”), which was
intended to increase aggregate demand. Notice in Figure 14.3 how bank borrowing from the Fed jumped after
the discount rate was cut.
Open Market Operations
Reserve requirements and discount rates are important tools of monetary policy. But they do not come close to
open market operations in terms of daytoday impact on the money supply. Open market operations are the
principal mechanism for directly altering the reserves of the banking system. Since reserves are the lifeblood
of the banking system, open market operations have an immediate and direct impact on lending capacity. They
are more flexible than changes in reserve requirements, thus permitting minor adjustments to lending capacity
(and ultimately aggregate demand).
NEWS WIRE DISCOUNT RATES
Fed Cuts Key Interest Rate HalfPoint to 1 Percent
WASHINGTON—The Federal Reserve has slashed a key interest rate by half a percentage point as it seeks to
revive an economy hit by a long list of maladies stemming from the most severe financial crisis in decades.
The central bank on Wednesday reduced its target for the federal funds rate, the interest banks charge on
overnight loans, to 1 percent, a low last seen in 2003–2004. The funds rate has not been lower since 1958, when
Dwight Eisenhower was president….
The central bank also announced that it was lowering its discount rate, the interest it charges to make direct
loans to banks, by a halfpoint to 1.25 percent. This rate has become increasingly important as the central bank
has dramatically increased direct loans to banks in an effort to break the grip of the credit crisis.
Bernanke pledged in a speech earlier this month that the Fed “will not stand down until we have achieved our
goals of repairing and reforming our financial system and restoring prosperity.”
—Martin Crutsinger, AP Economics Writer
Source: Associated Press, October 29, 2008. Used with permission of The Associated Press Copyright ©
2008. All rights reserved.
NOTE: A cut in the discount rate lowers the cost of bank borrowing. By cutting both the discount and federal
funds rates, the Fed sought to reduce interest rates to consumers and business, thereby stimulating more
spending.
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PORTFOLIO DECISIONS To appreciate the impact of open market operations, you have to think about the
alternative uses for idle funds. Just about everybody has some idle funds, even if they amount to a few dollars in
your pocket or a minimal balance in your checking account. Other consumers and corporations have great
amounts of idle funds, even millions of dollars at any time. What we're concerned with here is what people
decide to do with such funds.
People, and corporations, do not hold all of their idle funds in transactions accounts or cash. Idle funds are also
used to purchase stocks, build up savings account balances, and purchase bonds. These alternative uses of idle
funds are attractive because they promise some additional income in the form of interest, dividends, or capital
appreciation (e.g., higher stock prices).
HOLD MONEY OR BONDS? The open market operations of the Federal Reserve focus on one of the
portfolio choices people make—whether to deposit idle funds in transactions accounts (banks) or use them to
purchase government bonds (see Figure 14.4). In essence, the Fed attempts to influence this choice by making
bonds more or less attractive as circumstances warrant. It thereby induces people to move funds from banks to
bond markets, or vice versa. In the process, reserves either enter or leave the banking system. Hence the lending
capacity of banks depends on how much of their wealth people hold in the form of money (bank balances) and
how much they hold in the form of bonds.
FIGURE 14.4
FIGURE 14.4 Portfolio ChoicePeople holding extra funds have to place them somewhere. If the funds are
deposited in the bank, lending capacity increases.
OPEN MARKET ACTIVITY The Fed's interest in these portfolio choices originates in its concern over bank
reserves. The more money people hold in the form of bank deposits, the greater the reserves and lending
capacity of the banking system. If people hold more bonds and smaller bank balances, banks will have fewer
reserves and less lending power. Recognizing this, the Fed buys or sells bonds to alter the level of bank
reserves. This is the purpose of the Fed's bond market activity. In other words, open market operations entail
the purchase and sale of government securities (bonds) for the purpose of altering the flow of reserves into and
out of the banking system.
BUYING BONDS Suppose the Fed wants to increase the money supply. To do so, it must persuade people to
deposit a larger share of their financial assets in banks and hold less in other forms, particularly government
bonds. How can the Fed do this?
The solution lies in bond prices. If the Fed offers to pay a high price for bonds, people will sell some of their
bonds to the Fed. They will then deposit the proceeds of the sale in their bank accounts. This influx of money
into bank accounts will directly increase bank reserves.
Figure 14.5 shows how this process works. Notice in step 1 that when the Fed buys a bond from the public, it
pays with a check written on itself. The bond seller must deposit the Fed's check in a bank account (step 2) if she
wants to use the proceeds or simply desires to hold the money for safekeeping. The bank, in turn, deposits the
check at a regional Federal Reserve bank, in exchange for a reserve credit (step 3). The bank's reserves are
directly increased by the amount of the check. Thus by buying bonds, the Fed increases bank reserves. These
reserves can be used to expand the money supply as banks put their newly acquired reserves to work making
loans.
FIGURE 14.5
FIGURE 14.5 An Open Market PurchaseThe Fed can increase bank reserves by buying government securities
from the public. The Fed check used to buy securities (step 1) gets deposited in a private bank (step 2). The bank
returns the check to the Fed (step 3), thereby obtaining additional reserves (and lending capacity). To decrease
bank reserves, the Fed would sell securities, thus reversing the flow of reserves.
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SELLING BONDS Should the Fed desire to slow the growth in the money supply, it can reverse the whole
process. Instead of offering to buy bonds, the Fed in this case will try to sell bonds. If it sets the price sufficiently
low, individuals, corporations, and government agencies will want to buy them. When they do so, they write a
check, paying the Fed for the bonds. The Fed then returns the check to the depositor's bank, taking payment
through a reduction in the bank's reserve account. The reserves of the banking system are thereby diminished.
So is the capacity to make loans. Thus by selling bonds, the Fed reduces bank reserves.
To appreciate the significance of open market operations, one must have a sense of the magnitudes involved.
The volume of trading in U.S. government securities exceeds $1 trillion per day. The Fed alone owned over 2.4
trillion worth of government securities at the beginning of 2016 and bought or sold enormous sums daily. Thus
open market operations involve tremendous amounts of money and, by implication, potential bank reserves.
Powerful Levers
What we have seen in these last few pages is how the Fed can regulate the lending behavior of the banking
system. By way of summary, we observe that the three levers of monetary policy are
Reserve requirements.
Discount rates.
Open market operations.
By using these levers, the Fed can change the level of bank reserves and banks' lending capacity. Since bank
loans are the primary source of new money, the Fed has effective control of the nation's money supply. The
question then becomes, What should the Fed do with this policy lever?
SHIFTING AGGREGATE DEMAND
The ultimate goal of all macro policy is to stabilize the economy at its full employment potential. Monetary
policy contributes to the goal by increasing or decreasing the money supply as economic conditions require.
Table 14.2 summarizes the tools the Fed uses to pursue this goal.
TABLE 14.2
TABLE 14.2 Monetary Policy Guidelines
Monetary policy works by increasing or decreasing aggregate demand, as macro conditions warrant. The tools
for shifting AD include open market bond activity, the discount rate, and bank reserve requirements.
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Expansionary Policy
Suppose the economy is in recession, producing less than its full employment potential. Such a situation is
illustrated by the equilibrium point E1 in Figure 14.6. The objective in this situation is to stimulate the economy,
increasing the rate of output from Q1 to QF.
FIGURE 14.6
FIGURE 14.6 DemandSide FocusMonetary policy tools change the size of the money supply. Changes in the
money supply, in turn, shift the aggregate demand curve. In this case, an increase in M1 shifts demand from
AD1 to AD2 restoring full employment (QF).
We earlier saw how fiscal policy can help bring about the desired expansion. Were the government to increase
its own spending, aggregate demand would shift to the right. A tax cut would also stimulate aggregate demand
by giving consumers and business more disposable income to spend.
Monetary policy may be used to shift aggregate demand as well. If the Fed lowers reserve requirements, drops
the discount rate, or buys more bonds, it will increase bank lending capacity. The banks in turn will try to use
that expanded capacity and make more loans. By offering lower interest rates or easier approvals, the banks can
encourage people to borrow and spend more money. In this way, an increase in the money supply will result in a
rightward shift of the aggregate demand curve. In Figure 14.6 the resulting shift propels the economy out of
recession (Q1) to its full employment potential (QF).
Restrictive Policy
Monetary policy may also be used to cool an overheating economy. Excessive aggregate demand may put too
much pressure on our production capacity. As market participants bid against each other for increasingly scarce
goods, prices will start rising.
The goal of monetary policy in this situation is to reduce aggregate demand—that is, to shift the AD curve
leftward. To do this, the Fed can reduce the money supply by (1) raising reserve requirements, (2) increasing the
discount rate, or (3) selling bonds in the open market. All of these actions will reduce bank lending capacity. The
competition for this reduced pool of funds will drive up interest rates. The combination of higher interest rates
and lessened loan availability will curtail investment, consumption, and even government spending.
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Interest Rate Targets
The federal funds rate typically plays a pivotal role in Fed policy. When the Fed wants to restrain aggregate
demand, it sells more bonds. As it does so, it pushes interest rates up. Higher interest rates are intended to
discourage consumer and investor borrowing, thereby slowing AD growth.
If the Fed wants to stimulate aggregate demand, it increases the money supply by buying bonds. As the supply
of money increases, interest rates decline. Hence interest rates are a key link between changes in the money
supply and shifts of AD. When the Fed announces that it is raising the federal funds rate, it is signaling its
intention to sell bonds in the open market and reduce the money supply until interest rates rise to its announced
target. The market usually gets the message.
PRICE VERSUS OUTPUT EFFECTS
The successful execution of monetary policy depends on two conditions. The first condition is that aggregate
demand must respond (shift) to changes in the money supply. The second prerequisite for success is that the
aggregate supply curve must have the right shape.
Aggregate Demand
The first prerequisite—responsive aggregate demand—usually isn't a problem. An increase in the money supply
is typically gobbled up by consumers and investors eager to increase their spending. Only in rare times of
economic despair (e.g., the Great Depression of the 1930s, the credit crisis of 2008–2009) do banks or their
customers display a reluctance to use available lending capacity. In such situations, anxieties about the economy
may overwhelm low interest rates and the ready availability of loans. If this happens, monetary policy will be no
more effective than pushing on a string. In more normal times, however, increases in the money supply can shift
aggregate demand rightward.
Aggregate Supply
The second condition for successful monetary policy is not so assured. As we first observed in Chapter 12, an
increase in aggregate demand affects not only output but prices as well. How fast prices rise depends on
aggregate supply. Specifically, the effects of an aggregate demand shift on prices and output depend on the
shape of the aggregate supply curve.
Notice in Figure 14.6 what happened to output and prices when aggregate demand shifted rightward. This
expansionary monetary policy did succeed in increasing output to its full employment level. In the process,
however, prices also rose. The price level of the new macro equilibrium (E2) is higher than it was before the
monetary stimulus (E1). Hence the economy suffers from inflation as it moves toward full employment. The
monetary policy intervention is not an unqualified success.
Figure 14.7 illustrates how different slopes of the aggregate supply curve could change the impact of monetary
policy. Figure 14.7a depicts the shape often associated with Keynesian theory. In Keynes's view, producers
would not need the incentive of rising prices during a recession. They would willingly supply more output at
prevailing prices, just to get back to full production. Only when capacity was reached would producers start
raising prices. In this view, the aggregate supply curve is horizontal until full employment is reached, at which
time it shoots up.
FIGURE 14.7
FIGURE 14.7 Contrasting Views of Aggregate SupplyThe impact of increased demand on output and prices
depends on the shape of the aggregate supply curve.
(a) Horizontal AS: In the simple Keynesian model, the rate of output responds fully and automatically to
increases in demand until full employment (QF) is reached. If demand increases from AD1 to AD2, output will
expand from Q1 to QF without any inflation. Inflation becomes a problem only if aggregate demand increases
beyond capacity—to AD3, for example.
(b) Vertical AS: Some critics assert that changes in the money supply affect prices but not output. They regard
aggregate supply as a fixed rate of output, positioned at the longrun, “natural” rate of unemployment (here
noted as QN). Accordingly, a shift of demand (from AD4 to AD5) can affect only the price level (from P4 to P5).
(c) Sloped AS: The eclectic view concedes that the AS curve may be horizontal at low levels of output and
vertical at capacity. In the middle, however, the AS curve is upwardsloping. In this case, both prices and output
are affected by monetary policy.
The horizontal aggregate supply curve in Figure 14.7a creates an ideal setting for monetary policy. If the
economy is in recession (e.g., Q1), expansionary policy (e.g., AD1 to AD2) increases output but not prices. If the
economy is overheated, restrictive policy (e.g., AD3 to AD2) lowers prices but not output. In each case, the
objectives of monetary policy are painlessly achieved.
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Although a horizontal AS curve is ideal, there is no guarantee that producers and workers will behave in that
way. The relevant AS curve is the one that mirrors producer behavior. Economists disagree, however, about the
true shape of the AS curve.
Figure 14.7b illustrates a different theory about the shape of the AS curve, a theory that gives the Fed
nightmares. The AS curve is completely vertical in this case. The argument here is that the quantity of goods
produced is primarily dependent on production capacity, labor market efficiency, and other structural forces.
These structural forces establish a “natural rate” of unemployment that is fairly immune to shortrun policy
intervention. From this perspective, there is no reason for producers to depart from this natural rate of output
when the money supply increases. Producers are smart enough to know that both prices and costs will rise when
spending increases. Hence rising prices will not create any new profit incentives for increasing output. Firms
will just continue producing at the natural rate, with higher (nominal) prices and costs. As a result, increases in
aggregate demand (e.g., AD4 to AD5) are not likely to increase output levels. Expansionary monetary policy
causes only inflation in this case; the rate of output is unaffected.
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The third picture in Figure 14.7 is much brighter. The AS curve in Figure 14.7c illustrates a middle ground
between the other two extremes. This upwardsloping AS curve renders monetary policy effective but not
perfectly so. With an upwardsloping AS curve, expansionary policy causes some inflation, and restrictive
policy causes some unemployment. There are no clearcut winners or losers here. Rather, monetary (and fiscal)
policy confronts a tradeoff between the goals of full employment and price stability.
Many economists believe Figure 14.7c best represents market behavior. The Keynesian view (horizontal AS)
assumes more restraint in raising prices and wages than seems plausible. The monetarist vision (vertical AS)
assumes instantaneous wage and price responses. The eclectic view (upwardsloping AS), on the other hand,
recognizes that market behavior responds gradually and imperfectly to policy interventions.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
How Much Discretion Should the Fed Have?
The debate over the shape of the aggregate supply curve spotlights a central policy debate. Should the Fed try to
finetune the economy with constant adjustments of the money supply? Or should the Fed instead simply keep
the money supply growing at a steady pace?
DISCRETIONARY POLICY The argument for active monetary intervention rests on the observation that the
economy itself is constantly beset by positive and negative shocks. In the absence of active discretionary policy,
it is feared, the economy would tip first one way and then the other. To reduce such instability, the Fed can lean
against the wind, restraining the economy when the wind accelerates, stimulating the economy when it stalls.
This view of market instability and the attendant need for active government intervention reflects the Keynesian
perspective. Applied to monetary policy, it implies the need for continual adjustments to the money supply.
FIXED RULES Critics of discretionary monetary policy raise two objections. Their first argument relies on the
vertical AS curve (Figure 14.7b). They contend that expansionary monetary policy inevitably leads to inflation.
Producers and workers can't be fooled into believing that more money will create more goods. With a little
experience, they'll soon realize that when more money chases available goods, prices rise. To protect themselves
against inflation, they will demand higher prices and wages whenever they see the money supply expanding.
Such defensive behavior will push the AS curve into a vertical position.
Even if one concedes that the AS curve isn't necessarily vertical, one still has to determine how much slope it
has. This inevitably entails some guesswork and the potential for policy mistakes. If the Fed thinks the AS curve
is less vertical than it really is, its expansionary policy might cause too much inflation. Hence discretionary
policy is as likely to cause macro problems as to cure them. Critics conclude that fixed rules for money supply
management are less prone to error. These critics, led by Milton Friedman, urge the Fed to increase M1 by a
constant (fixed) rate each year.
THE FED'S ECLECTICISM The Fed tries to walk a fine line between complete discretion and fixed rules by
setting targets for the outcomes of its policy. It does this by setting specific targets for unemployment and
inflation, two of the most important macroeconomic outcomes.
UNEMPLOYMENT TARGETING The Fed embarked on a very aggressive stimulus program in 2008 in
response to the emerging Great Recession of 2008–2009. It greatly expanded the money supply and pushed
interest rates down to rockbottom levels. As we saw in Figure 14.3, these actions caused excess reserves in the
banking system to soar to unprecedented heights. Critics worried that all of this monetary stimulus would
ultimately ignite inflation. They wanted to know when the Fed was going to turn off the money spigot. In 2012
the Fed responded. It said it would keep pursuing monetary stimulus until the national unemployment rate fell to
6.5 percent. The intent of this unemployment targeting was to give market participants a clearer signal about Fed
intentions and policy. When the unemployment rate fell to 6.5 percent in 2014, the Fed started scaling back its
stimulus program.
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INFLATION TARGETING Earlier the Fed had provided similar guidance with respect to the nation's inflation
rate. It said that an inflation rate below 2 percent was tolerable and would not require any Fed intervention. Only
when the inflation rate exceeded that target should market participants expect the Fed to introduce monetary
restraint.
The unemployment and inflation targets set by the Fed do reduce the uncertainty about the Fed's discretionary
policy. But they are a far cry from fixed rules of conduct. Both the unemployment rate and the inflation rate
change every month. Someone has to make a judgment call about whether an uptick in reported inflation or a
downtick in unemployment is a temporary fluke or a meaningful change. In other words, the Fed still has to
engage in some guesswork (i.e., use its discretionary powers).
SUMMARY
The Federal Reserve System controls the nation's money supply by regulating the loan activity (deposit
creation) of private banks. LO2
The core of the Federal Reserve System is the 12 regional Federal Reserve banks, which provide check
clearance, reserve deposit, and loan (discounting) services to individual banks. LO1
Private banks are required to maintain minimum reserves on deposit at one of the regional Federal
Reserve banks. LO1
The general policies of the Fed are set by its Board of Governors. The Board's chair is selected by the U.S.
president and confirmed by Congress. The chair serves as the chief spokesperson for monetary policy.
LO1
The Fed has three basic tools for changing the money supply: reserve requirements, discount rates, and
open market operations (buying and selling of Treasury bonds). With these tools, the Fed can change bank
reserves and their lending capacity. LO2
By buying or selling bonds in the open market, the Fed alters bank reserves and interest rates. LO3
Changes in the money supply directly affect aggregate demand. Increases in M1 shift the aggregate
demand curve rightward; decreases shift it to the left. LO5
The impact of monetary policy on macro outcomes depends on the slope of the aggregate supply curve. If
the AS curve has an upward slope, a tradeoff exists between the goals of full employment and price
stability. LO5
Advocates of discretionary monetary policy say the Fed must counter market instabilities. Advocates of
fixed policy rules warn that discretionary policy may do more harm than good. The Fed tries to steer a
middle course by setting unemployment and inflation targets that signal Fed policies. LO5
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
monetary policy
money supply (M1)
required reserves
excess reserves
money multiplier
discount rate
federal funds rate
open market operations
aggregate demand
aggregate supply
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Why do banks want to maintain as little excess reserves as possible? Under what circumstances might
banks desire to hold excess reserves? (Hint: See Figure 14.3.) LO4
2. Why do people hold bonds rather than larger savings account or checking account balances? Under what
circumstances might they change their portfolios, moving their funds out of bonds and into bank
accounts? LO3
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3. If the Federal Reserve banks mailed everyone a brandnew $100 bill, what would happen to prices, output,
and income? Illustrate with aggregate demand and supply curves. LO5
4. How does an increase in the money supply get into the hands of consumers? What do they do with it?
LO4
5. Is a reduction in interest rates likely to affect spending on pizza? What kinds of spending are sensitive to
interest rate fluctuations? LO5
6. Which aggregate supply curve in Figure 14.6 does the Fed chair fear the most? Why? LO5
7. Would you advocate monetary restraint or stimulus for today's economy? Who would disagree with you?
LO5
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Like all human institutions, the Fed makes occasional errors in altering the
money supply. Would a constant (fixed) rate of money supply growth eliminate errors? LO5
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Congress sometimes demands more control of monetary policy. Is this a
good idea? Why is fiscal policy, but not monetary policy, entrusted to elected politicians? LO5
PROBLEMS
1. Suppose the following data apply: LO2
Total reserves: $36 billion
Transactions deposits: $600 billion
Cash held by public: $300 billion
Bonds held by public: $400 billion
Stocks held by public: $140 billion
Gross domestic product: $8 trillion
Interest rate: 6 percent
Required reserve ratio: 0.05
1. How large is the money supply (M1)?
2. How much excess reserves are there?
3. What is the money multiplier?
4. What is the available lending capacity?
2. Assume that the following data describe the condition of the commercial banking system: LO2
Total reserves: $85 billion
Transactions deposits: $800 billion
Cash held by public: $300 billion
Required reserve ratio: 0.10
1. How large is the money supply (M1)?
2. Are the banks fully utilizing their lending capacity? Now assume that the public transfers $20
billion in cash into transactions accounts.
3. What would happen to the money supply initially (before any lending takes place)?
4. How much would the total lending capacity of the banking system be after this portfolio switch?
5. How large would the money supply be if the banks fully utilized their lending capacity?
6. What three steps could the Fed take to offset this potential growth in M1?
3. Suppose the Federal Reserve decided to purchase $30 billion worth of government securities in the open
market. LO3
1. By how much will M1 change initially if the entire $30 billion is deposited into transaction
accounts?
2. How will the lending capacity of the banking system be affected if the reserve requirement is 10
percent?
3. How will banks induce investors to utilize this expanded lending capacity?
4. Suppose the economy is initially in equilibrium at an output level of 100 and a price level of 100. The Fed
then manages to shift aggregate demand rightward by 20. LO4
1. Illustrate the initial equilibrium (E1) and the shift of AD.
2. Show what happens to output and prices if the aggregate supply curve is (i) horizontal, (ii) vertical,
and (iii) upwardsloping.
5. What was the money multiplier in China
1. Before the change in reserve requirements?
2. After the change in reserve requirements? (See the News Wire “Reserve Requirements.”) LO2
6. According to the News Wire “Reserve Requirements,” LO2
1. By how much did excess reserves in China increase (in yuan)?
2. By how much did the lending capacity of Chinese banks increase as a result?
7. If every onepoint change in the federal funds rate alters aggregate demand by $200 billion, how far did
AD shift in response to the News Wire “Discount Rates”? LO5
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES From June 2008 to June 2009, M1 increased from $1,400 billion to $1,656
billion.
1. By what percentage did M1 increase?
2. If the Fed had used a fixed rule of 3 percent growth of M1, how large would M1 have been in 2009?
LO5
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Cuba, 2015: Waiting for Economic Growth
Source: © Douglas Scott/Alamy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Specify how economic growth is measured.
2. 2 Describe what GDP per capita and GDP per worker measure.
3. 3 Discuss how productivity increases growth.
4. 4 Explain how government policy affects growth.
5. 5 Discuss why economic growth is desirable.
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F
orty years ago there were no fax machines, no cell phones, no satellite TVs, and no iPods. Personal computers
were still on the drawing board, and laptops weren't even envisioned. Home video didn't exist, and no one had
yet produced microwave popcorn. Biotechnology had yet to produce any blockbuster drugs, and people used the
same pair of athletic shoes for most sports.
New products are symptoms of our economic progress. Over time, we produce not only more goods and services
but also new and better goods and services. In the process, we get richer: Our material living standards rise.
Rising living standards are not inevitable, however. According to World Bank estimates, nearly 3 billion people
—close to half the world's population—continue to live in abject poverty (incomes of less than $2.50 per day).
A quarter of the world's population has no electricity. And 80 percent of the world's population has an income of
less than $10 per day. So not everyone enjoys the fruits of economic growth that are so common in the United
States. Worse still, living standards in many of the poorest countries have fallen in the last decade.
The purpose of this chapter is to take a longerterm view of economic performance. Most macro policy focuses
on the shortrun variations in output and prices we refer to as business cycles. There are longrun concerns as
well. As we ponder the future of the economy beyond the next business cycle, we have to confront the prospects
for economic growth. In that longerrun context three questions stand out:
How important is economic growth?
How does an economy grow?
What policies promote economic growth?
We develop answers to these questions by first examining the nature of economic growth and then examining its
sources and potential. ■
THE NATURE OF GROWTH
Economic growth refers to increases in the output of goods and services. But there are two distinct ways in
which output increases, and they have different implications for our economic welfare.
ShortRun Changes in Capacity Use
The easiest kind of growth comes from increased use of our productive capabilities. In any given year there is a
limit to an economy's potential output. This limit is determined by the quantity of resources available and our
technological knowhow. We have illustrated these shortrun limits to output with a production possibilitiesa
curve, as shown in Figure 15.1. By using all of our available resources and our best expertise, we can produce
any combination of goods on the production possibilities curve.
FIGURE 15.1
FIGURE 15.1 Two Types of GrowthIncreases in output may result from increased use of existing capacity or
from increases in that capacity itself. In (a) the mix of output at point A does not make full use of production
possibilities. Hence we can grow—get more output—by employing more of our available resources or using
them more efficiently. This is illustrated by point B (or any other point on the curve).
Once we are on the production possibilities curve, we can increase output further only by increasing our
productive capacity. This is illustrated by the outward shift of the production possibilities curve in (b).
We do not always take full advantage of our productive capacity, however. The economy often produces a mix
of output that lies inside our production possibilities, like point A in Figure 15.1a. When this happens, the short
run goal of macro policy is to achieve full employment—to move us from point A to some point on the
production possibilities curve (e.g., point B). This was the focus of macro policy during the 2008–2009
recession. The fiscal and monetary policy levers for attaining full employment were the focus of Chapters 12 to
14.
LongRun Changes in Capacity
As desirable as full employment is, there is an obvious limit to how much additional output we can obtain in this
way. Once we are fully utilizing our productive capacity, further increases in output are attainable only if we
expand that capacity. To do so, we have to shift the production possibilities curve outward, as shown in Figure
15.1b. Such shifts imply an increase in potential GDP—that is, our productive capacity.
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Over time, increases in capacity are critical. Shortrun increases in the utilization of existing capacity can
generate only modest increases in output. Even high unemployment rates (e.g., 7 percent) leave little room for
increased output. To achieve large and lasting increases in output we must push our production possibilities
outward. For this reason, economists tend to define economic growth in terms of changes in potential GDP.
AGGREGATE SUPPLY FOCUS The unique character of economic growth can also be illustrated with
aggregate supply and demand curves. Shortrun macro policies focus on aggregate demand. Fiscal and monetary
policy levers are used to shift the AD curve, trying to achieve the best possible combination of full employment
and price stability. As we have observed, however, the aggregate supply (AS) curve sets a limit to demandside
policy. In the short run, the slope of the aggregate supply curve determines how much inflation we have to
experience to get more output. In the long run, the position of the AS curve limits total output. To get a longrun
increase in output, we must move the AS curve.
Figure 15.2 illustrates the supplyside focus of economic growth. Notice that economic growth—sustained
increases in total output—is possible only if the AS curve shifts rightward.
FIGURE 15.2
FIGURE 15.2 SupplySide FocusShortrun macro policy uses shifts of the aggregate demand curve to achieve
economic stability. To achieve longrun growth, however, the aggregate supply curve must be shifted as well.
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Nominal versus Real GDP
We refer to real GDP, not nominal GDP, in our concept of economic growth. Nominal GDP is the current dollar
value of output—that is, the average price level (P) multiplied by the quantity of goods and services produced
(Q). Accordingly, increases in nominal GDP can result from either increases in the price level or increases in the
quantity of output. In fact, nominal GDP can rise even when the quantity of goods and services falls. This was
the case in 1991, for example. The total quantity of goods and services produced in 1991 was less than the
quantity produced in 1990. Nevertheless, prices rose enough during 1991 to keep nominal GDP growing.
Real GDP refers to the actual quantity of goods and services produced. Real GDP avoids the distortions of
inflation by valuing output in constant prices.
GROWTH INDEXES
The GDP Growth Rate
Typically changes in real GDP are expressed in percentage terms as a growth rate. The growth rate is simply
the change in real output between two periods divided by total output in the base period. In 2008, for example,
real GDP was $14.830 trillion when valued in constant (2007) prices. Real GDP fell to $14.419 trillion in 2009,
again measured in constant prices. Hence the growth rate between 2008 and 2009 was
The negative growth rate in 2009 was an exception, not the rule. As Figure 15.3 illustrates, U.S. growth rates are
usually positive, averaging about 3 percent a year. Although there is a lot of yeartoyear variation around that
average, years of actual decline in real GDP (e.g., 1974, 1975, 1980, 1982, 1991, 2008, 2009) are relatively rare.
FIGURE 15.3
FIGURE 15.3 Recent U.S. Growth RatesTotal output typically increases from one year to another. The focus of
policy is on the growth rate—that is, how fast real GDP increases from one year to the next. Historically, growth
rates have varied significantly from year to year and even turned negative on occasion. The policy challenge is
to foster faster, steadier GDP growth. Is this possible?
The challenge for the future is to maintain higher rates of economic growth. After the recession of 1990–1991,
the U.S. economy got back on its longterm growth track. The growth rate even moved a bit above the longterm
average for several years (1997–1999). A brief recession and the 9/11 terrorist attacks put the brakes on
economic growth in 2001. Then the economy really stalled in 2008–2009. Once again, policymakers were
challenged to restore the GDP growth rate to 3 percent or better.
THE EXPONENTIAL PROCESS At first blush, the challenge of raising the growth rate from −2.8 percent to
3 percent may appear neither difficult nor important. Indeed, the whole subject of economic growth looks rather
dull when you discover that big gains in economic growth are measured in fractions of a percent. However, this
initial impression is not fair. First, even one year's low growth implies lost output. Consider the recession of
2009 (see Figure 15.3). If we had just maintained the rate of total ouput in 2009—that is, achieved a zero growth
rate rather than a 2.8 percent decline—we would have had $415 billion more worth of goods and services. That
works out to nearly $1,400 worth of goods and services per person for 300 million Americans. Lots of people
would have liked that extra output.
Second, economic growth is a continuing process. Gains made in one year accumulate in future years. It's like
interest you earn at the bank. The interest you earn in a single year doesn't amount to much. But if you leave
your money in the bank for several years, you begin to earn interest on your interest. Eventually you accumulate
a nice little bankroll.
The process of economic growth works the same way. Each little shift of the production possibilities curve
broadens the base for future GDP. As shifts accumulate over many years, the economy's productive capacity is
greatly expanded. Ultimately we discover that those little differences in annual growth rates generate
tremendous gains in GDP.
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This cumulative process, whereby interest or growth is compounded from one year to the next, is called an
exponential process. To get a feel for its impact, consider the longerrun difference between annual growth rates
of 3 percent and 5 percent. In 30 years, a 3 percent growth rate will raise our GDP to $42 trillion (in 2016
dollars). But a 5 percent growth rate would give us $74 trillion of goods and services in the same amount of
time. Thus, in a single generation, 5 percent growth translates into a standard of living that is 75 percent higher
than 3 percent growth. From this longerterm perspective, little differences in annual growth rates look big
indeed.
GDP per Capita: A Measure of Living Standards
The exponential process looks even more meaningful when translated into per capita terms. GDP per capita is
simply total output divided by total population. In 2015 the total output of the U.S. economy was about $18
trillion. Since there were 325 million of us to share that output, GDP per capita was
This does not mean that every man, woman, and child in the United States received $55,000 worth of goods and
services in 2015. Rather, it simply indicates how much output was potentially available to the average person.
Growth in GDP per capita is attained only when the growth of output exceeds population growth. In the
United States, this condition is usually achieved. Our population grows by an average of only 1 percent a year.
Hence our average economic growth rate of 3 percent is more than sufficient to ensure steadily rising living
standards.
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NEWS WIRE IMPROVED LIVING STANDARDS
What Economic Growth Has Done for U.S. Families
As the economy grows, living standards rise. The changes are so gradual, however, that few people notice. After
20 years of growth, though, some changes are remarkable. We now live longer, work less, and consume a lot
more. Some examples:
Source: Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 1993 Annual Report and industry sources.
NOTE: Economic growth not only generated more and better output but also improved health and provided
more leisure.
The accompanying News Wire “Improved Living Standards” illustrates some of the ways rising per capita GDP
has changed our lives. In the 20year period between 1970 and 1990, the size of the average U.S. house
increased by a third. Air conditioning went from the exception to the rule. And the percentage of college
graduates nearly doubled. Had the economy grown more slowly, we wouldn't have gotten all these additional
goods and services. The trend toward increasing creature comforts and less work continued from 1990 to 2010.
It's tempting to take the benefits of growth for granted. But that would be a serious mistake. As Figure 15.4
shows, rising GDP per capita is a relatively new phenomenon in the long course of history. World GDP per
capita hardly grew at all for 1,500 years or so. It is only since 1820 that world output has grown significantly
faster than the population.
FIGURE 15.4
FIGURE 15.4 The History of World GrowthGDP per capita was stagnant for centuries. Living standards started
rising significantly around 1820. Even then, most growth in per capita GDP occurred in the West.
Source: Angus Maddison, “Poor Until 1820,” The Wall Street Journal, January 11, 1999.
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Figure 15.4 also reveals that most of the nonWestern world has not enjoyed the robust GDP growth we have
experienced. Even today, many poor countries continue to suffer from a combination of slow GDP growth and
fast population growth. Madagascar, for example, is one of the poorest countries in the world, with GDP per
capita of less than $900. Yet its population continues to grow more rapidly (2.9 percent per year) than GDP (2.0
percent growth), further depressing living standards. The population of Niger grew by 3.3 percent per year from
1990 to 2005 while GDP grew at a slower rate of only 2.8 percent. As a consequence, GDP per capita declined
by more than 0.4 percent per year. Even that dismal record was outstripped by Haiti, where GDP itself declined
by 0.8 percent a year from 1990 to 2005 while the population continued to grow at 1.4 percent a year. Haitians
were desperately poor even before the January 2010 earthquake. Their low living standards and primitive
infrastructure made them more vulnerable to earthquake damage and less able to recover.
By comparison with these countries, the United States has been most fortunate. Our GDP per capita has more
than doubled since Ronald Reagan was president. This means that the average person today has twice as many
goods and services as the average person had only a generation ago.
What about the future? Will we continue to enjoy substantial gains in living standards? It all depends on how
fast output continues to grow in relation to population. Table 15.1 indicates some of the possibilities. If GDP per
capita continues to grow at 2.0 percent per year—as it did in the 1990s—our average income will double again
in 36 years.
TABLE 15.1
TABLE 15.1 The Rule of 72
Small differences in annual growth rates cumulate into large differences in GDP. Shown here are the number of
years it would take to double GDP at various growth rates.
Doubling times can be approximated by the rule of 72. Seventytwo divided by the growth rate equals the
number of years it takes to double.
GDP per Worker: A Measure of Productivity
As the people in Madagascar, Haiti, and Niger know, these projected increases in total output may never occur.
Someone has to produce more output if we want GDP per capita to rise. One reason our living standard rose so
nicely in the 1990s is that the labor force grew faster than the population. The baby boomers born after World
War II had completed college, raised families, and were fully committed to the workforce. The labor force also
continued to expand with a steady stream of immigrants and women taking jobs outside the home. The
employment rate—the percentage of the adult population actually working—rose from under 60 percent in
1980 to over 62 percent in 2005.
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The employment rate cannot increase forever. At the limit, everyone would be in the labor market, and no
further workers could be found. Sustained increases in GDP per capita are more likely to come from increases in
output per worker. The total quantity of output produced depends not only on how many workers are employed
but also on how productive each worker is. If productivity is increasing, then GDP per capita is likely to rise as
well.
Historically, productivity gains have been the major source of economic growth. The average worker today
produces twice as much output as his or her parents did. The consequences of this productivity gain are evident
in Figure 15.5. Between 1992 and 2012, the amount of labor employed in the U.S. economy increased by only
20 percent. If productivity hadn't increased, total output would have grown by the same percentage. But
productivity wasn't stagnant; output per laborhour increased by 50 percent during that period. As a
consequence, total output jumped by 70 percent. We are now able to consume more goods and services than
our parents did because the average worker produces more.
FIGURE 15.5
FIGURE 15.5 Rising Productivity and Living StandardsFrom 1992 to 2012, work hours increased by only 20
percent but output increased by 70 percent. Rising output per worker (productivity) is the key to increased living
standards (GDP per capita).
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
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SOURCES OF PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH
If we want consumption levels to keep rising, individual workers will have to produce still more output each
year. How is this possible?
To answer this question, we need to examine how productivity increases. The sources of productivity gains
include
Higher skills—an increase in labor skills.
More capital—an increase in the ratio of capital to labor.
Improved management—better use of available resources in the production process.
Technological advancement—the development and use of better capital equipment.
Labor Quality
As recently as 1950, less than 8 percent of all U.S. workers had completed college. Today over 30 percent of the
workforce has completed four years of college. As a result, today's workers enter the labor market with much
more knowledge. Moreover, they keep acquiring new skills through companypaid training programs, adult
education classes, and distance learning options on the Internet. As education and training levels rise, so does
productivity.
Capital Investment
No matter how educated workers are, they need tools, computers, and other equipment to produce most goods
and services. Thus capital investment is a prime determinant of both productivity and growth. More
investment gives the average worker more and better tools to work with.
While labor force growth accelerated in the 1970s, the growth of capital slowed. The capital stock increased by
4.1 percent per year in the late 1960s but by only 2.5 percent per year in the 1970s and early 1980s. The stock of
capital was still growing faster than the labor force, but the difference was getting smaller. This means that
although the average worker was continuing to get more and better machines, the rate at which he or she was
getting them was slower. As a consequence, productivity growth declined.
These trends reversed in the 1990s. Capital investment accelerated, with investments in computer networks and
telecommunications surging by 10–12 percent a year. As a result, productivity gains accelerated into the 2.5–2.7
percent range. Those productivity gains shifted the production possibilities curve outward, permitting output to
expand with less inflationary pressure.
Management
The quantity and quality of factor inputs do not completely determine the rate of economic growth. Resources,
however good and abundant, must be organized into a production process and managed. Hence entrepreneurship
and the quality of continuing management are major determinants of economic growth.
It is difficult to characterize differences in management techniques or to measure their effectiveness. However,
much attention has been focused in recent years on the potential conflict between shortterm profits and long
term productivity gains. By cutting investment spending (a cost to the firm), a firm can increase shortrun
profits. In doing so, however, a firm may also reduce its growth potential and ultimately its longterm
profitability. When corporate managers become fixated on shortrun fluctuations in the price of corporate stock,
the risk of such a tradeoff increases.
Managers must also learn to motivate employees to their maximum potential. Workers who are disgruntled or
alienated aren't likely to put out much effort. To maximize productivity, managers must develop personnel
structures and incentives that make employees want to contribute to production.
Research and Development
A fourth and vital source of productivity advance is research and development (R&D). R&D is a broad concept
that includes scientific research, product development, innovations in production technique, and the
development of management improvements. R&D activity may be a specific, identifiable activity (e.g., in a
research lab), or it may be part of the process of learning by doing. In either case, the insights developed from
R&D generally lead to new products and cheaper ways of producing them. Over time, R&D is credited with the
greatest contributions to economic growth. In his study of U.S. growth during the period 1929–1982, Edward
Denison concluded that 26 percent of total growth was due to “advances in knowledge.” The relative
contribution of R&D to productivity (output per worker) was probably twice that much.
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There is an important link between R&D and capital investment. A lot of investment is needed to replace worn
and aging equipment. However, new machines are rarely identical to the ones they replace. When you get a new
computer, you're not just replacing an old one; you're upgrading your computing capabilities with more
memory, greater speed, and a lot of new features. Indeed, the availability of better technology is often the
motivation for such capital investment. The same kind of motivation spurs businesses to upgrade machines and
structures. Hence advances in technology and capital investment typically go hand in hand.
The fruits of research and development don't all reside in new machinery. New ideas may nurture products and
processes that expand production possibilities even without additional capital equipment. Biotechnology has
developed strains of wheat and rice that have multiplied the size of harvests, with no additional farm machinery.
Likewise, the development of nonhierarchical databases revolutionized information technology, making it far
less timeconsuming to access and transmit data, with less hardware.
POLICY LEVERS
To a large extent, the pace of economic growth is set by market forces—by the education, training, and
investment decisions of market participants. Government policy plays an important role as well. Indeed,
government policies can have a major impact on whether and how far the aggregate supply curve shifts.
Education and Training
As noted earlier, the quality of labor largely depends on education and training. Accordingly, government
policies that support education and training contribute directly to growth and productivity. From a fiscal policy
perspective, money spent on schools and training has a dual payoff: It stimulates the economy in the short run
(like all other spending) and increases the longrun capacity to produce. Hence we get positive aggregate
demand (AD) and aggregate supply (AS) shifts. Tax incentives for training have the same effects.
Immigration Policy
Both the quality and the quantity of labor are affected by immigration policy. Close to a million people
immigrate to the United States each year. This influx of immigrants has been a major source of growth in the
U.S. labor force—and thus a direct contributor to an outward shift of our production possibilities.
The impact of immigration on our productive capacity is a question not just of numbers but also of the quality of
these new workers. Recent immigrants have much lower educational attainment than nativeborn Americans and
are less able to fill job vacancies in growing industries. This is largely due to immigration policy, which sets
only countryspecific quotas and gives preference to relatives of U.S. residents. Some observers have suggested
that the United States should pay more attention to the educational and skill levels of immigrants and set
preferences on the basis of potential productivity, as Canada and many other nations do. In December 2012 the
U.S. House of Representatives proposed to set aside 55,000 visas for foreign students graduating with degrees in
science, technology, engineering, and math, the socalled STEM fields (see the accompanying News Wire
“Labor Supply”). To make room for the additional STEM visas, the House voted to eliminate the 55,000
“diversity” visas reserved for foreigners from nations with low immigration rates to the United States. President
Obama rejected that proposal but did act in November 2014 to extend for 29 months the visas of foreign
students graduating in STEM fields. As the immigration debate continues, we have to recognize that the sheer
number of people entering the country makes immigration policy an important growth policy lever.
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NEWS WIRE LABOR SUPPLY
House Poised to Pass STEM Immigration Bill
Despite White House opposition, the House appears likely to pass a bill this week that would allow more foreign
students who graduate from U.S. schools with advanced technical degrees to stay in the country….
The bill would eliminate the Diversity Visa Program and shift up to 55,000 green cards a year to foreign
students who graduate from qualified U.S. schools with a doctorate or master's degree in the “STEM”
disciplines: science, technology, engineering, and math….
Tech firms and lawmakers argue that immigrants have been responsible for helping to start some of the most
successful tech firms in the United States, including Google and Yahoo, and that it makes no sense to educate
foreign students in the key STEM fields and then force them to leave the United States when they graduate.
—Juliana Gruenwald
Source: National Journal, November 28, 2012. Used with permission by Wrights Media.
NOTE: Immigrants are an important source of human capital. Should immigrants be selected on the basis of
skills instead of family ties or country of origin?
Investment Incentives
Government policy also affects the supply of capital. As a rule, lower tax rates encourage people to invest more
—to build factories, purchase new equipment, and construct new offices. Hence tax policy is not only a staple
of shortterm stabilization policy but a determinant of longrun growth as well.
The tax treatment of capital gains is one of the most debated supplyside policy levers. Capital gains are
increases in the value of assets. When stocks, land, or other assets are sold, any resulting gain is counted as
taxable income. Many countries—including Japan, Italy, South Korea, Taiwan, and the Netherlands—do not
levy any taxes on capital gains. The rest of the European Union and Canada impose lower capital gains taxes
than does the United States. Lowering the tax rate on capital gains might stimulate more investment and
encourage people to reallocate their assets to more productive uses. When the capital gains tax rate was cut from
28 to 20 percent in 1997, U.S. investment accelerated. That experience prompted President George W. Bush to
push for further tax cuts in 2003. After the capital gains tax rate was cut to 15 percent (May 2003),
nonresidential investment increased significantly. That pickup in investment may have accelerated GDP growth
by as much as 2 percent in 2004.
Critics argue that a capital gains tax cut overwhelmingly favors the rich, who own most stocks, property, and
other wealth. This inequity, they assert, outweighs any efficiency gains. That's why President Obama pushed
Congress to increase the capital gains tax from 15 to 20 percent in 2013. Critics worried that the higher tax rates
might slow capital investment and economic growth.
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Savings Incentives
Another prerequisite for faster growth is more saving. At full employment, a greater volume of investment is
possible only if the rate of consumption is cut back. In other words, additional investment requires additional
saving. Hence supplyside economists favor tax incentives that encourage saving as well as greater tax
incentives for investment. This kind of perspective contrasts sharply with the Keynesian emphasis on
stimulating consumption.
In the early 1980s Congress greatly increased the incentives for saving. First, banks were permitted to increase
the rate of interest paid on various types of savings accounts. Second, the tax on earned interest was reduced.
And third, new forms of taxfree saving were created (e.g., Individual Retirement Accounts [IRAs]).
Despite these incentives, the U.S. saving rates declined during the 1980s. Household saving dropped from 6.2
percent of disposable income in 1981 to a low of 2.5 percent in 1987. Neither the tax incentives nor the high
interest rates that prevailed in the early 1980s convinced Americans to save more. As a result, the U.S. saving
rate fell considerably below that of other nations. By 2006 the U.S. saving rate was actually negative:
Consumers were spending more than they were earning (see the accompanying News Wire “Saving Rates”). As
a consequence, the United States is heavily dependent on foreign saving (deposited in U.S. banks and bonds) to
finance investment and growth.
Government Finances
The dependence of economic growth on investment and savings adds an important dimension to the debate over
budget deficits. When the government borrows money to finance its spending, it dips into the nation's savings
pool. Hence the government ends up borrowing funds that could have been used to finance investment. If this
happens, the government deficit effectively crowds out private investment. This process of crowding out—of
diverting available savings from investment to government spending—directly limits private investment. From
this perspective, government budget deficits act as a constraint on economic growth.
NEWS WIRE SAVING RATES
Americans Save Little
American households save very little. In 2006 the average American actually spent more income than he or she
earned—the saving rate was negative. As shown here, the United States continues to rank near the bottom of the
savers' list in 2012.
Supplysiders are especially concerned about low saving rates. They argue that Americans must save more to
finance increased investment and economic growth. Otherwise, they fear, the United States will fall behind other
countries in the progression toward higher productivity levels and living standards.
Note: Saving rate equals household saving divided by disposable income.
Source: www.oecd.org, Economic Outlook, 2012. Statistical Annex Table 23.
https://data.oecd.org/natincome/savingrate.htm
NOTE: Savings are a primary source of investment financing. Higher saving rates imply proportionately less
consumption and more investment and growth.
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As we saw in earlier chapters, budget deficits aren't always bad. Shortrun cyclical instability may require fiscal
policies that unbalance the federal budget. The concern for longrun growth simply adds another wrinkle to
fiscal policy decisions: Fiscal and monetary policies must be evaluated in terms of their impact not only on
shortrun aggregate demand but also on longrun aggregate supply. This was a major concern in 2009–2012
when massive federal government fiscal stimulus packages pushed the government's budget deficit into the
trilliondollar stratosphere.
Deregulation
There are still other mechanisms for stimulating economic growth. The government intervenes directly in supply
decisions by regulating employment and output behavior. In general, such regulations limit the flexibility of
producers to respond to changes in demand. Government regulation also tends to raise production costs. The
higher costs result not only from required changes in the production process but also from the expense of
monitoring government regulations. The budget costs and the burden of red tape discourage production and so
limit aggregate supply. From this perspective, deregulation would shift the AS curve rightward.
FACTOR MARKETS Minimum wage laws are one of the most familiar forms of factor market regulation. The
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 required employers to pay workers a minimum of 25 cents per hour. Over
time, Congress has increased the minimum wage repeatedly (see the News Wire “Minimum Wage Hikes” in
Chapter 8), up to $7.25 as of July 2009. A further boost, to $10 an hour, was debated in 2015.
The goal of the minimum wage law is to ensure workers a decent standard of living. But the law has other
effects as well. By prohibiting employers from using lowerpaid workers, it limits the ability of employers to
hire additional workers. This hiring constraint limits job opportunities for immigrants, teenagers, and lowskill
workers. Without that constraint, more of these workers would find jobs, gain valuable experience, and attain
higher wages—shifting the AS curve rightward.
The government also sets standards for workplace safety and health. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), for example, sets limits on the noise levels at work sites. If noise levels exceed these
limits, the employer is required to adopt administrative or engineering controls to reduce the noise level.
Personal protection of workers (e.g., earplugs or earmuffs), though much less costly, will suffice only if source
controls are not feasible. All such regulations are intended to improve the welfare of workers. In the process,
however, these regulations raise the costs of production and inhibit supply responses. As with so many policy
issues, there are tradeoffs to consider.
PRODUCT MARKETS The government's regulation of factor markets tends to raise production costs and
inhibit supply. The same is true of regulations imposed directly on product markets. A few examples illustrate
the impact of such regulations.
Transportation Costs At the federal level, various agencies regulate the output and prices of transportation
services. Until 1984 the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) determined which routes airlines could fly and how
much they could charge. The Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) has had the same kind of power over
trucking, interstate bus lines, and railroads. The routes, services, and prices for ships (in U.S. coastal waters and
foreign commerce) have been established by the Federal Maritime Commission. In all these cases the
regulations constrained the ability of producers to respond to increases in demand. Existing producers could not
increase output at will, and new producers were excluded from the market. The easing of these restrictive
regulations spurred more output, lower prices, and innovation in air travel, telecommunications, and land
transportation. In the process, the AS curve shifted to the right.
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Food and Drug Standards The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has a broad mandate to protect consumers
from dangerous products. In fulfilling this responsibility, the FDA sets health standards for the content of
specific foods. A hot dog, for example, can be labeled as such only if it contains specific mixtures of skeletal
meat, pig lips, snouts, and ears. By the same token, the FDA requires that chocolate bars must contain no more
than 60 microscopic insect fragments per 100 grams of chocolate. The FDA also sets standards for the testing of
new drugs and evaluates the test results. In all three cases, the goal of regulation is to minimize health risks to
consumers.
Like all regulation, the FDA standards entail real costs. The tests required for new drugs are expensive and time
consuming. Getting a new drug approved for sale can take years of effort and require a huge investment. The net
results are that (1) fewer new drugs are brought to market and (2) those that do reach the market are more
expensive than they would be in the absence of regulation. In other words, the aggregate supply of goods is
shifted to the left.
FINANCIAL MARKETS The Great Recession of 2008–2009 prompted a huge increase in federal regulation
of financial markets. In the quest to avoid another financial crisis, Congress in 2010 approved sweeping new
powers for federal regulators of banks, credit card companies, and other financial institutions (the DoddFrank
Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act). The act was so complex that it took federal regulators five
years just to spell out the new regulations that would affect financial institutions. The uncertainties associated
with that process made banks less willing to make new loans; excess reserves of the banking system skyrocketed
(Figure 14.3), while new loan activity stagnated. That kept recovery from the recession in check. Critics worry
that the final regulations will make loans more costly and more difficult to get, continuing to dampen economic
growth.
Many—perhaps most—of these regulatory activities are beneficial. In fact, all were originally designed to serve
specific public purposes. As a result of such regulation, we get safer drugs, cleaner air, less deceptive
advertising, and more secure loans. We must also consider the costs involved, however. All regulatory activities
impose direct and indirect costs. These costs must be compared to the benefits received. The basic contention of
supplyside economists is that regulatory costs are too high. To improve our economic performance, they
assert, we must deregulate the production process, thereby shifting the aggregate supply curve to the right again.
At a minimum, we should at least consider potential tradeoffs between increased regulation and increased
growth.
Economic Freedom
Regulation and taxes are just two forms of government intervention that affect production possibilities.
Governments also establish and enforce property rights, legal rights, and political rights. One of the greatest
obstacles to postcommunist growth in Russia was the absence of legal protection. Few people wanted to invest
in businesses that could be stolen or confiscated, with little hope of judicial redress. Nor did producers want to
ship goods without ironclad payment guarantees. By contrast, producers in the United States are willing to
produce and ship goods without prepayment, knowing that the courts, collection agencies, and insurance
companies can help ensure payment, if necessary.
It is difficult to identify all of the institutional features that make an economy businessfriendly. The Heritage
Foundation, a conservative think tank, has constructed an index of economic freedom, using 50 different
measures of government policy. Each year it ranks the world's countries on this index, thereby identifying the
most “free” economies (least government control) and the most “repressed” (most government control).
According to Heritage, the nations with the most economic freedom not only have the highest GDP per capita
but continue to grow the fastest. As the accompanying News Wire “Institutional Framework” illustrates, the
countries that moved the furthest toward free markets also grew the fastest from 1995 to 2003. Their average
annual GDP growth rate (4.75 percent) greatly exceeded that (2.68 percent) of nations that made little progress
toward free markets—or that actually increased government regulation of resource and product markets (e.g.,
Venezuela, Uganda, Cuba, and Morocco).
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NEWS WIRE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Source: Heritage Foundation, 2005. Index of Economic Freedom, Washington, DC, 2005. Used with
permission.
NOTE: As nations give more rein to market forces, they tend to grow faster. These data compare changes in the
degree of market freedom (from government regulation) with GDP growth rates.
The Heritage study doesn't imply that we should rely exclusively on private markets to resolve the WHAT,
HOW, and FOR WHOM questions. But it does reinforce the notion that an economy's institutional framework—
particularly the extent of market freedom—plays a critical role in its growth potential. We have to ask whether
any specific government intervention promotes economic growth or slows it.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Is More Growth Desirable?
The government clearly has a powerful set of levers for promoting faster economic growth. Many people
wonder, though, whether more economic growth is really desirable. Those of us who commute on congested
highways, worry about climate change, breathe foul air, and can't find a secluded camping site may raise a loud
chorus of nos. But before reaching a conclusion, let us at least determine what it is people don't like about the
prospect of continued growth. Is it really economic growth per se that people object to or, instead, the specific
ways GDP has grown in the past?
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First of all, let us distinguish clearly between economic growth and population growth. Congested
neighborhoods, dining halls, and highways are the consequence of too many people, not of too many goods and
services. And there's no indication that population growth will cease any time soon. The world's population of 7
billion people is likely to increase by another 2 billion people by the year 2050. The United States alone harbors
another 3 million or so more people every year.
Who's going to feed, clothe, and house all these people? Are we going to redistribute the current level of output,
leaving everyone with less? Or should we try to produce more output so living standards don't fall? If we had
more goods and services—if we had more houses and transit systems—much of the population congestion we
now experience might be relieved. Maybe if we had enough resources to meet our existing demands and to build
a solargenerated “new town” in the middle of Montana, people might move out of the crowded neighborhoods
of Chicago and St. Louis. Well, probably not, but at least one thing is certain: With fewer goods and services,
more people will have to share any given quantity of output.
Which brings us back to the really essential measure of growth: GDP per capita. Are there any serious grounds
for desiring less GDP per capita—a reduced standard of living? Don't say yes just because you think we already
have too many cars on our roads or calories in our bellies. That argument refers to the mix of output again and
does not answer the question of whether we want any more goods or services per person. Increasing GDP per
capita can take a million forms, including the educational services you are now consuming. The rejection of
economic growth per se implies that none of those forms is desirable.
We could, of course, acquire more of the goods and services we consider beneficial simply by cutting back on
the production of the things we consider unnecessary. But who is to say which mix of output is best? The present
mix of output may be considered bad because it is based on a maldistribution of income, deceptive advertising,
or failure of the market mechanism to account for external costs. If so, it would seem more efficient (and
politically more feasible) to address those problems directly rather than to attempt to lower our standard of
living.
SUMMARY
Economic growth refers to increases in real GDP. Shortrun growth may result from increases in capacity
utilization (e.g., less unemployment). In the long run, however, growth requires increases in capacity itself
—rightward shifts of the longrun aggregate supply curve. LO1
GDP per capita is a basic measure of living standards. By contrast, GDP per worker gauges our
productivity. Over time, increases in productivity have been the primary cause of rising living standards.
LO2
Productivity gains can originate in a variety of ways. These sources include better labor quality, increased
capital investment, research and development, and improved management. LO3
The policy levers for increasing growth rates include education and training, immigration, investment and
saving incentives, and the broader institutional framework. All of these levers may increase the quantity or
quality of resources. LO4
Budget deficits may inhibit economic growth by crowding out investment—that is, absorbing savings that
would otherwise finance investment. LO4
The goal of economic growth implies that macroeconomic policies must be assessed in terms of their
longrun supply impact as well as their shortterm demand effects. LO4
Continued economic growth is desirable as long as it brings a higher standard of living for people and an
increased ability to produce and consume socially desirable goods and services. LO5
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TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
production possibilities
economic growth
nominal GDP
real GDP
growth rate
GDP per capita
labor force
employment rate
productivity
investment
saving
crowding out
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. In what specific ways (if any) does a college education increase a worker's productivity? LO3
2. What's wrong with a negative saving rate, as the United States had in 2006? LO3
3. Notice in the News Wire “Improved Living Standards” how the time spent working on the job and at
home has declined. How are these changes indicative of economic growth? LO5
4. How would the following factors affect a nation's growth potential? LO4
1. Legal protection of private property.
2. High tax rates.
3. Judicial corruption.
4. Government price controls.
5. Free trade.
5. Should the United States adopt a skillbased immigration policy (see the News Wire “Labor Supply”) or
continue to give preference to relatives of U.S. residents? LO4
6. Is limitless growth really possible? What forces do you think will be most important in slowing or halting
economic growth? LO5
7. POLICY PERSPECTIVES How did GDP growth contribute to the last two items in the News Wire
“Improved Living Standards”? LO5
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Suppose that economic growth could be achieved only by increasing
inequality (e.g., via tax incentives for investment). Would economic growth still be desirable? LO4
PROBLEMS
1. According to the Rule of 72 (Table 15.1), how many years will it take for GDP to double if GDP growth is
LO1
1. 4 percent?
2. 2 percent?
3. 1 percent?
2. China's output grew at an amazing rate of 8 percent per year from 2010 to 2014. (See Table 15.1.) LO2
1. At that rate how long would it take for China's GDP to double?
2. With its population increasing at 0.6 percent per year, how long will it take for per capita GDP to
double?
3. In 2015, approximately 59 percent of the adult population (250 million) was employed, among the lowest
employment rates in 20 years. If the employment rate increased to the prerecession level of 62 percent,
LO2
1. How many more people would be working?
2. By how much would output increase if GDP per worker was $100,000?
4. According to the data in Figure 15.4, by what percent did world GDP per capita grow from LO1
1. 1000 to 1500?
2. 1500 to 1820?
3. 1820 to 1995?
5. According to Figure 15.4, by what percentage did GDP per capita increase between 1820 and 1995 in
LO5
1. North America?
2. Latin America?
3. Africa?
6. According to the News Wire “Saving Rates,” if a German and an American both had $100, LO2
1. How many more dollars would the German save in 2012?
2. Why are higher saving rates desirable?
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7. Suppose that every additional 3 percentage points in the investment rate (I ÷ GDP) boosts GDP growth by
1 percentage point. Assume also that all investment must be financed with consumer saving. The economy
is now characterized by
If the goal is to raise the growth rate by 2 percentage points, LO3
1. By how much must investment increase?
2. By how much must consumption decline?
8. POLICY PERSPECTIVES The World Bank projects that the world's population will increase from 7
billion today to 8 billion in 2025. World output today is roughly $80 trillion. LO5
1. What is global per capita income today?
2. What will per capita income be in 2025 if the world's economy doesn't grow?
3. By what percentage must the world economy grow by 2025 to maintain current living standards?
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Source: © Comstock/PictureQuest, RF
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Identify the major tools of macro policy.
2. 2 Explain how macro tools can fix macro problems.
3. 3 Depict the track record of macro outcomes.
4. 4 Describe major impediments to policy success.
5. 5 Discuss the pros and cons of discretionary policy.
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M
acroeconomic theory is supposed to explain the business cycle and show policymakers how to control it. But
something is obviously wrong. Despite our relative prosperity, we have not consistently achieved the goals of
full employment, price stability, and vigorous economic growth. All too often, either unemployment or inflation
jumps unexpectedly or economic growth slows down. No matter how hard we try, the business cycle seems to
persist.
What accounts for this gap between the promises of economic theory and the reality of economic performance?
Are the theories inadequate? Or is sound economic advice being ignored? Many people blame the economists.
They point to the conflicting theories and advice that economists offer and wonder what theory is supposed to be
followed. If economists themselves can't agree, it is asked, why should anyone else listen to them?
Not surprisingly, economists see things a bit differently. First, they point out, the business cycle isn't as bad as it
used to be. Since World War II, the economy has had many ups and downs, but none as severe as the Great
Depression. In recent decades, the U.S. economy has enjoyed several long and robust economic expansions,
even in the wake of recessions, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters. The recession and recovery of 2008–2010
was no exception. So the economic record contains more wins than losses.
Second, economists place most of the blame for occasional losses on the real world, not on their theories. They
complain that politics takes precedence over good economic advice. Politicians are reluctant, for example, to
raise taxes or cut spending to control inflation. Their concern is winning the next election, not solving the
country's economic problems.
President Jimmy Carter anguished over another problem—the complexity of economic decision making. In the
real world, neither theory nor politics can keep up with all our economic goals. As President Carter observed,
We cannot concentrate just on inflation or just on unemployment or just on deficits in the federal budget or our
international payments. Nor can we act in isolation from other countries. We must deal with all of these
problems simultaneously and on a worldwide basis.
That's a message that rang in President Obama's ears when he started to grapple with an array of short and long
term economic problems (see cartoon). Obama's succesor experienced the same frustration.
The economist in chief must deal with an array of economic problems—often all at the same time.
Source: “First 100 Daze” © 2009 John Darkow, Columbia Daily Tribune, Missouri, and PoliticalCartoons.com
The purpose of this chapter is to confront these and other frustrations of the real world. In so doing, we will try
to provide answers to the following questions:
What is the ideal package of macro policies?
How well does our macro performance live up to the promises of that package?
What kinds of obstacles prevent us from doing better? ■
POLICY TOOLS
The macroeconomic tools available to policymakers for combating business cycles and fostering GDP growth
are summarized in Table 16.1. Although this list is brief, we hardly need a reminder at this point of how
powerful each instrument can be. Every one of these major policy instruments can significantly change our
answers to the basic economic questions of WHAT, HOW, and FOR WHOM to produce.
TABLE 16.1
TABLE 16.1 The Policy Tools
Economic policymakers have access to a variety of policy instruments. The challenge is to choose the right tools
at the right time. The mix of tools required may vary from problem to problem.
Fiscal Policy
The basic tools of fiscal policy are contained in the federal budget. Tax cuts are supposed to stimulate spending
by putting more income in the hands of consumers and businesses. Tax increases are intended to curtail
spending and thus reduce inflationary pressures. Some of the major tax changes implemented in recent years are
summarized in Table 16.2.
TABLE 16.2
TABLE 16.2 Fiscal Policy Milestones
The expenditure side of the federal budget provides another fiscal policy tool. Increases in government spending
raise aggregate demand and so encourage more production. A slowdown in government spending restrains
aggregate demand, lessening inflationary pressures. With federal spending approaching $4 trillion a year,
changes in Uncle Sam's budget can influence aggregate demand significantly. That was the intent, of course, of
President Obama's massive 2009 fiscal stimulus package. The $787 billion of increased federal spending,
income transfers, and tax cuts were intended to give a big push to aggregate demand.
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AUTOMATIC STABILIZERS Changes in the budget don't necessarily originate in presidential decisions or
congressional legislation. Tax revenues and government outlays also respond to economic events. When the
economy slows, tax revenues decline, and government spending increases automatically. The 2008–2009
recession, for example, displaced 8 million workers and reduced the incomes of millions more. As their incomes
fell, so did their tax liabilities. As a consequence, government tax revenues fell.
The recession also caused government spending to rise. The swollen ranks of unemployed workers increased
outlays for unemployment insurance benefits, welfare, food stamps, and other transfer payments. None of this
budget activity required new legislation. Instead the benefits were increased automatically under laws already
written. No new policy was required.
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These recessioninduced changes in tax receipts and budget outlays are referred to as automatic stabilizers.
Such budget changes help stabilize the economy by increasing aftertax incomes and spending when the
economy slows. Specifically, recessions automatically
Reduce tax revenues.
Increase government outlays.
Widen budget deficits.
Economic expansions have the opposite effect on government budgets. When the economy booms, people have
to pay more taxes on their rising incomes. They also have less need for government assistance. Hence tax
receipts rise and government spending drops automatically when the economy heats up. These changes tend to
shrink the budget deficit. This is exactly the kind of automatic deficit reduction that occurred in the late 1990s.
While President Clinton and congressional Republicans were squabbling about how to reduce the federal deficit,
the economy kept growing. Indeed, it grew so fast that the budget deficit turned into a budget surplus in 1998.
Soon thereafter both the Democrats and the Republicans claimed credit for that turn of events.
DISCRETIONARY POLICY To assess political claims for deficit reduction, we need to distinguish automatic
changes in the budget from policyinduced changes. Automatic changes in taxes and spending do not reflect
current fiscal policy decisions; they reflect laws already on the books. Discretionary fiscal policy entails only
new tax and spending decisions. Specifically, fiscal policy refers to deliberate changes in tax or spending
legislation. These changes can be made only by the U.S. Congress. Every year the president proposes specific
budget and tax changes, negotiates with Congress, and then accepts or vetoes specific acts that Congress has
passed. The resulting policy decisions represent discretionary fiscal policy. Policymakers deserve credit (or
blame) only for the effects of the discretionary policy decisions they make (or fail to make).
The distinction between automatic stabilizers and discretionary spending helps explain why the federal budget
deficit jumped from $221 billion in fiscal year 1991 to nearly $270 billion in fiscal 1992. Ironically, Congress
had increased tax rates in fiscal 1992, hoping to trim the deficit. Congress had also planned to slow the growth
of government spending. Hence discretionary fiscal policy was slightly restrictive. These discretionary policies
were overwhelmed, however, by the force of the 1990–1991 recession. Automatic stabilizers caused tax
revenues to fall and government transfer payments to rise. The net result was a much larger budget deficit in
fiscal 1992, the opposite of what Congress had intended. The swollen deficit was a symptom of the economy's
weakness, not a measure of fiscal policy stimulus.
A similar chain of events plunged the federal budget into an enormous deficit in 2009 (see the accompanying
News Wire “Origins of Deficits”). From 2008 to 2009 the government's budget deficit soared from $459 billion
to over $1.4 trillion. President Obama blamed that trilliondollar jump in the deficit on the 2008–2009 recession
—that is, the automatic stabilizers. His critics blamed Obama's enormous spending plans—that is, policy
decisions. The Congressional Budget Office studied the situation and concluded that only a quarter of the
trilliondollar deficit increase was caused by the recession. The remaining threequarters was due to the federal
government's fiscal policy.
Monetary Policy
The policy arsenal described in Table 16.1 also contains monetary tools. The tools of monetary policy include
open market operations, discount rate changes, and reserve requirements. The Federal Reserve uses these tools
to change the money supply. In so doing, the Fed strives to change interest rates and shift the aggregate demand
curve in the desired direction.
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NEWS WIRE ORIGINS OF DEFICITS
Budget Deficit Sets Record in February
WASHINGTON—The government ran up the largest monthly deficit in history in February, keeping the flood
of red ink on track to top last year's record for the full year.
The Treasury Department said Wednesday that the February deficit totaled $220.9 billion, 14 percent higher than
the previous record set in February of last year….
The Obama administration is projecting that the deficit for the 2010 budget year will hit an alltime high of
$1.56 trillion, surpassing last year's $1.4 trillion total. The administration is forecasting that the deficit will
remain above $1 trillion in 2011, giving the country three straight years of $1 trillionplus deficits.
The administration says the huge deficits are necessary to get the country out of the deepest recession since the
1930s. But Republicans have attacked the stimulus spending as wasteful and a failure at the primary objective of
lowering unemployment….
The administration has maintained that the country must run large budget deficits until the economy has begun
to grow at a sustainable pace that is bringing the unemployment rate down. Only then, the administration says,
should the government focus on getting control of the deficits.
—Martin Crutsinger
Source: “US budget deficit hits record high,” The Associated Press, March 11, 2010. Copyright © 2010
The Associated Press. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: The budget deficit is affected by both deliberate fiscal policy and cyclical changes in the economy. A
recession, combined with a huge fiscal stimulus, caused deficits to soar in 2009–2012.
The effectiveness of both fiscal policy and monetary policy depends on the shape of the aggregate supply (AS)
curve. If the AS curve is horizontal, changes in the money supply (and related aggregate demand shifts) affect
output only. If the AS curve is vertical, money supply changes will affect prices only. In the typical case of an
upwardsloping AS curve, changes in the money supply affect both prices and output (review Figure 14.7).
RULES VERSUS DISCRETION Disagreements about the actual shape of the AS curve raise questions about
how to conduct monetary policy. As discussed in Chapter 14, some economists urge the Fed to play an active
role in adjusting the money supply to changing economic conditions. Others suggest that we would be better
served by fixed rules for money supply growth. Fixed rules would make the Fed more of a passive mechanic, as
opposed to an active policymaker.
There are clear risks of error in discretionary policy. In 1979 and again in 1989 the Fed pursued restrictive
policies that pushed the economy into recessions. In both cases, the Fed had to reverse its policies. (In Table
16.3 compare October 1982 to October 1979 and the year 1991 to 1989.) In 1999–2000 the Fed again raised
interest rates substantially, in six separate steps. When the economy slowed abruptly at the end of 2000, critics
said the Fed had again stepped too hard on the monetary brake. The Fed was forced to reverse course again in
2001.
TABLE 16.3
TABLE 16.3 Monetary Policy Milestones
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Critics say the stimulative monetary policy (low interest rates) after 2001 fueled the rapid rise in home prices
that proved to be excessive. When the Fed later started exercising some monetary restraint, the housing bubble
burst, pushing the economy into the 2008–2009 recession.
Critics charge that these repeated Uturns in monetary policy have destabilized the economy rather than
stabilizing it. They contend that strict rules for money management would be better than Fed discretion. It
certainly looks that way at times, especially in hindsight. But fixed rules might not work better. The September
11 terrorist attacks and a subsequent plunge in consumer confidence forced the Fed to respond quickly and with
more forcefulness than fixed policy rules would have permitted.
The September 2008 credit crisis required even more discretionary intervention. The Fed had to act quickly and
boldly—more quickly than fixed rules would permit—to pump reserves into the banking system. Without such
dramatic discretionary action by the Fed, the credit crisis could have brought the economy to a complete
standstill.
SupplySide Policy
Supplyside theory offers the third major set of policy tools. We have seen how the shape of the aggregate
supply curve limits the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies (see Figure 14.7). Shifts of the aggregate
supply curve are also a prerequisite for economic growth. Supplyside policy focuses directly on these
constraints. The goal of supplyside policy is to shift the aggregate supply curve to the right. Such rightward
shifts not only promote longterm growth but also make shortrun demandside intervention more successful.
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The supplyside toolbox is filled with tools. Tax cuts designed to stimulate work effort, saving, and investment
are among the most popular and powerful supplyside tools. Deregulation may also reduce production costs and
stimulate investment. Expenditure on education, training, and research expands our capacity to produce.
Immigration policy alters the size and skills of the labor force and thus affects aggregate supply as well.
In the 1980s tax rates were reduced dramatically. The maximum marginal tax rate on individuals was cut from
70 percent to 50 percent in 1981, and then still further, to 28 percent, in 1987. The 1980s also witnessed major
milestones in the deregulation of airlines, trucking, telephone service, and other industries (see Table 16.4). All
of these policies helped shift the AS curve rightward.
TABLE 16.4
TABLE 16.4 SupplySide Milestones
Government policies can also shift the AS curve leftward. When the minimum wage jumped to $7.25 an hour in
2009, the cost of supplying goods and services went up. A 1990 increase in the payroll tax boosted production
costs as well. In the early 1990s, private employers also incurred higher labor costs associated with government
mandated benefits (Family Leave Act of 1993) and accommodations for handicapped workers (Americans with
Disabilities Act). In 2013 marginal tax rates were increased for wealthy individuals and many small businesses.
All of these policies restrained aggregate supply.
Even welfare reform has supplyside implications. The 1996 Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act
established time limits for welfare dependence. When those limits were reached in 1998–1999, more welfare
recipients had to enter the labor market. When they did, aggregate supply shifted rightward. The extension of
unemployment benefits in 2009–2011 had the opposite effect.
Because tax rates are a basic tool of supplyside policy, fiscal and supplyside policies are often interwined.
When Congress changes the tax laws, it almost always alters marginal tax rates and thus changes production
incentives. Notice, for example, that tax legislation appears in Table 16.4 as well as in Table 16.2. The American
Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 not only changed total tax revenues (fiscal policy) but also restructured production
and investment incentives (supplyside policy).
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IDEALIZED USES
These fiscal, monetary, and supplyside tools are potentially powerful levers for controlling the economy. In
principle, they can cure the excesses of the business cycle. To see how, let us review their use in three distinct
macroeconomic settings.
Case 1: Recession
When output and employment levels fall far short of the economy's fullemployment potential, the mandate for
public policy is clear. The GDP gap must be closed. Total spending must be increased so that producers can sell
more goods, hire more workers, and move the economy toward its productive capacity. At such times the most
urgent need is to get people back to work.
How can a recession be ended? Keynesians emphasize the need to stimulate aggregate demand. They seek to
shift the aggregate demand curve rightward by cutting taxes or boosting government spending. The resulting
stimulus will set off a multiplier reaction, propelling the economy to full employment.
Modern Keynesians acknowledge that monetary policy might also help. Specifically, increases in the money
supply may lower interest rates and give investment spending a further boost. To give the economy a really
powerful stimulus, we might want to do everything at the same time—that is, cut taxes, increase government
spending, and expand the money supply simultaneously (as in 2001–2003 and again in 2008–2009). By taking
such convincing action, we might also increase consumer confidence, raise investor expectations, and induce
still greater spending and output.
Other economists offer different advice. Socalled monetarists and other critics of government intervention see
no point in these discretionary policies. As they see it, the aggregate supply curve is vertical at the natural rate of
unemployment (see Figure 14.7). Quick fixes of monetary or fiscal policy may shift the aggregate demand curve
but won't change the aggregate supply curve. Monetary or fiscal stimulus will only push the price level up (more
inflation) without reducing unemployment. In this view, the appropriate policy response to a recession is
patience. As sales and output slow, interest rates will decline, and new investment will be stimulated.
Supplysiders confront these objections headon. In their view, policy initiatives should focus on changing the
shape and position of the aggregate supply curve. Supplysiders emphasize the need to improve production
incentives. They urge cuts in marginal tax rates on investment and labor. They also look for ways to reduce
government regulation.
Case 2: Inflation
An overheated economy elicits a similar assortment of policy prescriptions. In this case the immediate goal is to
restrain aggregate demand—that is, shift the aggregate demand curve to the left. Keynesians would do this by
raising taxes and cutting government spending, relying on the multiplier to cool down the economy.
The monetary policy response to inflation would be a hike in interest rates. By making credit more expensive,
the Fed would discourage some investment and consumption, shifting the AD curve leftward. Pure monetarists
would simply cut the money supply, expecting the same outcome. The Fed might even seek to squeeze AD extra
hard just to convince market participants that the inflation dragon was really slain.
Supplysiders would point out that inflation implies both too much money and not enough goods. They would
look at the supply side of the market for ways to expand productive capacity. In a highly inflationary setting,
they would propose more incentives to save. The additional savings would automatically reduce consumption
while creating a larger pool of investable funds. Supplysiders would also cut taxes and regulations, encourage
more immigration, and lower import barriers that keep out cheaper foreign goods.
Different macro theories offer alternative explanations and policy options for macro failures.
By MAL, Associated Features, Inc.
Case 3: Stagflation
Although serious inflations and recessions provide reasonably clear options for economic policy, there is a vast
gray area between these extremes. Occasionally the economy suffers from both inflation and unemployment at
the same time—a condition called stagflation. In 1975, for example, the unemployment rate (8.5 percent) and
the inflation rate (9.1 percent) were both far too high. With an upwardsloping aggregate supply curve, there is
no easy way to bring both rates down at the same time. Any demandside stimulus to attain full employment
worsens inflation. Likewise, restrictive demand policies increase unemployment. Although any upwardsloping
AS curve poses such a tradeoff, the position of the curve also determines how difficult the choices are. Figure
16.1 illustrates this stagflation problem.
FIGURE 16.1
FIGURE 16.1 StagflationBoth unemployment and inflation may occur at the same time. This is always a
potential problem with an upwardsloping AS curve. The farther the AS curve is to the left, the worse the
stagflation problem is likely to be. The curve AS1 implies higher prices and more unemployment than AS2 for
any given level of aggregate demand.
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There are no simple solutions for stagflation. Any demandside initiatives must be designed with care, seeking
to balance the competing threats of inflation and unemployment. This requires more attention to the specific
nature of the supply constraints. Perhaps the early rise in the AS curve is due to structural unemployment.
Prices may be rising in the auto industry, for example, while unemployed workers are abundant in the housing
industry. The higher prices and wages in the auto industry function as a signal to transfer resources from the
construction industry into autos. Such resource shifts, however, may not occur smoothly or quickly. In the
interim, public policy can be developed to facilitate interindustry mobility or to alter the structure of supply or
demand.
On the demand side, the government could reduce the demand for new cars by increasing interest rates. The
government could also cut back on its fleet purchases. It could increase the demand for construction workers by
offering larger tax deductions for new home purchases. On the supply side, the government could offer tax
credits or skill classes, teach construction workers how to build cars, or speed up the job search process.
High tax rates or costly regulations might also contribute to stagflation. If either of these constraints exists, high
prices (inflation) may not be a sufficient incentive for increased output. In this case, reductions in tax rates and
regulation could shift the AS curve rightward, easing stagflation pressures.
Stagflation may have arisen from a temporary contraction (leftward shift) of aggregate supply that both reduces
output and drives up prices. In this case, neither structural unemployment nor excessive demand is the culprit.
Rather, an external shock (such as a natural disaster) or an abrupt change in world trade (such as higher oil
prices) is the cause of stagflation. The high oil prices and supply disruptions caused by Hurricanes Katrina and
Rita (2005) illustrate this problem. In such circumstances, conventional policy tools are unlikely to provide a
complete cure. In most cases the economy simply has to adjust to a temporary setback.
FineTuning
Everything looks easy on the blackboard. Indeed, economic theory seems to have all the answers for our macro
problems. Some people even imagine that economic theory has the potential to finetune the economy—that is,
to correct any and all macro problems that arise. Such finetuning would entail continual adjustments to policy
levers. When unemployment is the problem, simply give the economy a jolt of fiscal or monetary stimulus;
when inflation is worrisome, simply tap on the fiscal or monetary brakes. To fulfill our goals for content and
distribution, we simply pick the right target for stimulus or restraint. With a little attention and experience, the
right speed could be found and the economy guided successfully down the road to prosperity.
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THE ECONOMIC RECORD
The economy's track record does not live up to these high expectations. To be sure, the economy has continued
to grow, and we have attained an impressive standard of living. We have also had some great years when both
unemployment and inflation rates were low, as in 1994–2000 and again in 2004–2007. Nor can we lose sight of
the fact that even in a bad year our per capita income greatly exceeds the realities and even the expectations in
most other countries of the world. Nevertheless, we must also recognize that our economic history is punctuated
by periods of recession, high unemployment, inflation, and recurring concern for the distribution of income and
mix of output.
The graphs in Figure 16.2 provide a quick summary of our experiences since 1946, the year the Employment
Act committed the federal government to macro stability. It is evident that our economic track record is far from
perfect. In the 1970s the record was particularly bleak: two recessions, high inflation, and persistent
unemployment. The 1980s were better but still marred by two recessions, one of which sent the unemployment
rate to a post–World War II record.
FIGURE 16.2
FIGURE 16.2 The Economic RecordThe Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act of 1978 established
specific goals for unemployment (4 percent), inflation (3 percent), and economic growth (4 percent). We have
rarely attained all those goals, however, as these graphs illustrate. Measurement, design, and policy
implementation problems help explain these shortcomings.
Source: Economic Report of the President, 2016.
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NEWS WIRE COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE
Macro Performance, 2004–2014
The U.S. economy grew a bit faster than European nations during the period 2004–2014; however, U.S.
economic growth was far slower in comparison to economies in Mexico and China. Japan did a great job
restraining inflation, but its economy actually contracted. China had the fastest growth but also the highest
inflation. Macro outcomes are a mixed bag almost everywhere.
Source: World Bank.
NOTE: No nation gets a gold medal in all macro dimensions. Inflation, unemployment, and growth records
reveal uneven performance.
In terms of real economic growth, the record is equally spotty. Output actually declined (i.e., recessions) in 10
years and grew less than 3 percent in another 23. The Great Recession of 2008–2009 caused the largest annual
contraction of GDP (−2.8 percent) in over 50 years.
The economic performance of the United States is similar to that of other Western nations. The economies of
most developed countries did not grow as fast as the U.S. economy from 2004 to 2014. But as the accompanying
News Wire “Comparative Performance” shows, some countries did a better job of restraining prices. And China
registered spectacular growth rates.
WHY THINGS DON'T ALWAYS WORK
We have already noted the readiness of economists and politicians to blame each other for the continuing gap
between our economic goals and performance. Rather than taking sides, however, we may note some general
constraints on successful policymaking. In this regard, we can distinguish four obstacles to policy success:
Goal conflicts.
Measurement problems.
Design problems.
Implementation problems.
Goal Conflicts
The first factor to note is potential conflicts in policy priorities. Suppose that the economy was suffering from
stagflation and, further, that all macro policies involved some tradeoff between unemployment and inflation.
Should fighting inflation or fighting unemployment get priority? Unemployed people will put the highest
priority on attaining full employment. Labor unions and advocates for the poor will press for faster economic
growth. Bankers, creditors, and people on fixed incomes will worry more about inflation. They will lobby for
more restrictive fiscal and monetary policies. There is no way to satisfy everyone in such a situation.
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In practice, these goal conflicts are often institutionalized in the decisionmaking process. The Fed is
traditionally viewed as the guardian of price stability and tends to favor policy restraint. The president and
Congress worry more about people's jobs and government programs, so they lean toward policy stimulus. The
end result may entail a mix of contradictory policies.
Distributional goals may also conflict with macro objectives. Antiinflationary policies may require cutbacks in
programs for the poor, the elderly, or needy students. These cutbacks may be politically impossible. Likewise,
tight money policies may be viewed as too great a burden for small businesses.
Although the policy levers listed in Table 16.1 are powerful, they cannot grant all our wishes. Since we still live
in a world of scarce resources, all policy decisions entail opportunity costs. This means that we will always be
confronted with tradeoffs: the best we can hope for is a set of compromises that yields optimal outcomes, not
ideal ones.
Even if we all agreed on policy priorities, success would not be assured. We would still have to confront the
more mundane problems of measurement, design, and implementation.
Measurement Problems
One reason firefighters are pretty successful in putting out fires before whole cities burn down is that fires are
highly visible phenomena. Economic problems are rarely so visible. An increase in the unemployment rate from
5 percent to 6 percent, for example, is not the kind of thing you notice while crossing the street. Unless you lose
your own job, the increase in unemployment is not likely to attract your attention. The same is true of prices;
small increases in product prices are unlikely to ring many alarms. Hence both inflation and unemployment may
worsen considerably before anyone takes serious notice. Were we as slow and ill equipped to notice fires, whole
neighborhoods would burn before someone rang the alarm.
To formulate good economic policy, we must be able to see the scope of our economic problems. To do so, we
must measure employment changes, output changes, price changes, and other macro outcomes. Although the
government spends vast sums of money to collect and process such data, the available information is always
dated and incomplete. At best, we know what was happening in the economy last month or last week. The
processes of data collection, assembly, and presentation take time, even in this age of highspeed computers. The
average recession lasts about 11 months, but official data generally do not even confirm the existence of a
recession until 8 months after a downturn starts! The recession of 2008–2009 was no exception, as the
accompanying News Wire “Measurement Problems” shows. Notice that it took an entire year before the onset of
that recession was officially recognized.
FORECASTS In an ideal world, policymakers would not only respond to economic problems that occur but
also anticipate their occurrence and act to avoid them. If we foresee an inflation emerging, for example, we want
to take immediate action to restrain aggregate demand. That is to say, the successful firefighter not only
responds to fires but also looks for hazards that might start one.
Unfortunately, economic policymakers are again at a disadvantage. Their knowledge of future problems is even
worse than their knowledge of current problems. In designing policy, policymakers must depend on economic
forecasts—informed guesses about what the economy will look like in future periods.
MACRO MODELS Those guesses are often based on complex computer models of how the economy works.
These models—referred to as econometric macro models—are mathematical summaries of the economy's
performance. The models try to identify the key determinants of macro performance and then show what
happens to macro outcomes when they change. As the accompanying News Wire “Macro Models” suggests, the
apparent precision of such computer models may be more akin to a “black art.”
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NEWS WIRE MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS
NBER Makes It Official: Recession Started One Year Ago
The Business Cycle Dating Committee of the National Bureau of Economic Research [NBER] met by
conference call on Friday, November 28. The committee maintains a chronology of the beginning and ending
dates (months and quarters) of U.S. recessions. The committee determined that a peak in economic activity
occurred in the U.S. economy in December 2007. The peak marks the end of the expansion that began in
November 2001 and the beginning of a recession. The expansion lasted 73 months; the previous expansion of
the 1990s lasted 120 months.
A recession is a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few
months, normally visible in production, employment, real income, and other indicators. A recession begins when
the economy reaches a peak of activity and ends when the economy reaches its trough. Between trough and
peak, the economy is in an expansion.
The committee identified December 2007 as the peak month, after determining that the subsequent decline in
economic activity was large enough to qualify as a recession.
Source: National Bureau of Economic Research, press release, December 1, 2008.
NOTE: Successful macro policy requires timely and accurate data on the economy. The measurement process is
slow and imperfect, however.
An economist feeds the computer two essential inputs. One is a model of how the economy allegedly works.
Such models are quantitative summaries of one or more macro theories. A Keynesian model, for example, will
include equations that show multiplier spending responses to tax cuts. A monetarist model will show that tax
cuts raise interest rates (crowding out), not total spending. And a supplyside model stipulates labor supply and
production responses. The computer can't tell which theory is right; it just predicts what it is programmed to see.
In other words, the computer sees the world through the eyes of its economic master.
The second essential input in a computer forecast is the assumed values for critical economic variables. A
Keynesian model, for example, must specify how large a multiplier to expect. All the computer does is carry out
the required mathematical routines once it is told that the multiplier is relevant and what its value is. It cannot
discern the true multiplier any better than it can pick the right theory.
Given the dependence of computers on the theories and perceptions of their economic masters, it is not
surprising that computer forecasts often differ greatly. It's also not surprising that they are often wrong.
Even policymakers who are familiar with both economic theory and computer models can make bad calls. In
January 1990 Fed chairman Alan Greenspan assured Congress that the risk of a recession was as low as 20
percent. Although he said he “wouldn't bet the ranch” on such a low probability, he was confident that the odds
of a recession were below 50 percent. Five months after his testimony, the 1990–1991 recession began.
Martin Baily, chairman of President Clinton's Council of Economic Advisers, made the same mistake in January
2001. “Let me be clear,” he told the press, “we don't think that we're going into recession.” President Clinton
echoed this optimism, projecting growth of 2–3 percent in 2001 (see the accompanying News Wire “Macro
Models”). Two months later the U.S. economy fell into another recession.
President Obama made a similarly bad forecast. In January 2009 he predicted that his $787 billion fiscal
stimulus would create so many jobs that the national unemployment rate, then at 7.7 percent, would not rise
above 8 percent and would fall to 5 percent by 2012. In fact, the unemployment rate jumped to 10 percent in
2009 and was still at 7.8 percent at the beginning of 2013.
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NEWS WIRE MACRO MODELS
Tough Calls in Economic Forecasting
Seers Often Peer into Cracked Crystal Balls
In presenting his annual economic outlook last Thursday, the chairman of President Clinton's Council of
Economic Advisers was having nothing to do with all the recession talk going around.
“Let me be clear,” Martin Baily said, “we don't think that we're going into recession.”
The same message was delivered the next day by Clinton in a Rose Garden economic valedictory. Citing the
predictions of 50 private forecasters known as the Blue Chip Consensus—“the experts who make a living doing
this,” as he put it—Clinton assured Americans that the economy would continue to grow this year at an annual
rate of 2 percent to 3 percent.
What the president and his adviser failed to mention was that “the experts” have not predicted any of the nine
recessions since the end of World War II….
“A recession, by its nature, is a speculative call.”
On first blush, such humility may seem at odds with the aura surrounding the modern day forecaster. Using
highspeed computers and sophisticated models of the U.S. economy, they constantly revise their twoyear
predictions for everything from unemployment to business investment to longterm interest rates, expressed
numerically to the first decimal point.
But according to the forecasters themselves, what may appear to be a precise science is a black art, one that is
constantly confounded by the changing structure of the economy and the refusal of investors, consumers, and
business executives to behave as rationally and predictably in real life as they do in the economic models.
“The reason we have trouble calling recessions is that all recessions are anomalies,” said Joel Prakken, president
of Macroeconomic Advisers of St. Louis, one of the nation's leading forecasting firms….
—Steven Pearlstein
Source: Pearlstein, Steven, “Tough Calls In Economic Forecasting; Seers Often Peer Into Cracked
Crystal Balls,” from The Washington Post, January 15, 2001. Copyright © 2001 Washington Post
Company. All rights reserved. Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United
States. The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of this Content without express written
permission is prohibited.
NOTE: Even the most sophisticated computer models rely on basic assumptions about consumer and investor
behavior. If the assumptions are wrong, the forecast will likely be wrong as well.
Design Problems
Forget all these bad forecasts for a moment and just pretend that we can somehow get a reliable forecast of
where the economy is headed. The outlook, let us suppose, is bad. Now we are in the driver's seat, trying to steer
the economy past looming dangers. We need to chart our course—to design an economic plan. What action
should we take? How will the marketplace respond to any specific action we take? Will the aggregate demand
curve respond as expected? What shape will the aggregate supply curve have? Which macro theory should we
use to guide policy decisions?
Suppose we adopt a Keynesian approach to fighting recession. Specifically, we cut income taxes to stimulate
consumer spending. How do we know that consumers will respond as anticipated? Perhaps the marginal
propensity to consume has changed. Maybe the level of consumer confidence has dropped. Any of these
changes could frustrate even the bestintentioned policy, as Japanese policymakers learned in 1998–1999.
Japanese consumers saved their tax cuts rather than spending them, nullifying the intended policy stimulus. Who
would have foreseen such a response?
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Implementation Problems
Suppose our crystal ball foresees all these problems, allowing us to design a “perfect” policy package. How will
we implement the package? To understand fully why things go wrong, we must also consider the difficulties of
implementing a welldesigned (and credible) policy initiative.
CONGRESSIONAL DELIBERATIONS Suppose the president and his Council of Economic Advisers
(perhaps in conjunction with the secretary of the Treasury and the director of the Office of Management and
Budget) correctly foresee that aggregate demand is slowing. A tax cut, they believe, is necessary to stimulate
demand for goods and services. Can they simply cut tax rates? No, because all tax changes must be legislated by
Congress. Once the president decides on the appropriate policy initiative, he must ask Congress for authority to
take the required action. This means a delay in implementing policy, and possibly no policy at all.
At the very least, the president must convince Congress of the desirability of his suggested action. The tax
proposal must work its way through separate committees of both the House of Representatives and the Senate,
get on the congressional calendar, and be approved in each chamber. If there are important differences in Senate
and House versions of the tax cut legislation, they must be compromised in a joint conference. The modified
proposal must then be returned to each chamber for approval.
The same kind of process applies to the outlay side of the budget. Once the president has submitted his budget
proposals (in January), Congress reviews them and then sets its own spending goals. After that the budget is
broken down into 13 different categories, and a separate appropriations bill is written for each one. These bills
spell out in detail how much can be spent and for what purposes. Once Congress passes them, they go to the
president for acceptance or veto.
In theory, all of these budget deliberations are to be completed in nine months. Budget legislation requires
Congress to finish the process by October 1 (the beginning of the federal fiscal year). Congress rarely meets this
deadline, however. In most years the budget debate continues well into the fiscal year. In some years, the budget
debate is not resolved until the fiscal year is nearly over! The final budget legislation is typically over 1,000
pages long and so complex that few people understand all its dimensions.
This description of congressional activity is not an outline for a civics course; rather, it explains why economic
policy is not fully effective. Even if the right policy is formulated to solve an emerging economic problem,
there is no assurance that it will be implemented. And if it is implemented, there is no assurance that it will
take effect at the right time. One of the most frightening prospects for economic policy is that a policy design
intended to serve a specific problem will be implemented much later, when economic conditions have changed.
The policy's effect on the economy may then be the opposite of what was intended.
Figure 16.3 is a schematic view of why things don't always work out as well as economic theory suggests they
might. There are always delays between the time a problem emerges and the time it is recognized. There are
additional delays between recognition and response design, between design and implementation, and finally
between implementation and impact. Not only may mistakes be made at each juncture, but even correct
decisions may be overcome by changing economic conditions.
FIGURE 16.3
FIGURE 16.3 Policy Response: A Series of Time LagsEven the bestintentioned economic policy can be
frustrated by time lags. It takes time for a problem to be recognized, time to formulate a policy response, and
still more time to implement that policy. By the time the policy begins to affect the economy, the underlying
problem may have changed.
Budget cuts are not popular with voters—even when economic conditions warrant fiscal restraint.
Source: SHOENEW BUSINESS © 1989 Macnelly. Distributed by King Features.
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POLITICS VERSUS ECONOMICS Last but not least, we must confront the politics of economic policy. Tax
hikes and budget cuts rarely win votes (see the accompanying cartoon). On the other hand, tax cuts and pork
barrel spending are always popular. Accordingly, savvy politicians tend to stimulate the economy before
elections, then tighten the fiscal restraints afterward. This creates a kind of political business cycle—a twoyear
pattern of shortrun stops and starts. The conflict between the urgent need to get reelected and the necessity to
manage the economy results in a seesaw kind of instability.
Fiscal Policy The politics of fiscal policy were clearly visible in the policy response to the 2008–2009 recession.
Democrats preferred to rely on increases in government spending to stimulate aggregate demand. Republicans
preferred tax cuts to expand the private sector while limiting the size of government. Democrats wanted more
stimulus; Republicans worried that too much stimulus would widen the deficit and increase inflation. No
Republican in the House of Representatives and only three Republicans in the Senate voted for President
Obama's massive fiscal stimulus package. When the stimulus didn't deliver the AD shift promised, Republicans
were quick to label the fiscal package wasteful and ineffective.
The politics of fiscal policy were equally apparent in the 2012–2013 debate over the national debt. Four
consecutive years of trilliondollarplus deficits had aroused public anxiety. Voters demanded that Washington
“do something” about the skyrocketing debt. But what kind of fiscal restraint should be pursued? Republicans
opposed any tax increases, and Democrats opposed any spending cuts. That didn't leave many tools in the fiscal
policy toolbox. In the end, the president and the Congress made vague promises to reduce future deficits but
adopted little immediate fiscal restraint. So the national debt continued to rise at alarming rates. Both sides were
hoping that stronger economic growth (automatic stabilizers) would somehow substitute for politically tough
policy decisions.
Monetary Policy In theory, the political independence of the Fed's Board of Governors provides some protection
from illadvised but politically advantageous policy decisions. In practice, however, the Fed's relative obscurity
and independence may backfire. The president and the Congress know that if they don't take action against
inflation—by raising taxes or cutting government spending—the Fed can and will take stronger action to restrain
aggregate demand. This is a classic case of having one's cake and eating it too. Elected officials win votes for
not raising taxes or not cutting some constituent's favorite spending program. They also take credit for any
reduction in the rate of inflation brought about by Federal Reserve policies. To top it off, Congress and the
president can also blame the Fed for driving up interest rates or starting a recession if monetary policy becomes
too restrictive.
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Finally, we must recognize that policy design is obstructed by a certain lack of will. Neither the person in the
street nor the elected public official is constantly attuned to economic goals and activities. Even students
enrolled in economics courses have a hard time keeping their minds on the economy and its problems. The
executive and legislative branches of government, for their part, are likely to focus on economic concerns only
when economic problems become serious or voters demand action. Otherwise policymakers are apt to be
complacent about economic policy as long as economic performance is within a tolerable range of desired
outcomes.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Hands Off or Hands On?
In view of the goal conflicts and the measurement, design, and implementation problems that policymakers
confront, it is less surprising that things sometimes go wrong than that things often work out right. The maze of
obstacles through which theory must pass before it becomes policy explains many economic disappointments.
On this basis alone, we may conclude that consistent finetuning of the economy is not compatible with either
our design capabilities or our decisionmaking procedures.
HANDSOFF POLICY Some critics of economic policy take this argument a few steps further. If finetuning
isn't really possible, they say, we should abandon discretionary policies altogether. Typically policymakers seek
minor adjustments in interest rates, unemployment, inflation, and growth. The pressure to do something is
particularly irresistible in election years. In so doing, however, policymakers are as likely to worsen the
economic situation as to improve it. Moreover, the potential for such shortterm discretion undermines people's
confidence in the economy's future.
Critics of discretionary policies say we would be better off with fixed policy rules. They would require the Fed
to increase the money supply at a constant rate. Congress would be required to maintain balanced budgets or at
least to offset deficits in sluggish years with surpluses in years of high growth. Such rules would prevent
policymakers from over or understimulating the economy. They would also add a dose of certainty to the
economic outlook.
Milton Friedman has been one of the most persistent advocates of fixed policy rules instead of discretionary
policies. With discretionary authority, Friedman argues,
the wrong decision is likely to be made in a large fraction of cases because the decision makers are examining
only a limited area and not taking into account the cumulative consequences of the policy as a whole. On the
other hand, if a general rule is adopted for a group of cases as a bundle, the existence of that rule has favorable
effects on people's attitudes and beliefs and expectations that would not follow even from the discretionary
adoption of precisely the same policy on a series of separate occasions.1
The case for a handsoff policy stance is based on practical, not theoretical, arguments. Everyone agrees that
flexible, discretionary policies could result in better economic performance. But Friedman and others argue that
the practical requirements of monetary and fiscal management are too demanding and thus prone to failure.
Moreover, required policies may be compromised by political pressures.
HANDSON POLICY Critics of fixed rules acknowledge occasional policy blunders but emphasize that the
historical record of prices, employment, and growth has improved since active fiscal and monetary policies were
adopted. Without flexibility in the money supply and the budget, they argue, the economy would be less stable
and our economic goals would remain unfulfilled. They say the government must maintain a handson policy of
active intervention.
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The historical evidence does not provide overwhelming support for either policy stance. Victor Zarnowitz
showed that the U.S. economy has been much more stable since 1946 than it was in earlier periods (1875–1918
and 1919–1945). Recessions have gotten shorter and economic expansions longer. But a variety of factors—
including a shift from manufacturing to services, a larger government sector, and automatic stabilizers—have
contributed to this improved macro performance. The contribution of discretionary macro policy is less clear. It
is easy to observe what actually happened but almost impossible to determine what would have occurred given
other circumstances. It is also evident that there have been noteworthy occasions—the September 11 terrorist
attacks, for example—when something more than fixed rules for monetary and fiscal policy was called for, a
contingency even Professor Friedman acknowledges. Thus occasional flexibility is required, even if a
nondiscretionary policy is appropriate in most situations.
Finally, one must contend with the difficulties inherent in adhering to any fixed rules. How is the Fed, for
example, supposed to maintain a steady rate of growth in M1? The supply of money (M1) is not determined
exclusively by the Fed. It also depends on the willingness of market participants to buy and sell bonds, maintain
bank balances, and borrow money. Since all of this behavior is subject to change at any time, maintaining a
steady rate of M1 growth is an impossible task.
The same is true of fiscal policy. Policymakers can't control deficits completely. Government spending and taxes
are directly affected by the business cycle—by changes in unemployment, inflation, interest rates, and growth.
These automatic stabilizers make it virtually impossible to maintain any fixed rule for budget balancing.
Moreover, if we eliminated the automatic stabilizers, we would risk greater instability.
MODEST EXPECTATIONS The clamor for fixed policy rules is more a rebuke of past policy than a viable
policy alternative. We really have no choice but to pursue discretionary policies. Recognition of measurement,
design, and implementation problems is important for an understanding of the way the economy functions. But
even though it is impossible to reach all our goals, we cannot abandon the pursuit. If public policy can create a
few more jobs, a better mix of output, a little more growth and price stability, or an improved distribution of
income, those initiatives are worthwhile.
1Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 53.
SUMMARY
The major options available for macro policy are fiscal policy, monetary policy, and supplyside policy.
LO1
Policy guidelines are clear: To end a recession, we can cut taxes, expand the money supply, or increase
government spending. To curb inflation, we can reverse each of these policy levers. To overcome
stagflation, we can combine fiscal and monetary levers with improved supplyside incentives. LO2
Although the potential of economic theory is impressive, the economic record does not look as good.
Persistent unemployment, recurring economic slowdowns, and nagging inflation suggest that the realities
of policymaking are more difficult than theory implies. LO3
To a large extent, the failures of economic policy are a reflection of scarce resources and competing goals.
Even when consensus exists, however, serious obstacles to effective economic policy remain:
1. Measurement problems. Our knowledge of economic performance is always dated and incomplete.
We must rely on forecasts of future problems.
2. Design problems. We don't know exactly how the economy will respond to specific policies.
3. Implementation problems. It takes time for Congress and the president to agree on an appropriate
plan of action. Moreover, the agreements reached may respond more to political needs than to
economic needs.
For all these reasons, finetuning of economic performance rarely lives up to its theoretical potential. LO4
Many people favor rules rather than discretionary macro policies. They argue that discretionary policies
are unlikely to work and risk being wrong. Critics respond that discretionary policies are needed to cope
with everchanging economic circumstances. LO5
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TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
business cycle
fiscal policy
automatic stabilizer
fiscal year (FY)
monetary policy
money supply (M1)
supplyside policy
GDP gap
multiplier
stagflation
structural unemployment
finetuning
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. What policies would Keynesians, monetarists, and supplysiders advocate for LO2
1. Restraining inflation?
2. Reducing unemployment?
2. Suppose it is an election year and aggregate demand is growing so fast that it threatens to set off an
inflationary movement. Why might Congress and the president hesitate to cut back on government
spending or raise taxes, as economic theory suggests is appropriate? LO4
3. Should military spending be subject to macroeconomic constraints? What programs should be expanded
or contracted to bring about needed changes in the budget? LO4
4. Why does it take so long to recognize that a recession has begun (see the News Wire “Macro Models”)?
LO4
5. Republicans asserted that many of President Obama's fiscal spending projects were “wasteful and
ineffective.” Does the content of fiscal stimulus spending matter? LO4
6. Outline a macro policy package for attaining full employment and price stability in the next 12 months.
What obstacles, if any, will impede attainment of these goals? LO2
7. Which nation had the best macro performance in 2004–2014 (see the News Wire “Comparative
Performance”)? LO3
8. According to the News Wire “Comparative Performance,” which country had (a) the fastest growth and
highest inflation? (b) The slowest growth and the lowest inflation? (c) Why might these performance
measures be correlated? LO3
9. Compare and contrast the performance of three countries in terms of real growth, inflation, and
unemployment (see the News Wire “Comparative Performance”). LO1
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Should economic policies respond immediately to any changes in reported
unemployment or inflation rates? When should a response be undertaken? LO5
PROBLEMS
1. The 2008 fiscal policy package included roughly $100 billion in tax rebates that were mailed to taxpayers.
By how much would aggregate demand shift (a) initially and (b) ultimately as a result of these rebates?
Assume the MPC is 0.95. LO2
2. The expiration of the FICA payroll tax cut of January 1, 2013 raised taxes by $110 billion per year. If the
marginal propensity to save was 0.20, (a) by how much did consumer spending decrease initially? (b)
What was the ultimate decline in aggregate demand? LO2
3. Suppose that for every 1 percentage point increase (decrease) in GDP growth, automatic stabilizers
1. increase (decrease) tax revenues revenues by $90 billion and
2. decrease (increase) transfer payments by $30 billion.
Using this information, complete the table. LO4
4. If automatic stabilizers increase the federal budget balance by $60 billion for every 1 percent increase in
real GDP growth, what will happen to the federal budget balance if the economy falls into a recession of
−3 percent from a growth path of +2 percent? LO4
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5. The following table presents hypothetical data on inflation, unemployment, and pollution associated with
various levels of government expenditure and taxation. A government decision maker is trying to
determine the optimal level of government expenditures and taxation with each of the three columns being
a possible option (policy options A, B, or C). LO4
1. Compute the federal budget balance for each policy option.
2. What policy option would best accomplish each of the following goals?
1. Lowest taxes
2. Lowest pollution
3. Lowest inflation rate
4. Lowest unemployment rate
5. A balanced federal budget
6. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Monetary stimulus in the form of lower interest rates is an alternative to
fiscal stimulus. If a 0.1 percentage point change in interest rates has the stimulus impact of $10 billion in
spending, what is the monetary equivalent (in terms of a change in the interest rate) of a $600 billion fiscal
stimulus? LO2
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Source: © Roslan Rahman/AFP/Getty Images
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. 1 Summarize U.S. trade patterns.
2. 2 Explain how trade increases total output.
3. 3 Tell how the terms of trade are established.
4. 4 Discuss how trade barriers affect market outcomes.
5. 5 Describe how currency exchange rates affect trade flows.
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W
orld travelers have discovered that Big Macs taste pretty much the same everywhere, but a Big Mac's price can
vary tremendously. In 2016 a Big Mac was priced at 27,939 rupiah at the McDonald's in Jakarta, Indonesia. That
sounds really expensive! The same Big Mac cost only 3.68 euros in Rome, 99 baht in Bangkok, and 17.2 yuan
in Beijing. But what do all these foreign prices mean in American dollars? If you want a Big Mac in a foreign
country, you need to figure out foreign prices.
Similar problems affect even consumers who stay at home. In 2014 American kids were clamoring for Sony's
PlayStation 4 game consoles produced in Japan. But how much would they have to pay? In Japan the machines
were selling for 40,000 yen. What did that translate into in American dollars? In the same year, American steel,
textile, and lumber companies were complaining that Chinese producers were selling their products too cheaply.
They wanted the government to protect them from unfair foreign competition.
Why does life have to be so complicated? Why doesn't everyone just use American dollars? For that matter, why
can't each nation simply produce for its own consumption so we don't have to worry about foreign competition?
This chapter provides a bird'seye view of how America interacts with the rest of the world. Of particular
interest are the following questions:
Why do we trade so much?
Who benefits and who loses from imports, exports, and changes in the value of the dollar?
How is the international value of the dollar established?
As we'll see, international trade does diminish the job and income opportunities for specific industries and
workers. But those individual losses are overwhelmed by the gains the average consumer gets from international
trade. ■
U.S. TRADE PATTERNS
To understand how international trade affects our standard of living, it's useful to have a sense of how much we
actually trade.
Imports
Baseball is often called the allAmerican sport. But the balls used in professional baseball are made in Costa
Rica. The same is true of coffee. Only a tiny fraction of the beans used to brew American coffee are grown in
the United States (in Hawaii). All our Microsoft Surface computers and Apple iPhones are also produced
abroad. The fact is that many of the products we consume are produced primarily or exclusively in other nations.
All these products are part of America's imports.
All told, America imports nearly $3 trillion worth of products from the rest of the world. Most of these products
are goods like coffee, baseballs, and steel. The rest of the imports are services, like travel (on Air France or Aero
Mexico), insurance (Lloyds of London), or entertainment (foreign movies). Together our imports account for
about 15 percent of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP).
Exports
While we are buying baseballs, coffee, video game machines, and oil from the rest of the world, foreigners are
buying our exports. In 2014 we exported over $1.6 trillion of goods, including farm products (wheat, corn,
soybeans, tobacco), machinery (computers, aircraft, automobiles, and auto parts), and raw materials (lumber,
iron ore, and chemicals). We also exported over $700 billion of services such as tourism, insurance, and
software.
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NEWS WIRE EXPORT RATIOS
Exports in Relation to GDP
Exports of goods and services account for 14 percent of total U.S. output. This export ratio is very low by
international standards. China, for example, exports onefourth of its total output, while Belgium exports more
than 80 percent of its annual production (especially diamonds and chocolates). Myanmar, by contrast, is
virtually a closed economy.
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators 2015.
NOTE: The ratio of exports to total output is a measure of trade dependence. Most countries are much more
dependent on trade than is the United States.
As with our imports, our exports represent a relatively modest fraction of total GDP. Whereas we export 14
percent of total output, other developed countries export as much as 25–45 percent of their output (see the
accompanying News Wire “Export Ratios”). Saudi Arabia, for example, is considered a relatively prosperous
nation, with a GDP per capita twice that of the world average. But how prosperous would it be if no one bought
the oil exports that now account for more than half of its output?
Even though the United States has a low export ratio, many American industries depend on export sales. We
export 25 to 50 percent of our rice, corn, and wheat production each year and still more of our soybeans. Clearly
a decision by foreigners to stop eating American agricultural products would devastate a lot of American
farmers. Companies such as Boeing (planes), Caterpillar Tractor (construction and farm machinery),
Weyerhaeuser (logs, lumber), Eastman Kodak (cameras), Dow (chemicals), and Sun Microsystems (computer
workstations) sell over onefourth of their output in foreign markets. Pepsi and CocaCola are battling it out in
the soft drink markets of such unlikely places as Egypt, Abu Dhabi, Burundi, and Kazakhstan.
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Trade Balances
As the figures indicate, our imports and exports were not equal in 2014. Quite the contrary: We had a large
imbalance in our trade flows, with many more imports than exports. The trade balance is computed simply as
the difference between exports and imports:
During 2014 we imported more than we exported and so had a negative trade balance. A negative trade balance
is called a trade deficit. In 2014 the United States had a negative trade balance of $505 billion. As Table 17.1
shows, this overall trade deficit reflected divergent patterns in goods and services. The United States had a large
deficit in merchandise trade, mostly due to auto and oil imports. In services (e.g., travel, finance, consulting),
however, the United States enjoyed a modest surplus. When the merchandise and services accounts are
combined, the United States ends up with a trade deficit.
TABLE 17.1
TABLE 17.1 Trade Balances
Both merchandise (goods) and services are traded between countries. The United States typically has a
merchandise deficit and a services surplus. When combined, an overall trade deficit remained in 2014.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce.
If the United States has a trade deficit with the rest of the world, then other countries must have an offsetting
trade surplus. On a global scale, imports must equal exports, since every good exported by one country must be
imported by another. Hence any imbalance in America's trade must be offset by reverse imbalances elsewhere.
Whatever the overall balance in our trade accounts, bilateral balances vary greatly. For example, our trade deficit
incorporated a huge bilateral trade deficit with China and also large deficits with Mexico, Germany, and Japan.
As Table 17.2 shows, however, we had trade surpluses with Australia, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, and the
United Arab Emirates.
TABLE 17.2
TABLE 17.2 Bilateral Trade Balances
The U.S. trade deficit in 2014 was the net result of bilateral deficits and surpluses. We had a huge trade deficit
with China but small trade surpluses with Australia, the Netherlands, and Hong Kong. International trade is
multinational, with surpluses in some countries being offset by trade deficits elsewhere.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce (2014 data).
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MOTIVATION TO TRADE
Many people wonder why we trade so much, particularly since (1) we import many of the things we also export
(e.g., computers, airplanes, clothes), (2) we could produce many of the other things we import, and (3) we seem
to worry so much about imports and trade deficits. Why not just import those few things that we cannot produce
ourselves and export just enough to balance that trade?
Although it might seem strange to be importing goods we could produce ourselves, such trade is entirely
rational. Indeed, our decision to trade with other countries arises from the same considerations that motivate
individuals to specialize in production. Why don't you grow your own food, build your own shelter, and record
your own songs? Presumably because you have found that you can enjoy a much higher standard of living (and
better music) by working at just one job and then buying other goods in the marketplace. When you do so,
you're no longer selfsufficient. Instead you are specializing in production, relying on others to produce the array
of goods and services you want. When countries trade goods and services, they are doing the same thing
—specializing in production and then trading for other desired goods. Why do they do this? Because
specialization increases total output.
To demonstrate the economic gains from international trade, we examine the production possibilities of two
countries. We want to demonstrate that two countries that trade can together produce more total output than they
could in the absence of trade. If they can produce more, the gain from trade will be increased world output and
thus a higher standard of living in both countries.
Production and Consumption without Trade
Consider the production possibilities of just two countries—say, the United States and France. For the sake of
illustration, we assume that both countries produce only two goods, bread and wine. To keep things simple, we
also transform the familiar production possibilities curve into a straight line, as shown in Figure 17.1.
FIGURE 17.1
FIGURE 17.1 Consumption Possibilities without TradeIn the absence of trade, a country's consumption
possibilities are identical to its production possibilities. The assumed production possibilities of the United
States and France are illustrated in the graphs and the corresponding schedules. Before entering into trade, the
United States chose to produce and consume at point D, with 40 zillion loaves of bread and 30 zillion barrels of
wine. France chose point I on its own production possibilities curve. By trading, each country hopes to increase
its consumption beyond these levels.
The curves in Figure 17.1 suggest that the United States is capable of producing much more bread than France
is. After all, we have a greater abundance of land, labor, and other factors of production. With these resources,
we assume the United States is capable of producing up to 100 zillion loaves of bread per year if we devote all
of our resources to that purpose. This capability is indicated by point A in Figure 17.1a and row A in the
accompanying production possibilities schedule. France (Figure 17.1b), on the other hand, confronts a maximum
bread production of only 15 zillion loaves per year (point G) because it has little available land, less fuel, and
fewer potential workers.
The assumed capacities for wine production are also illustrated in Figure 17.1. The United States can produce at
most 50 zillion barrels (point F), while France can produce a maximum of 60 zillion (point L), reflecting
France's greater experience in tending vines. Both countries are also capable of producing alternative
combinations of bread and wine, as evidenced by their respective production possibilities curves (points B–E for
the United States and H–K for France).
We have seen production possibilities curves (PPCs) before. We are looking at them again to emphasize that
The production possibilities curve defines the limits to what a country can produce.
In the absence of trade, a country cannot consume more than it produces.
Accordingly, a production possibilities curve also defines the consumption possibilities for a country that does
not engage in international trade. Like a truly selfsufficient person, a nation that doesn't trade can consume only
the goods and services it produces. If the United States closed its trading windows and produced the mix of
output at point D in Figure 17.1, that is the combination of wine and bread we would have to consume. If a self
sufficient France produced at point I, that is the mix of output it would have to consume.
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International trade opens new options. International trade breaks the link between production possibilities and
consumption possibilities. Nations no longer have to consume exactly what they produce. Instead they can
export some goods and import others. This will change the mix of goods consumed even if the mix produced
stays the same.
Now here's the real surprise. When nations specialize in production, not only does the mix of consumption
change—the quantity of consumption increases as well. Both countries end up consuming more output by
trading than by being selfsufficient. In other words,
With trade, a country's consumption possibilities exceed its production possibilities.
To see how this startling outcome emerges, we'll examine how countries operate without trade and then with
trade.
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INITIAL CONDITIONS Assume we start without any trade. The United States is producing at point D, and
France is at point I (Figure 17.1). These output mixes have no special significance; they are just one of many
possible production choices each nation could make. Our focus here is on the combined output of the two
countries. Given their assumed production choices, their combined output is:
Trade Increases Specialization and World Output
Now comes the tricky part. We increase total (combined) output of these two countries by trading.
At first blush, increasing total output might seem like an impossible task. Both countries, after all, are already
fully using their limited production possibilities. But look at the U.S. PPC. Suppose the United States were to
produce at point C rather than point D in Figure 17.1a. At point C we could produce 60 zillion loaves of bread
and 20 zillion barrels of wine. That combination is clearly possible since it lies on the U.S. production
possibilities curve. We didn't start at point C earlier because consumers preferred the output mix at point D.
Now, however, we can use trade to break the link between production and consumption.
Suppose the French also change their mix of output. The French earlier produced at point I. Now we will move
them to point K, where they can produce 48 zillion barrels of wine and 3 zillion loaves of bread. France might
not want to consume this mix of output, but it clearly can produce it.
Now consider the consequences of these changes in each nation's production for combined (total) output. Like
magic, total output of both goods has increased. This is illustrated in Table 17.3. Both the old (pretrade) and new
output mixes in each country are shown, along with their combined totals. The combined output of bread has
increased from 49 to 63 zillion loaves. And combined output of wine has increased from 54 to 68 zillion barrels.
Just by changing the mix of output produced in each country, we have increased total world output. Nice trick,
isn't it?
TABLE 17.3
TABLE 17.3 Gains from Specialization
The combined total output of two countries can be increased by simply altering the mix of output in each
country. Here world output increases by 14 zillion loaves of bread and 14 zillion barrels of wine when nations
specialize in production.
The reason the United States and France weren't producing at points C and K before is that they simply didn't
want to consume those particular combinations of output. The United States wanted a slightly more liquid
combination than point C, and the French could not survive long at point K. Hence they chose points D and I.
Nevertheless, our discovery that points C and K result in greater total output suggests that everybody can be
happier if we all cooperate. The obvious thing to do is to specialize in production and then start exchanging wine
for bread in international trade. In this case the United States specialized in bread production when it moved
from point D to point C. France specialized in wine production when it moved from point I to point K.
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The increase in the combined output of both countries is the gain from trading. In this case the net gain is 14
zillion loaves of bread and 14 zillion barrels of wine (Table 17.3). By trading, the United States and France can
divide up this increase in output and end up consuming more goods than they did before.
There is no sleight of hand going on here. Rather, the gains from trade are due to specialization in production.
When each country goes it alone, it is a prisoner of its own production possibilities curve; it must make its
production decisions on the basis of its own consumption desires. When international trade is permitted,
however, each country can concentrate on those goods it makes best. Then the countries trade with each other to
acquire the goods they desire to consume.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE
By now it should be apparent that international trade can generate increased output. But how do we get from
here to there? Which products should countries specialize in? How much should they trade?
Opportunity Costs
In the previous example, the United States specialized in bread production and France specialized in wine
production. This wasn't an arbitrary decision. Rather, those decisions were based on the relative costs of
producing both products in each nation. Bread production was relatively cheap in the United States but
expensive in France. Wine production was more costly in the United States but relatively cheap in France.
How did we reach such conclusions? There is nothing in Figure 17.1 that reveals actual production costs, as
measured in dollars or euros. That doesn't matter, however, because economists measure costs not in dollars but
in terms of goods given up.
Reexamine America's PPC (Figure 17.1) from this basic economic perspective. Notice again that the United
States can produce a maximum of 100 zillion loaves of bread. To do so, however, we must sacrifice the
opportunity of producing 50 zillion barrels of wine. Hence the true cost—the opportunity cost—of 100 zillion
bread loaves is 50 zillion barrels of wine. In other words, we're paying half a barrel of wine for every loaf of
bread.
Although the opportunity costs of bread production in the United States might appear outrageous, note the even
higher opportunity costs that prevail in France. According to Figure 17.1b, the opportunity cost of producing a
loaf of bread in France is a staggering four barrels of wine. To produce a loaf of bread, the French must use
factors of production that could have been used to produce four barrels of wine.
A comparison of the opportunity costs prevailing in each country exposes the nature of what we call
comparative advantage. The United States has a comparative advantage in bread production because less wine
has to be given up to produce bread in the United States than in France. In other words, the opportunity costs of
bread production are lower in the United States than in France. Comparative advantage refers to the relative
(opportunity) costs of producing particular goods.
A country should specialize in what it is relatively efficient at producing—that is, goods for which it has the
lowest opportunity costs. In this case, the United States should produce bread because its opportunity cost (a half
barrel of wine) is less than France's (four barrels of wine). Were you the production manager for the whole
world, you would certainly want each country to exploit its relative abilities, thus maximizing world output.
Each country can arrive at that same decision itself by comparing its own opportunity costs to those prevailing
elsewhere. World output, and thus the potential gains from trade, will be maximized when each country
pursues its comparative advantage. It does so by exporting goods that entail low domestic opportunity costs
and importing goods that involve higher domestic opportunity costs.
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Absolute Costs Don't Count
In assessing the nature of comparative advantage, notice that we needn't know anything about the actual costs
involved in production. Have you seen any data suggesting how much labor, land, or capital is required to
produce a loaf of bread in either France or the United States? For all you and I know, the French may be able to
produce both goods with fewer resources than we are using. Such an absolute advantage in production might
exist because of their much longer experience in cultivating both grapes and wheat or simply because they have
more talent.
We can envy such productivity, but it should not alter our production and trade decisions. All we really care
about are opportunity costs—what we have to give up in order to get more of a desired good. If we can get a
barrel of imported wine for less bread than we have to give up to produce that wine ourselves, we should import
it, not produce it. In other words, as long as we have a comparative advantage in bread production, we should
exploit it. It doesn't matter to us whether France uses a lot of resources or very few to produce the wine. The
absolute costs of production were omitted from the previous illustration because they are irrelevant.
To clarify the distinction between absolute advantage and comparative advantage, consider this example. When
Charlie Osgood joined the Willamette Warriors' football team, he was the fastest runner ever to play football in
Willamette. He could also throw the ball farther than most people could see. In other words, he had an absolute
advantage in both throwing and running. Charlie would have made the greatest quarterback or the greatest tight
end ever to play football. Would have. The problem was that he could play only one position at a time. Thus the
Willamette coach had to play Charlie either as a quarterback or as a tight end. He reasoned that Charlie could
throw only a bit farther than some of the other top quarterbacks but could far outdistance all the other tight ends.
In other words, Charlie had a comparative advantage in running and was assigned to play as a tight end.
TERMS OF TRADE
The principle of comparative advantage tells nations how to specialize in production. In our example, the United
States specialized in bread production, and France specialized in wine. We haven't yet determined, however,
how much output each country should trade. How much bread should the United States export? How much wine
should it expect to get in return? Is there any way to determine the terms of trade, that is, the quantity of good A
that must be given up in exchange for good B?
Limits to the Terms of Trade
Our first clue to the terms of trade lies in each country's domestic opportunity costs. A country will not trade
unless the terms of trade are superior to domestic opportunity costs. In our example, the opportunity cost of a
barrel of wine in the United States is two loaves of bread. Accordingly, we will not export bread unless we get at
least one barrel of wine in exchange for every two loaves of bread we ship overseas. In other words, we will not
play the game unless the terms of trade are superior to our own opportunity costs. Otherwise we get no benefit.
No country will trade unless the terms of exchange are better than its domestic opportunity costs. Hence we can
predict that the terms of trade between any two countries will lie somewhere between their respective
opportunity costs in production. That is to say, a loaf of bread in international trade will be worth at least a half
barrel of wine (the U.S. opportunity cost) but no more than four barrels (the French opportunity cost).
The Market Mechanism
Exactly where the terms of trade end up in the range of 0.5–4.0 barrels of wine per loaf of bread will depend on
how market participants behave. Suppose that Henri, an enterprising Frenchman, visited the United States before
the advent of international trade. He noticed that bread was relatively cheap, while wine was relatively
expensive—the opposite of the price relationship prevailing in France. These price comparisons brought to his
mind the opportunity for making an easy euro. All he had to do was bring over some French wine and trade it in
the United States for a large quantity of bread. Then he could return to France and exchange the bread for a
greater quantity of wine. Were he to do this a few times, he would amass substantial profits.
Page 333
Our French entrepreneur's exploits will not only enrich him but will also move each country toward its
comparative advantage. The United States ends up exporting bread to France, and France ends up exporting
wine to the United States. The activating agent is not the Ministry of Trade and its 620 trained economists,
however, but simply one enterprising French trader. He is aided and encouraged by the consumers and producers
in each country. American consumers are happy to trade their bread for his wines. They thereby end up paying
less for wine (in terms of bread) than they would otherwise have to. In other words, the terms of trade Henri
offers are more attractive than prevailing (domestic) relative prices. On the other side of the Atlantic, Henri's
welcome is equally warm. French consumers get a better deal by trading their wine for his imported bread than
by trading with the local bakers.
Even some producers are happy. The wheat farmers and bakers in America are eager to deal with Henri. He is
willing to buy a lot of bread and even to pay a premium price for it. Indeed, bread production has become so
profitable that a lot of farmers who used to cultivate grapes are now starting to grow wheat. This alters the mix
of U.S. output in the direction of more bread, exactly as suggested earlier in Figure 17.1.
In France, the opposite kind of production shift is taking place. French wheat farmers start to plant grapes so
they can take advantage of Henri's generous purchases. Thus Henri is able to lead each country in the direction
of its comparative advantage—raking in a substantial profit for himself along the way.
Where the terms of trade end up depends in part on how good a trader Henri is. It will also depend on the
behavior of the thousands of consumers and producers who participate in the market exchanges. In other words,
trade flows depend on both the supply of and the demand for bread and wine in each country. The terms of
trade, like the price of any good, will depend on the willingness of market participants to buy or sell at various
prices. All we know for sure is that the terms of trade will end up somewhere between the limits set by each
country's opportunity costs.
PROTECTIONIST PRESSURES
Although the potential gains from world trade are impressive, not everyone will be smiling at the Franco
American trade celebration. On the contrary, some people will be upset about the trade routes that Henri has
established. They will seek to discourage us from continuing to trade with France.
Microeconomic Losers
Consider, for example, the wine growers in western New York State. Do you think they are going to be happy
about Henri's entrepreneurship? Americans can now buy wine more cheaply from France than they can from
New York. Before long we may hear talk about unfair foreign competition or about the greater nutritional value
of American grapes. The New York wine growers may also emphasize the importance of maintaining an
adequate grape supply and a strong wine industry at home.
Joining with the growers will be the farmworkers and all the other workers, producers, and merchants whose
livelihood depends on the New York wine industry. If they are aggressive and clever enough, the growers will
also get the governor of the state to join their demonstration. After all, the governor must recognize the needs of
his people, and his people definitely don't include the wheat farmers in Kansas who are making a bundle from
international trade. New York consumers are, of course, benefiting from lower wine prices, but they are unlikely
to demonstrate over a few cents a bottle. On the other hand, those few extra pennies translate into millions of
dollars for domestic wine producers. That's why Brazilian wine growers asked the Brazilian president to protect
them from wine imports from Chile, France, and Spain (see the News Wire “Import Competition”).
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NEWS WIRE IMPORT COMPETITION
Insight: Brazil Protects Its... Wines?
BENTO GONCALVES, Brazil Brazil is widely celebrated for having some of the world's best beaches, soccer,
and Carnival festivities.
Wines? Um, no.
Nevertheless, Brazil is considering steps to protect its tiny domestic wine industry from an onslaught of imports,
in what may be the most bizarre and controversial example to date of rising trade protectionism in South
America....
Given a choice, Brazilian consumers have overwhelmingly opted for wines from Europe and elsewhere in South
America. Sales of imports nearly doubled from 2005 to 2011, while sales of Brazilian fine wines shrank by 11
percent....
President Dilma Rousseff's government recently agreed to evaluate an emergency request from Brazilian wine
producers that, if approved, could raise tariffs on many imported wines from countries including Chile, France
and Spain.
—Brian Winter
Source: Reuters, June 13, 2012.
NOTE: Imports reduce sales, jobs, profits, and wages in importcompeting industries. This is the source of
micro resistance to international trade.
The wheat farmers in France are no happier about international trade. They would love to sink all those boats
bringing wheat from America, thereby protecting their own market position.
If we are to make sense of international trade policies, we must recognize one central fact of life: Some
producers have a vested interest in restricting international trade. In particular, workers and producers who
compete with imported products—who work in importcompeting industries—have an economic interest in
restricting trade. This helps to explain why GM, Ford, and Chrysler are unhappy about auto imports and why
workers in Massachusetts want to end the importation of Italian shoes. It also explains why the textile producers
in South Carolina think China is behaving irresponsibly when it sells cotton shirts and dresses in the United
States. Complaints of other losers from trade appear in the accompanying News Wire “Trade Resistance.”
Although imports typically mean fewer jobs and less income for some domestic industries, exports represent
increased jobs and incomes for other industries. Producers and workers in export industries gain from trade.
Thus on a microeconomic level, there are identifiable gainers and losers from international trade. Trade not only
alters the mix of output but also redistributes income from importcompeting industries to export industries.
This potential redistribution is the source of political and economic friction.
The Net Gain
We must be careful to note, however, that the microeconomic gains from trade are greater than the
microeconomic losses. It's not simply a question of robbing Peter to enrich Paul. On the contrary, consumers in
general enjoy a higher standard of living as a result of international trade. As we saw earlier, trade increases
world efficiency and total output. Accordingly, we end up slicing up a larger pie rather than just reslicing the
same smaller pie.
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NEWS WIRE TRADE RESISTANCE
A Litany of Losers
Some excerpts from congressional hearings on trade:
In the past few years, sales of imported table wines … have soared at an alarming rate…. Unless this trend is
halted immediately, the domestic wine industry will face economic ruin…. Foreign wine imports must be limited.
—Wine Institute
The apparel industry's workers have few other alternative job opportunities. They do want to work and earn a
living at their work. Little wonder therefore that they want their jobs safeguarded against the erosion caused by
the increasing penetration of apparel imports.
—International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union
We are never going to strengthen the dollar, cure our balance of payments problem, lick our high unemployment,
eliminate an everworsening inflation, as long as the U.S. sits idly by as a dumping ground for shoes, TV sets,
apparel, steel and automobiles, etc. It is about time that we told the Japanese, the Spanish, the Italians, the
Brazilians, and the Argentinians, and others who insist on flooding our country with imported shoes that enough
is enough.
—United Shoe Workers of America
We want to be friends with Mexico and Canada…. We would like to be put in the same ball game with them….
We are not trying to hinder foreign trade … (but) plants in Texas go out of business (17 in the last 7 years)
because of the continued threat of flybynight creek bed, river bank Mexican brick operations implemented
overnight.
—Brick Institute of America
Trade policy should not be an absolute statement of how the world ought to behave to achieve a textbook vision
of “free trade” or “maximum efficiency.” It should … attempt to achieve the best results for Americans.
—United Auto Workers
NOTE: Workers and owners in importcompeting industries always depict imports as a threat to the American
way of life. In reality, trade raises American living standards.
BARRIERS TO TRADE
The microeconomic losses associated with imports give rise to a constant clamor for trade restrictions. People
whose jobs and incomes are threatened by international trade tend to organize quickly and air their grievances.
Moreover, they are assured of a reasonably receptive hearing, both because of the political implications of well
financed organizations and because the gains from trade are widely diffused. If successful, such efforts can lead
to a variety of trade restrictions.
Tariffs
One of the most popular and visible restrictions on trade is a tariff, a special tax imposed on imported goods.
Tariffs, also called customs duties, were once the principal source of revenue for governments. In the eighteenth
century, tariffs on tea, glass, wine, lead, and paper were imposed on the American colonies to provide extra
revenue for the British government. The tariff on tea led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773 and gave added
momentum to the American independence movement. In modern times, tariffs have been used primarily as a
means of import protection to satisfy specific microeconomic or macroeconomic interests. The current U.S.
tariff code specifies tariffs on over 10,000 different products—nearly 50 percent of all U.S. imports. Although
the average tariff is only 3 percent, individual tariffs vary widely. The tariff on cars, for example, is only 2.5
percent, while tariffs imposed on wool sweaters and canned tuna are 25 percent and 35 percent, respectively.
Page 336
NEWS WIRE TARIFF PROTECTION
U.S. Solar Tariffs on Chinese Cells May Boost Prices
The U.S. yesterday imposed tariffs of as much as 250 percent on Chinesemade solar cells to aid domestic
manufacturers beset by foreign competition, though critics said the decision may end up raising prices and
hurting the U.S. renewable energy industry.
The U.S. Commerce Department ruled that Chinese manufacturers sold cells in the U.S. at prices below the cost
of production and announced preliminary antidumping duties ranging from 31 percent to 250 percent, depending
on the manufacturer….
The decision is meant to provide a boost to the U.S. solar manufacturing industry, where four companies filed
for bankruptcy in the past year. The tariffs will probably inflame trade tensions and drive up prices for solar
projects in the U.S., according to Shyam Mehta, an analyst with GTM Research in Boston….
Increasing Prices
The tariffs “will increase solar electricity prices in the U.S. precisely at the moment solar power is becoming
competitive with fossil fuel generated electricity,” Shah said in a statement. “This new artificial tax will
undermine the success of the U.S. solar industry.”
—Ehren Goossens, Brian Wingfield, and McQuillen
Source: Bloomburg Business, May 17, 2012.
NOTE: Tariffs protect some domestic manufacturers but hurt domestic producers, foreign manufacturers, and
domestic consumers.
The attraction of tariffs to importcompeting industries should be obvious. A tariff on imported goods makes
them more expensive to domestic consumers, and thus less competitive with domestically produced goods.
Among familiar tariffs in effect in 2015 were $0.20 per gallon on Scotch whiskey and $0.76 per gallon on
imported champagne. These tariffs made Americanproduced spirits look like relatively good buys and thus
contributed to higher sales and profits for domestic distillers and grape growers. In the same manner, imported
baby food is taxed at 34.6 percent, imported footwear at 20 percent, and imported stereos at rates ranging from 4
to 6 percent. In 2009 President Obama imposed a 35 percent tariff on imported Chinese tires, and in 2012 he set
a 31 percent tariff on Chinese solar panels (see the News Wire “Tariff Protection”). In each of these cases,
domestic producers in importcompeting industries were the winners. The losers were domestic consumers, who
ended up paying higher prices; foreign producers, who lost business; and world efficiency, as trade was reduced.
Quotas
Tariffs reduce the flow of imports by raising import prices. As an alternative barrier to trade, a country can
impose import quotas, numerical restrictions on the quantity of a particular good that may be imported. The
United States maintains import quotas on sugar, meat, dairy products, textiles, cotton, peanuts, steel, cloth
diapers, and even ice cream. According to the U.S. Department of State, approximately 12 percent of our
imports are subject to import quotas.
Quotas, like all barriers to trade, reduce world efficiency and invite retaliatory action. Moreover, quotas are
especially harmful because of their impact on competition and prices. Figure 17.2 shows how this works.
FIGURE 17.2
FIGURE 17.2 The Impact of Trade RestrictionsIn the absence of trade, the domestic price and sales of a good
will be determined by domestic supply and demand curves (point A in graph [a]). Once trade is permitted, the
market supply curve will be altered by the availability of imports. With free trade and unlimited availability of
imports at price p2, a new market equilibrium will be established at world prices (point B in graph [b]). At that
equilibrium, domestic consumption is higher (q2) but production is lower (qd).
Tariffs raise domestic prices and reduce the quantity sold. In graph (c) a tariff that increases the import price
from p2 to p3 reduces imports and increases domestic sales (from q2 to qt) and price.
Quotas put an absolute limit on imported sales and thus give domestic producers a great opportunity to raise the
market price. In graph (d), the quota Q limits how far market supply can shift to the right, pushing the price up
from P2 to P4.
Figure 17.2a depicts the supplyanddemand relationships that would prevail in a closed (notrade) economy. In
this situation, the equilibrium price of textiles is completely determined by domestic demand and supply
curves. The equilibrium price is p1, and the quantity of textiles consumed is q1.
Page 337
Suppose now that trade begins and foreign producers are allowed to sell textiles in the American market. The
immediate effect of this decision will be a rightward shift of the market supply curve as foreign supplies are
added to domestic supplies (Figure 17.2b). If an unlimited quantity of textiles can be bought in world markets at
a price of p2, the new supply curve will look like S2 (infinitely elastic at p2). The new supply curve (S2)
intersects the old demand curve (D1) at a new equilibrium price of p2 and an expanded consumption of q2. At
this new equilibrium, domestic producers are supplying the quantity qd, while foreign producers are supplying
the rest (q2 − qd). Comparing the new equilibrium to the old one, we see that trade results in reduced prices and
increased consumption.
Import quotas tend to push both domestic and import prices higher, making consumers worse off.
A 1987 Herblock Cartoon, © The Herb Block Foundation.
Page 338
Domestic textile producers are unhappy, of course, with their foreign competition. In the absence of trade, the
domestic producers would sell more output (q1) and get higher prices (p1). Once trade is opened up, the
willingness of foreign producers to sell unlimited quantities of textiles at the price p2 puts a limit on the price
behavior of domestic producers. Accordingly, we can anticipate some lobbying for trade restrictions.
TARIFF EFFECTS Figure 17.2c illustrates what would happen to prices and sales if the United Textile
Producers were successful in persuading the government to impose a tariff. Assume the tariff raises imported
textile prices from p2 to p3. The higher price p3 makes it more difficult for foreign producers to undersell
domestic producers. Domestic production expands from qd to qt, imports are reduced from q2 − qd to q3 − qt,
and the market price of textiles rises. Domestic textile producers are clearly better off, whereas domestic
consumers and foreign producers are worse off.
QUOTA EFFECTS Now consider the impact of a textile quota. Suppose that we eliminate tariffs but decree
that imports cannot exceed the quantity Q. Because the quantity of imports can never exceed Q, the supply curve
is effectively shifted to the right by that amount. The new curve S4 (Figure 17.2d) indicates that no imports will
occur below the world price p2 and that above that price the quantity Q will be imported. Thus the domestic
supply curve determines subsequent prices. Foreign producers are precluded from selling greater quantities as
prices rise further. This outcome is in marked contrast to that of tariffrestricted trade (Figure 17.3c), which at
least permits foreign producers to respond to rising prices. Accordingly, quotas are a much greater threat to
competition than tariffs because quotas preclude additional imports at any price.
Quotas have long been maintained on sugar coming into the United States. By keeping cheap imported sugar
out, these quotas have permitted beet farmers in Nebraska and sugarcane farmers in Florida to reap economic
profits. American consumers have paid for that protection, however, in the form of higher prices for candy,
sodas, and sugar—about $2 billion per year. Foreign sugar producers have also lost sales, jobs, and profits.
Confronted with higher input costs, U.S. candy and soda manufacturers have shut down U.S. plants and
relocated elsewhere, eliminating thousands of U.S. jobs (see the accompanying News Wire “Import Quotas”).
Nontariff Barriers
Tariffs and quotas are the most visible barriers to trade, but they are only the tip of the iceberg. Indeed, the
variety of protectionist measures that have been devised is testimony to human ingenuity. At the turn of the
century, the Germans were officially committed to a policy of extending equal treatment to all trading partners.
They wanted, however, to lower the tariff on cattle imports from Denmark without extending the same break to
Switzerland. Accordingly, the Germans created a new and higher tariff on “brown and dappled cows reared at a
level of at least 300 meters above sea level and passing at least one month in every summer at an altitude of at
least 800 meters.” The new tariff was, of course, applied equally to all countries. But Danish cows never climb
that high, so they were not burdened with the new tariff.
With the decline in tariffs over the last 20 years, nontariff barriers have increased. The United States uses
product standards, licensing restrictions, restrictive procurement practices, and other nontariff barriers to restrict
roughly 15 percent of imports. Japan makes even greater use of nontariff barriers, restricting nearly 30 percent
of imports in such ways.
Page 339
NEWS WIRE IMPORT QUOTAS
Obama Cuts Sour Deal on Sugar
President Barack Obama has kept a campaign promise to the sugar lobby at the expense of American families
struggling to pay their grocery bills and U.S. manufacturing workers fighting to keep their jobs….
Since the early 1980s, the domestic U.S. sugar industry has enjoyed cartellike control of the domestic market. A
system of price supports and import quotas virtually guarantees domestic beet and cane growers an 80 percent
market share. At times, this has forced American families and sugarconsuming industries to pay prices two or
three times the spot world price.
This has been bad news for families, who must pay higher prices at the grocery store, but equally bad for a
segment of American workers. Artificially high domestic sugar prices raise the cost of production for refined
sugar, candy and other confectionary products, chocolate and cocoa products, chewing gum, bread and other
bakery products, cookies and crackers, and frozen bakery goods. Higher costs cut into profits and
competitiveness, putting thousands of jobs in jeopardy….
In all, 6,400 workers in the sugarprocessing industry have lost their jobs because of their own government's
deliberate policy to drive up the cost of their major input. According to the U.S. International Trade
Commission, the sugar program “saves” only 2,200 jobs in the sugar growing and harvesting industry. So our
sugar policy eliminates three jobs for every one it saves.
—Daniel Griswold, Cato Institute
Source: “Obama cuts sour deal on sugar,” The Detroit News, October 8, 2009. Copyright © 2009 The
Detroit News. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
NOTE: Import restrictions raise domestic prices, making both domestic consumers and foreign producers worse
off. They enrich domestic producers, however.
In 1999–2000, the European Union banned imports of U.S. beef, arguing that the use of hormones on U.S.
ranches created a health hazard for European consumers. Although both the U.S. government and the World
Trade Organization disputed that claim, the ban was a highly effective nontariff trade barrier. The United States
responded by slapping 100 percent tariffs on dozens of European products.
EXCHANGE RATES
Up until now, we've made no mention of how people pay for goods and services produced in other countries. In
fact, the principle of comparative advantage is based only on opportunity costs; it makes no reference to
monetary prices. Yet when France and the United States started specializing in production, market participants
had to purchase wine and bread to get trade flows started. Remember Henri, the mythical French entrepreneur?
He got trade started by buying bread in the United States for export to France. That meant he had to make
purchases in dollars and sales in euros. So long as each nation has its own currency, every trade will require
use of two different currencies at some point.
If you've ever traveled to a foreign country, you know the currency problem. Stores, hotels, vending machines,
and restaurants price their products in local currency. So you've got to exchange your dollars for local currency
when you travel (a service import). That's when you learn how important the exchange rate is. The exchange
rate refers to the value of one currency in terms of another currency. If $1 exchanges for 2 euros, then a euro is
worth 50 cents.
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Global Pricing
Exchange rates are a critical link in the global pricing of goods and services. Whether a bottle of French wine is
expensive depends on two factors: (1) the French price of the wine, expressed in euros, and (2) the dollar–euro
exchange rate. Specifically,
Hence if French wine sells for 60 euros per bottle in France and the dollar price of a euro is $1.50, the American
price of imported French wine is
Appreciation/Depreciation
The formula for global pricing highlights how important exchange rates are for trade flows. Whenever
exchange rates change, so do the global prices of all imports and exports.
NEWS WIRE CURRENCY APPRECIATION
What the Strong U.S. Dollar Means for Americans Traveling to Europe This Year
Americans traveling to Europe this year will finally have a little relief at the register, or at least a smile on their
faces when they examine their credit card statements once they get home. The euro has fallen significantly
against the dollar in the past six months, tumbling down to US $1.17 for 1 euro as of yesterday, a level not seen
since 2006 ….
© Aaron Roeth Photography RF/Aaron Roeth Photography
This is quite a change for a currency that was valued as high as $1.60 during the summer of 2008 ….
So what does this mean for U.S. travelers to the Eurozone countries? Certain things are obvious: Everyday
charges will be cheaper, in dollar terms. Some examples of how this might affect your trip:
€65 dinner for two. July 2008 = $104. January 2015 = $76.05
€120 hotel room, per night. July 2008 = $192. January 2015 = $140
€11 museum entry. July 2008 = $17.60. January 2015 = $12.87
You get the picture: Americans have much more buying power in Eurozone countries.
—Tom Meyers
Source: Meyers, Tom, “What the strong US dollar means for Americans traveling to Europe this year,”
eurocheapo.com, January 15, 2015. Copyright © 2015 Over There Interactive. All rights reserved. Used
with permission.
NOTE: When the dollar appreciates (rises in value), the euro simultaneously depreciates (falls in value). This
makes European vacations cheaper for American college students.
Page 341
Suppose the dollar were to get stronger against the euro. That means the dollar price of a euro would decline.
Suppose the dollar price of a euro fell from $1.50 to only $1.20. That currency appreciation of the dollar
would cut the dollar price of French wine by 20 percent. Americans would respond by buying more imported
wine. In 2015 Americans took advantage of the dollar's appreciation to book more travel to Europe (see the
accompanying News Wire “Currency Appreciation”).
If the dollar is rising in value, another currency must be falling. Specifically, the appreciation of the dollar
implies a currency depreciation for the euro. If the dollar price of a euro declines from $1.50 to $1.20, that
implies an increase in the euro price of a dollar (from 0.67 euros to 0.83 euros). Hence French consumers will
have to pay more euros for an American loaf of bread. Stuck with a depreciated currency, they may decide to
buy fewer imported loaves of bread. As the previous equation implies, if the value of a nation's currency
declines,
Its exports become cheaper.
Its imports become more expensive.
Imagine how Argentinians felt in January 2001 when their currency (the peso) depreciated by nearly 70 percent.
That abrupt depreciation made all foreignmade products too expensive for Argentinians. But it made Argentina
a bargain destination for U.S. travelers.
A WEAKER DOLLAR In 2009, the United States enjoyed a similar tourist influx. The dollar depreciated by
nearly 10 percent against the euro in early 2009. This dollar depreciation dropped the euro price of a ticket to
Disney World by 10 percent. Europeans responded by flocking to Florida. In 2015 the situation was reversed:
The strong dollar hurt ticket sales at Disney World.
Foreign Exchange Markets
The changes in exchange rates that alter global prices are really no different in principle from other price
changes. An exchange rate is, after all, simply the price of a currency. Like other market prices, an exchange
rate is determined by supply and demand.
Figure 17.3 depicts a foreign exchange market. In this case, the supply and demand for euros is the focus. On the
demand side of the market is everyone who has some use of euros, including U.S. travelers to Europe, U.S.
importers of European products, and foreign investors who want to buy European stocks, bonds, and factories.
The cheaper the euro, the greater the quantity of euros demanded.
FIGURE 17.3
FIGURE 17.3 The Euro MarketExchange rates are set in foreign exchange markets by the international supply
of and demand for a currency. In this case the equilibrium price is 110 U.S. cents for one euro.
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The supply of euros comes from similar sources. German tourists visiting Disney World supply euros when they
demand U.S. dollars. European consumers who buy Americanmade products set off a chain of transactions that
supplies euros in exchange for dollars. The higher the price of the euro, the more they are willing to supply.
The intersection of the supply and demand curves in Figure 17.3 establishes the equilibrium price of the euro—
that is, the prevailing exchange rate. As we have seen, however, exchange rates change. As with other prices,
exchange rates change when either the supply of or the demand for a currency shifts. If American students
suddenly decided to enroll in European colleges, the demand for euros would increase. This rightward shift of
the euro demand curve would cause the euro to appreciate (go up), as shown in Figure 17.4. Such a euro
appreciation would increase the cost of studying in Europe. But the euro appreciation would make it cheaper for
European students to attend U.S. colleges. There are always winners and losers when exchange rates change.
FIGURE 17.4
FIGURE 17.4 Currency AppreciationIf the demand for a currency increases, its value will rise (appreciate).
Shifts of a currency's demand or supply curve will alter exchange rates.
China's government has used a cheap currency to increase its exports. By keeping the dollar price of the yuan
low, China effectively lowers the price of its exports and raises the price of its imports. This helps China achieve
huge export surpluses (see Table 17.2) but angers U.S. and European producers who must compete against
cheap Chinese products. In response to political pressure from the United States and other trading partners,
China has increased the value of the yuan slightly in recent years.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES
Who Enforces World Trade Rules?
Trade policy is a continuing conflict between the benefits of comparative advantage and the pleadings of
protectionists. Free trade promises more output, greater efficiency, and lower prices. At the same time, free trade
threatens profits, jobs, and wealth in specific industries.
Politically, the battle over trade policy favors protectionist interests over consumer interests. Few consumers
understand how free trade affects them. Moreover, consumers are unlikely to organize political protests just
because the price of orange juice is 35 cents per gallon higher. By contrast, importcompeting industries have a
large economic stake in trade restrictions and can mobilize political support easily. After convincing Congress to
pass new quotas on textiles in 1990, the Fiber Fabric Apparel Coalition for Trade (FFACT) mustered 250,000
signatures and 4,000 union members to march on the White House demanding that President Bush sign the
legislation.
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President Clinton faced similar political resistance when he sought congressional approval of NAFTA in 1993
and GATT in 1994. Indeed, the political resistance to free trade was so intense that Congress delayed a vote on
GATT until after the November 1994 elections. This forced President Clinton to convene a special postelection
session of Congress for the sole purpose of ratifying the GATT agreement.
President Obama confronted the same kind of political power in 2009. The president was committed to a
massive fiscal stimulus program that would help end the 2008–2009 recession. The labor unions that had helped
elect him wanted to be sure that the stimulus money benefited them, so they convinced Obama to include a “Buy
American” provision in the stimulus bill. That provision created a few more jobs in the auto and steel industries
but raised the specter of retaliation by foreign nations.
GATT The political resistance to free trade is not unique to the United States. International trade creates winners
and losers in every trading nation. Recognizing this, the countries of the world decided long ago that
multinational agreements were the most effective way to overcome domestic protectionism. Broad trade
agreements can address the entire spectrum of trade restrictions rather than focusing on one industry at a time.
Multinational agreements can also muster political support by offering greater export opportunities as import
restrictions are lifted.
In 1947, 23 of the world's largest trading nations signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
The GATT pact committed these nations to pursue free trade policies and to extend equal access (“most favored
nation” status) to domestic markets for all GATT members. This goal was pursued with periodic rounds of
multilateral trade agreements. Because each round of negotiations entailed hundreds of industries and products,
the negotiations typically dragged on for 6 to 10 years. At the end of each round, however, trade barriers were
always lower. When GATT was first signed in 1947, tariff rates in developed countries averaged 40 percent. The
first seven GATT rounds pushed tariffs down to an average of 6.3 percent, and the 1986–1994 Uruguay Round
lowered them further to 3.9 percent.
WTO The 117 nations that signed the 1994 Uruguay agreement also decided that a stronger mechanism was
needed to enforce free trade agreements. To that end, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was created to
replace GATT. If a nation feels its exports are being unfairly excluded from another country's market, it can file
a complaint with the WTO. This is exactly what the United States did when the European Union (EU) banned
U.S. beef imports. The WTO ruled in favor of the United States. When the EU failed to lift its import ban, the
WTO authorized the United States to impose retaliatory tariffs on European exports.
The European Union turned the tables on the United States in 2003. It complained to the WTO that U.S. tariffs
on steel violated trade rules. The WTO agreed and gave the EU permission to impose retaliatory tariffs on $2.2
billion of U.S. exports. That prompted the Bush administration to scale back the tariffs in December 2003. In
2009 China petitioned the WTO to force the United States to repeal the tariff on Chinese tires.
In effect, the WTO is now the world's trade police force. It is empowered to cite nations that violate trade
agreements and even to authorize remedial action when violations persist. Why do sovereign nations give the
WTO such power? Because they are convinced that free trade is the surest route to GDP growth.
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SUMMARY
A trade deficit arises when imports exceed exports; a trade surplus is the reverse. LO1
Trade breaks the link between a nation's consumption possibilities and its production possibilities. LO2
Trade permits each country to concentrate its resources on those goods it can produce most efficiently.
This kind of productive specialization increases world output. LO2
In determining what to produce and offer in trade, each country will exploit its comparative advantage—
its relative efficiency in producing various goods. One way to determine where comparative advantage
lies is to compare the quantity of good A that must be given up in order to produce a given quantity of
good B. If the same quantity of B can be obtained for less A by trading, we have a comparative advantage
in the production of good A. Comparative advantage rests on a comparison of relative opportunity costs
(domestic versus international). LO2
The terms of trade—the rate at which goods are exchanged—are subject to the forces of international
supply and demand. The terms of trade will lie somewhere between the opportunity costs of the trading
partners. LO3
Resistance to trade emanates from workers and firms that must compete with imports. Even though the
country as a whole stands to benefit from trade, these individuals and companies may lose jobs and
incomes in the process. LO4
The means of restricting trade are many and diverse. Tariffs discourage imports by making them more
expensive. Quotas limit the quantity of a good that may be imported. Nontariff barriers are less visible but
also effective in curbing imports. LO4
International trade requires converting one nation's currency into that of another. The exchange rate is the
price of one currency in terms of another. LO5
Changes in exchange rates (currency appreciation and depreciation) occur when supply or demand for a
currency shifts. When a nation's currency appreciates, its exports become more expensive and its imports
become cheaper. LO5
The World Trade Organization (WTO) polices multilateral trade agreements to keep trade barriers low.
LO4
TERMS TO REMEMBER
Define the following terms:
imports
exports
trade deficit
trade surplus
production possibilities
consumption possibilities
opportunity cost
comparative advantage
absolute advantage
terms of trade
tariff
quota
equilibrium price
exchange rate
currency appreciation
currency depreciation
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Suppose a lawyer can type faster than any secretary. Should the lawyer do her own typing? LO2
2. Can you identify three services Americans import? How about three exported services? LO1
3. If a nation exported much of its output but imported little, would it be better or worse off? How about the
reverse—that is, exporting little but importing a lot? LO1
4. Are “Buy American” provisions good for (a) U.S. consumers, (b) U.S. producers? LO4
5. Why did solar panel installers object to tariffs on Chinesemade solar panels (see the News Wire “Tariff
Protection”)? LO2
6. How would each of these events affect the supply or demand for Japanese yen? LO5
1. Stronger U.S. economic growth.
2. A decline in Japanese interest rates.
3. Higher inflation in the United States.
7. Is a stronger dollar good or bad for America? Explain. LO5
8. Why might China want to keep the price of the yuan low? Who suffers from this policy? LO5
9. POLICY PERSPECTIVES If another nation raises tariffs on U.S. products, should the United States
retaliate with similar trade barriers? Who would gain? Who would lose? LO4
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PROBLEMS
1. Suppose the following table reflects the domestic supply and demand for Tshirts: LO4
Price ($) 1513119 7 5 3 1
Quantity supplied 8 7 65 4 3 2 1
Quantity demanded 2 4 6810121416
1. Graph these market conditions and identify when there is an absence of trade (i) the market price,
(ii) domestic consumption, and (iii) domestic production.
2. Now suppose that foreigners enter the market, offering to sell an unlimited supply of Tshirts for $7
apiece. Now with free trade, identify (i) the market price, (ii) domestic consumption, and (iii)
domestic production.
3. If a tariff of $2 per Tshirt is imposed, with this trade barrier, identify (i) the market price, (ii)
domestic consumption, and (iii) domestic production.
2. Alpha and Beta, two tiny islands off the east coast of Tricoli, produce pearls and pineapples. The
production possibilities schedules in the table below describe their potential output in tons per year. LO3
1. Graph the production possibilities confronting each island.
2. What is the opportunity cost of one ton of pineapples on each island?
3. Which island has a comparative advantage in pineapple production?
3. Suppose the two islands in Problem 2 agree that the terms of trade will be 1 ton of pineapples for 1 ton of
pearls and that trade soon results in an exchange of 10 tons of pineapples for 10 tons of pearls. LO2
1. If Alpha produced 6 tons of pearls and 15 tons of pineapples and Beta produced 30 tons pf pearls
and 8 tons of pineapples before they decided to trade, how much would each be producing after
trade became possible? Assume that the two countries specialize just enough to maintain their
consumption of the item they export, and make sure each island trades the item for which it has a
comparative advantage.
2. How much would the combined production of pineapples increase for the two islands due to trade?
How much would the combined production of pearls increase?
3. How could both islands produce and consume even more?
4. What is the equilibrium euro price of the U.S. dollar LO5
1. In Figure 17.3?
2. In Figure 17.4?
3. Did the dollar appreciate or depreciate in Figure 17.4?
5. In what country is the U.S. dollar price of a Big Mac the highest with the following exchange rates? LO5
1. 12,480 rupiah = $1
2. 0.86 euros = $1
3. 32.6 baht = $1
4. 6.21 yuan = $1
6. If a PlayStation 4 costs 40,000 yen in Japan, how much will it cost in U.S. dollars if the exchange rate is
as follows? LO5
1. 120 yen = $1
2. 1 yen = $0.00833
3. 100 yen = $1
7. By what percent did the dollar price of a euro fall between 2008 and 2015 (see the News Wire “Currency
Appreciation”)? LO5
8. If an admission ticket to the Eiffel Tower cost 10 euros, what was the dollar price of the ticket in (a) 2008?
(b) In 2015? (See the News Wire “Currency Appreciation.”) LO5
9. According to the News Wire “Import Quotas,” what is the net U.S. job loss from sugar quotas? LO4
10. POLICY PERSPECTIVES Using supply and demand, how would you illustrate the effect of a “Buy
American” policy? LO4