Later Mughals and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire in India

Later Mughals (1707-1857 A.D.):

The Mughal Empire was vast and extensive in the beginning of the eighteenth century. But by the close of the
century it had shrunk to a few kilometres around Delhi.

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, a war of succession began amongst his three surviving sons, Muazzam –
the governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat, and Kam Baksh-the governor of Deccan.

Azam turned to Ahmednagar and proclaimed himself emperor. Kam Baksh too declared himself the sovereign
ruler and conquered important places as Gulbarga and Hyderabad. Muazzam defeated both Azam at Jajau in
1707 and Kam Baksh near Hyderabad in 1708. Muazzam emerged victorious and ascended the Mughal throne
with the title of Bahadur Shah I. He was also known as Shah Alam I.

Bahadur Shah:
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12) was the first and the last of the later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority. He was
learned, dignified and tried to reverse some of the narrow-minded policies and measures adopted by
Aurangzeb. He followed a conciliatory policy towards the Rajput’s and Marathas but a strict policy towards
the Sikhs.

Rajput’s:
To have better control over Marwar and Amber he forced Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit to the Mughal
authority. He made attempts to garrison Amber and replace Jai Singh with his younger brother Vijay Singh.
Both Ajit Singh and Jai Singh were later restored but their demand for high mansabs (ranks) and offices of
subahdars of important provinces were not accepted.

Marathas:
Shahu, son of Shambhaji who was in Mughal captivity was released in 1707. He granted them the
sardeshmukhi of the Deccan but not the chauth. He also did not recognize Shahu as the rightful Maratha king
thus keeping the fight for supremacy going between Tara Bai and Shahu. Marathas thus remained dissatisfied.

Sikhs:
Bahadur Shah made reconciliation with Guru Gobind Singh and granted him high mansab. But after the death
of the Guru, the Sikhs once again raised a revolt under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. The Mughal authority
defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh, a fort built by Guru Govind Singh. That was however recovered in 1712
by the Sikhs.

Bahadur Shah made peace with Chhatrasal, the Bundela chief and the Jat chief Churaman who joined him in
the campaign against Banda Bahadur. He adopted a more tolerant attitude towards the Hindus. There was
however a deterioration in the field of administration in his reign because he lavishly granted jagirs and
promotions. Khafi Khan called him Shah-i-Bekhabar (Headless King). He died in 1712.Henceforth a new
element entered Mughal politics and the war of succession.

Previously, the contest for power was between the royal princes; the nobles had merely backed and sided with
them. Now they became direct aspirants to the throne and began using the princes as pawns to capture
authoritarian positions.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):

In another war of succession following Bahadur Shah’s death, his four sons, Jahandar Shah, Rafi-us-Shan,
Azim-us-Shan and Jahan Shah became involved. Jahandar Shah (1712-13) was successful in the war than the
others. But Jahandar Shah was a weak ruler and came to the throne chiefly – with the help of Zulfikar Khan,
the powerful noble who as a reward was made the wazir (prime minister).

He was a clever man and advocated a friendly policy towards the Rajput’s, Marathas and the Hindu chieftains
not only to strengthen his own position but to ensure the survival of the empire. He quickly abandoned the
policies of Aurangzeb and adopted a liberal attitude towards the Hindus. He abolished the jizyah; gave the title
of Mirza Raja Sawai to Jai Singh of Amber and appointed him the governor of Malwa.

Ajit Singh of Marwar was given the title of Maharaja and appointed the governor of Gujarat. He confirmed the
agreement reached between his deputy and Shahu in 1711 whereby the Marathas were given the chauth and
sardeshmukhi of the Deccan on condition that the Mughal officials would make these collections and hand it
over to the Maratha officials. He pacified Churaman Jat and Chhatrasal Bundela but continued a strict policy
towards the Sikhs.

Zulfikar Khan tried to improve the finances of the empire by checking the reckless growth of jagirs and offices
and forced the mansabdarsio maintain their official quota of troops. But he also introduced the evil practice of
revenue – farming or Ijarah whereby the government established contact with the revenue farmers and
middlemen who paid the government a fixed amount while they were free to collect whatever they could from
the peasant.

This oppressed the peasantry to a great extent. However the inglorious reign of Jahandar Shah soon came to an
end in 1713 when he was defeated by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra. Zulfikar Khan was soon executed by
the orders of the new emperor.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719):

Farrukh Siyar came to power with the help of Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha –
the kingmakers. They were given the office of the wazir and mirbakshi respectively. The two brothers soon
acquired dominant control over the affairs of the state.

Farrukh was himself incapable of ruling and was easily influenced by the others. The Sayyid brothers were
convinced that if the real authority were in their hands the empire would be safeguarded from perishing. It was
during the reign of Farrukh that Banda Bahadur the Sikh chief was captured and killed. However the struggle
for power between the emperor and the Sayyid brothers increased and the efforts of the emperor to overthrow
the brothers failed repeatedly. Finally Farrukh was deposed and killed in 1719.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48):

As successors Sayyid the brothers quickly raised two young princes, Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud- Daula (Shah
Jahan II) who died within months. Finally Roshan Akhtar, the son of Jahan Shah was placed on the throne
under the title of Muhammad Shah. The Sayyid brothers followed a policy of religious tolerance.
They abolished the jizyah as well as the pilgrimage tax at many places. In order to maintain harmony, they
advocated a policy of associating Hindu chiefs and nobles with Muslim nobles. In their struggle against
Farrukh Siyar, the Sayyid brothers sided with the Rajput’s and the Marathas. Ajit Singh of Marwar and Jai
Singh of Amber were won over by giving them high positions in the administration.

Alliance was made with Churaman Jat and later placated Shahu by granting him Shivaji’s swarajya and the
right to collect the chauth and sardeshmukhi in six provinces of the Deccan. In return Shahu promised them
help in the Deccan with fifteen thousand soldiers.

The efforts made by the Sayyid brothers did not yield great results because they were constantly faced with
rival factions and conspiracies in the court. The financial position of the empire was also dwindling as the
rebellious elements refused to pay the land tax. This led to increased indiscipline amongst the soldiers.

The hostile nobles united themselves under the leadership of Nizam-ul-Mulk of the Deccan. Further the murder
of Farrukh Siyar created a wave of terror and repulsion against the Sayyid brothers who were looked down
upon as traitors.

They were branded as anti-Islamic for their policies. The anti-Sayyid nobles were strongly backed by
Muhammad Shah who wanted to free himself from the hold of the brothers. In 1720, Hussain Ali was killed by
the rebellious nobles and Abdullah Khan died in 1722 after he was defeated at Agra. This ended the rule of the
Sayyid brothers in the Mughal Empire.

After the fall of the Sayyid brothers Muhammad Shah had a long reign (1719-48) to save the empire. The
Mughal rule was still held in high esteem by the people. The Mughal army especially the artillery was still the
most important force; administration in northern India had deteriorated but not collapsed entirely. The Maratha
sardars were still confined to the south and the Rajput’s were loyal to the Mughals.

But Muhammad Shah was not a good ruler. His first Wazir after the fall of the Sayyid brothers was
Muhammad Amin Khan. After his death Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed the wazir in 1722. But instead of
supporting Nizam, the emperor suspected his own ministers. The attempts to reform the administration proved
futile and disgusted with the inability and fickle mindedness of the emperor the Nizam chose to pursue his own
ambitions.

He gave his office in 1724 and proceeded to the south and found the state of Hyderabad. He was the most
pleasure-loving ruler of loose morals and is therefore called Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’. After the fall of
Sayyid brothers he fell into the clutches of a dancing girl Koki Jiu and the eunuch Hafiz Khidmatgar Khan.

The already declining Mughal Empire received another fatal blow when the Persian monarch, Nadir Shah
invaded India in 1738-39. Nadir Shah was attracted to India by her fabulous wealth for which she was famous.
The bankrupt Persian Empire found an easy prey in the weak Mughal rule with loose defences on the north-
west frontier and used the golden opportunity.
The disunity amongst the nobles too proved an added advantage for the invaders. The two armies met at
Karnal in 1739 and the Mughals suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Nadir Shah. Emperor Muhammad
Shah was taken prisoner and Nadir Shah marched on to Delhi.

He plundered the royal treasury at his, own pleasure and carried back the immense wealth from India. He
carried away with him the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the jewel studded Peacock throne of Shahjahan.
Nadir Shah’s invasion inflicted a heavy damage on the Mughal Empire and its dwindling image suffered a
severe blow.

The invasion affected the imperial finances and the economic life of the people adversely. Ahmad Shah
Abdali, the successor of Nadir Shah invaded the kingdom for the first time during Muhammad Shah’s reign in
1748. Ahmad Shah Abdali was defeated at Manpur by Ahmad Shah, the Mughal heir-apparent and Mir
Mannu, the son of the deceased wazir Qamruddin.

Ahmad Shah (1748-54 A.D.):

The death of emperor Muhammad Shah in 1748 saw the beginning of bitter struggles among power hungry
nobles of Turani and Irani factions. His successor Ahmad Shah born of Udham Bai, a public dancing girl,
ascended the throne but was unable to cope with the disintegrating forces.

The weak defenses of the northwest encouraged Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded India twice in 1749 and
1752, when he marched upto Delhi. The emperor, with a view to buy peace and save Delhi from devastation,
ceded Punjab and Multan to Abdali. Imad ul Mulk ousted the Wazir Safdar Jang and became the wazir. Ahmad
Shah was blinded and deposed by this new wazir.

Alamgir II (1754-1759 A.D.):

After the dethronement of Ahmad Shah, Imad-ul-Mulk raised Azizuddin, Jahandar Shah’s son on the throne
who styled himself after Aurangzeb as Alamgir II. The military and financial position of the empire during this
period became worst to the extent that the emperor’s household troops carried off the articles from the houses
of the wazirs and nobles and sold them into the market. Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi in 1757 and the
imperial city was plundered.

The relations between Alamgir II and Wazir Imad-ul-Mulk were not satisfactory and the latter got him
murdered in 1759.

Shah Jahan III (1759-60 A.D.):

Muhi-ul-Milat, the grandson of KamBaksh was placed on the throne as Shah Jahan III by Imad-ul- Mulk. ‘He
was deposed by the Marathas who captured Delhi in 1760.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806 A.D.):

Ali Gauhar, the son of Alamgir II became the Mughal emperor in 1759 and took up the title of Shah Alam II.
At the time of his father’s death he was in Bihar. Although he was declared the Mughal Emperor, he did not
proceed to Delhi for 12 years (the Wazir Imad ul Mulk placed Shah Jahan III on the throne of Delhi and after
his deposition by the Marathas, Najib Khan Rohilla made made himself dictator of Delhi till his death in 1770).
Ultimately in January 1772, Shah Alam II was reinstated at Delhi by the Marathas. Ghulam Qadir (grandson of
Najib and son of Zabita Khan Rohilla) occupied Delhi in 1788, blinded Shah Alam II and deposed him.
Ghulam Qadir was defeated and executed by Mahadji Sindhia at Meerut in 1789 and Shah Alam II was
reinstated as Sindhia’s pensioner. In 1803, Delhi was captured by the English after Lord Lake defeated the
Marathas and Shah Alam became the British pensioner. David Ochterlony became the first resident.

Akbar Shah II (1806-1837 A.D.):

After the death of Shah Alam II, his son succeeded as Akbar Shah II. Akbar sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to
England to seek a raise in pension. The presentation of Nazrs (gifts involving sovereign status) was ended by
Lord Hastings in 1813.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-57 A.D.):

After the death of Akbar II, Bahadur Shah II became the Emperor. He was allowed to retain the imperial title.
He was fond of poetry and had the title of “Zafar.” He took part in the Revolt of 1857. He was captured and
tried by the British. Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon where he died in 1862. Thus ended the Mughal
dynasty.

Rise of independent states in the 18th century:

With the decline of the Mughal Empire a number of provinces seceded from the empire and several
independent states came into existence.

Hyderabad:
The State of Hyderabad was founded by Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi, who was appointed Viceroy of the Deccan,
with the title of Nizam-ul- Mulk, by Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1712. He established a virtually independent
state but returned to Delhi during the reign of Emperor Mohammad Shah. In 1724, he was reappointed Viceroy
of the Deccan with the title of Asaf Jah. He founded the Asaf Jah dynasty. His successors were known as the
Nizams of Hyderabad.

Asaf Jah ruled the Deccan with a firm hand, crushed the rebellious and powerful zamindars and established a
strong administration. He put his nominee, Anwar-ud-din, on the throne of Arcot. After his death in 1748,
Hyderabad became an easy prey to powerful neighbours. European trading companies started interfering in the
domestic politics of Hyderabad for their own selfish gains.

The Carnatic:
The Carnatic was one of the provinces of the Mughals in the Deccan and was under the authority of the Nizam
of Hyderabad. However, in practice, the Carnatic was virtually independent under its nawab.

Bengal:
Bengal in the 18th century comprised Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Murshid Quli Khan was the Diwan of Bengal
under Aurangzeb. Farrukhsiyar appointed him Subedar (governor) of Bengal in 1717.

Taking advantage of the growing weakness of the central authority, Murshid Quli Khan became practically
independent. Murshid Quli Khan (1717-27) and his successors Shuja-ud-Daula (1727-39) and Alivardi Khan
(1739-1756) gave Bengal a long period of peace and stable administration.
All these three rulers gave encouragement to trade but maintained strict control over the foreign trading
companies. Alivardi Khan did not permit English and French trading companies to fortify their possessions in
Bengal.
However, the Nawabs of Bengal failed to build up a strong army and navy. They also failed to prevent
corruption among the officials. Nor did they firmly destroy the tendency of the East India Company to use
force. Their ignorance of the situation in Europe proved costly. Bengal was the first province to be conquered
by the East India Company.

Awadh:
The subah of Awadh comprised Benaras and some districts near Allahabad. Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk was
appointed Governor of Awadh by the Mughal Emperor. But he soon became independent. He established a
strong administration, crushed the power of the big zamindars and brought about law and order in the country.

His successor Safdar Jang gave Awadh a long period of peace and prosperity. The authority of the Awadh
rulers extended up to Rohil-khand, a territory to the east of Delhi.

Mysore:
Early in the 18th century, Mysore was ruled by a Hindu king. After the death of the king, Hyder Ali captured
the throne. Though illiterate, Hyder Ali was an efficient administrator. He became the ruler of Mysore when
Hyder Ali it was a weak and divided state.

But within a short span of time he made Mysore one of the leading Indian powers. He modernized the army
and expanded his kingdom through conquests. He was strong enough to emerge as a rival of the British.

The Rajput Kingdoms:

Taking advantage of the growing weakness of Mughal power, the Rajput states became virtually independent.
But the Rajput chiefs continued to be divided as before. Most of the Rajput states were involved in petty
quarrels and civil wars.

Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber (1681-1743) was a renowned Rajput ruler. He founded the city of Jaipur. He
also erected observatories with accurate and advanced instruments at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi and
Mathura. With the rise of the Marathas, Rajput influence began to decrease.

The Punjab:
It was under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and the last Guru of the Sikhs that the community
became a political and military force. The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali and the
consequent decline of Mughal power gave the Sikhs the opportunity to rise. Between 1765 and 1800 they
brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control. At the end of the 18th century Ranjit Singh, chief of the
Sukercharia misl brought all the Sikh chiefs west of the river Sutlej under his control and established a
powerful Sikh empire in the Punjab.

After Ranjit Singh’s death, there was confusion in the Sikh state. The English, who were on the lookout for an
opportunity to expand their territories, conquered the Sikh kingdom (1839-40).

The Marathas:
Shahuji, the grandson of Shivaji, who had been imprisoned by Aurangzeb, was released by Bahadur Shah in
1707. The Maratha state at that time was ruled by Tara Bai, the queen regent. A civil war broke out between
the two Shahu was victorious.

Shahuji appointed Balaji Vishwanath as his Peshwa or Prime Minister in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath
concentrated all power in his own hands and became the real ruler of the Marathas. The king was relegated to
the background. Balaji Vishwanath assigned separate areas to the Maratha sardars (chiefs) for the collection of
levies of chauth and sardeshmukhi.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761) further extended the empire in different directions. Maratha power reached its
height under him. The Marathas soon reached Delhi and offered their support to the Mughal emperor. The
expulsion of Ahmad Shah Abdali’s agent from Punjab brought the Marathas into an open conflict with Ahmad
Shah Abdali.

The battle between the two forces was fought in Panipat in January 1761. The Marathas were completely
defeated. Nearly 28,000 soldiers were killed. The Peshwa died in June 1761.The Battle of Panipat destroyed
the possibility of the Marathas emerging as the strongest power in India. For the British, this battle was of
immense significance. The Maratha defeat cleared the way for the rise of British power in India.

It should be noted that the Indian powers were strong enough to destroy unite it or to the Mughal Empire but
not strong enough to unite it or to create anything new in its place. Possibly the Marathas alone possessed the
strength to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal Empire. But they lacked
political vision and succumbed to British power.

Battle of Plassey:

Though it was more of a skirmish than a battle, the British victory under Robert Clive at Plassey in Bengal was
a crucial event in the history of India. The young Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ad-daula, had taken Calcutta from the
East India Company with a huge army in June 1756, when the notorious ‘Black Hole’ episode occurred. It was
not until August that the news reached the Company in Madras and not until October that Clive, now 32 years-
old, left for Calcutta at the head of a mixed European-Indian force of some 2,500 men. He drove Siraj’s army
out early in January 1757.
Clive decided that the best way to secure the Company’s interests in Bengal was to replace Siraj with a new
and more pliant nawab. He found a candidate in a discontented elderly general named Mir Jafar. After
complicated conspiratorial discussions and the promise of enormous bribes to all concerned, a secret agreement
was smuggled into the women’s quarters of Mir Jafar’s house, which was being watched by Siraj’s spies, and
Mir Jafar signed it.
Siraj knew or suspected there was a conspiracy against him, despite Clive’s earnest protestations to the
contrary, and moved south to Plassey. On June 13th, Clive moved north with some 2,000 Indian sepoys and
600 British infantry of the Thirty-Ninth of Foot plus close to 200 artillerymen with ten field pieces and two
small howitzers. Ambiguous messages were coming in from Mir Jafar and Clive was moving into a dangerous
situation against heavy odds. He seems to have had a crisis of confidence and summoned his officers to a
council of war on June 21st. The majority, including Clive, voted against action. At that point, according to his
friend Robert Orme, Clive retired into a grove of trees where he stayed for an hour in meditation. On his return
he gave orders for the army to move on to Plassey.
The confrontation came on a cloudy morning north of the village of Plassey on the bank of the Hughli river.
Clive’s army was drawn up in three divisions, as was the Nawab’s army of perhaps 40,000 men with its war-
elephants and more than 50 cannon. One division was commanded by Mir Jafar. After an opening cannonade,
a crash of thunder at noon heralded a torrential downpour of rain that lasted half an hour. The British
artillerymen quickly covered their cannon and ammunition with tarpaulins, but the enemy failed to do the same
and their artillery was put out of action, so that when the Nawab’s army moved forward, assuming that Clive’s
cannon were also out of action, it was met with a withering storm of fire. The enemy withdrew and Siraj, who
distrusted his generals and had already been warned of impending defeat by his astrologer (who had possibly
been bribed), lost his nerve when Mir Jafar advised retreat. When Clive’s army attacked again, Siraj fled on a
fast camel. His demoralized army followed suit and when the British entered the enemy camp at about 5pm,
they found it abandoned.
According to Clive, he lost 18 men, while he estimated the nawab’s dead as around 500. Siraj-ad-daula was
killed by his own people and Mir Jafar replaced him. Clive, who was now effectively master of Bengal,
skilfully bolstered Mir Jafar’s apparent authority while keeping him on leading strings. The skirmish at Plassey
was critical to the East India Company’s triumph over its French rivals and, in the longer term, to the
establishment of British rule in India.

Foundation of British Rule in

India
In 1600, a company popularly known as the English East India Company was established by a small group of
English merchants. Queen Elizabeth, by a charter, granted them the exclusive right to trade with the East. The
East India Company set up its first factory at Surat. A factory, in those days, was not a place where goods were
manufactured. It consisted of a warehouse, an office and residential quarters. They were so named as the
Company officials, also called ‘factors’, resided there.
Madras became an important British trading settlement. In 1688, Bombay was transferred to the Company by
King Charles II, who had received it as a dowry from the Portuguese at an annual rent of 10 pounds. The
company also established trading centre at Fort William in Calcutta. By 1700 the East India Company had
established three important factories in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta.
There was in Europe a demand for Indian goods such as indigo (a blue dye), saltpetre (used for gunpowder)
and handloom textiles. Indian merchants flocked to the trading centres and the East India Company carried on
profitable trade.

The French East India Company:

The French East India Company, which was formed in 1664, established trade centres at Surat, Pondicherry
near Madras, Chandernagar in Bengal and Mahe near Mysore. The French East India Company was founded
by the French government and its factories depended on government support.
By the 18th century, the British and the French East India Companies had emerged as the two major European
trading companies in India. So a conflict between the two companies over trade and power was unavoidable.
The French and the English were equally determined to monopolize the flourishing trade with India.

Anglo-French Rivalry:
In Europe, the English and the French were rivals and fought several wars. This political conflict in Europe
further aggravated their commercial rivalry for supremacy in India. The conflict between the two East India
Companies occurred in the Carnatic region which lies along the Coromandal coast.

The First Carnatic War (1742-1748):

In 1740 war broke out in Europe over the problem of succession to the Austrian throne. In this war France and
England fought on opposite sides. Technically, therefore, the British and the French in India were also at war
with each other.
Events:
Dupleix, the French Governor in India, captured Madras. The English appealed to Anwar-ud-din, the Nawab of
the Carnatic, to save Madras. The Nawab sent an army against the French. A small but disciplined and well-
equipped French army completely defeated the large army of the Nawab.
Results:
The War of Austrian Succession ended in 1748. Peace came to India as well. The treaty restored Madras to the
English. Thus ended the First Carnatic War without any territorial gain on either side. The war, however, had
raised the prestige of the French. It had also demonstrated the superiority of western method of warfare over
that of the Indian. Anwar-ud- din’s huge army was defeated by a small French force.

The Second Carnatic War:

The Second Carnatic War was the result of English and French interference in local politics with a view to
making substantial gains. Dupleix had decided to use the army to establish French predominance in the
Deccan.

Causes:
In 1748, the rulers of both Hyderabad and Carnatic died. In Hyderabad, a bitter contest for throne ensued
between Nasir Jang and Muzaffar Jang. In the Carnatic, Chanda Sahib contested the claim of Anwar-ud-din to
the throne.

Events:
Dupleix decided to enhance French power by taking sides in these conflicts between rival claimants. His
objective was to set up puppet governments that would support the French against the British. He signed two
secret treaties with Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahib, claimants to the thrones of Hyderabad and the Carnatic
respectively.
With Dupleix’s help, Muzaffar Jang ascended the throne of Hyderabad. Nasir Jang was killed. Dupleix was
handsomely rewarded. A French force under Bussy was stationed in Hyderabad. After Muzaffar Jang’s death,
Salabat Jang was put on the throne. In return, Salabat Jang gave four districts in the Andhra region known as
the Northern Sarkars to the French Company.
In the Carnatic also, Chanda Sahib, with Dupleix’s assistance, defeated and killed Anwar- ud-din and became
the Nawab. Muhammad Ali, the son of Anwar-ud-din, escaped to Trichinopoly. Chanda Sahib rewarded the
French with a grant of 80 villages.
The French had achieved tremendous success both in Hyderabad and the Carnatic. French candidates had been
put on the thrones of both the places. In addition, the French had got jagirs, huge sums of money and the
Northern Sarkars.
The success of Dupleix did not go unnoticed by the English. They decided to install Mohammad Ali on the
throne of Arcot. Robert Clive attacked and captured Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic. In the war that followed,
Chanda Sahib was defeated, captured and put to death. Mohammad Ali was installed as the ruler.
The French Government initiated peace negotiations. Dupleix was recalled. The Northern Sarkars was the only
territorial gain that the French made after the Second Carnatic War.
The Second Carnatic War restored British prestige and established their control over the Carnatic.

The Third Carnatic War:

Causes:
In the year 1756, Seven Years War broke out in Europe. With the outbreak of hostilities between England and
France in Europe, the Third Carnatic War started in India. The French Government sent Count de Lally to
replace Dupleix. Clive was replaced by Eyre Coote.

Events:
In order to strengthen himself, Lally recalled Bussy from Hyderabad. The English at once secured Northern
Sarkars from the Nizam of Hyderabad. Lally was finally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote in the Battle of
Wandiwash in 1760.

Results:
The war in India ended with the end of the war in Europe. The French possessions were restored by the treaty
but they were not allowed to fortify them. The French dream of establishing an empire in India was shattered.
The Northern Sarkars passed into the hands of the English. The English East India Company emerged as the
strongest power in South India. They could now derive political and economic advantages without being
challenged by any other foreign power.

Reasons for English Success:

1. The English East India Company was a private enterprise owned by British merchants capable of taking
risks. The British Government did not interfere in the affairs of the Company. The French East India Company,
on the other hand, was a Government concern. The French Government was not willing to finance the
Company’s heavy war expenses.
2. The English Company was financially much stronger than the French. After the conquest of Bengal, it had
huge resources at its command. The French Company suffered from lack of resources.
3. The superior naval strength of the English contributed enormously to their success. A strong English navy
helped the Company to bring reinforcement from home. Moreover, their supplies landed at their naval base in
Bombay. The French naval base in distant Mauritius caused considerable delay and put them at a disadvantage.
4. The French generals quarrelled among themselves. But the English generals offered united resistance to the
French. There was hardly any coordination between the French army and the navy.
5. The recall of Dupleix proved disastrous to the French. Possibly, he alone could have given the leadership
which the French Company urgently needed.

Rise of British Power in Bengal (Conquest of Bengal):

Bengal was the first kingdom to be occupied by the British in India. It was the most fertile and the richest of
India’s provinces. The province was also well-known for its textiles, silk and saltpetre. The East India
Company carried on profitable trade with this province. The enormous resources of Bengal came in handy for
financing the British expansion.
In 1717, the Company had secured from the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar a farman granting it the right to
carry on trade in Bengal without paying any duty to the government. The employees of the Company, though
permitted to carry on private trade, would have to pay taxes like the Indian merchants.
The farman was a perpetual source of conflict between the Company and the Nawab of Bengal. The Nawab
lost revenue from trade. More importantly, he protested against the misuse of the dastak or permit by
Company’s servants who carried on private trade.

The Battle of Plassey:

In 1756 Siraj-ud-daula succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan as the Nawab of Bengal. The English victory
in the Carnatic had already made Siraj-ud-daula apprehensive of the growing power of the East India
Company. He wanted to curb their power.
Meanwhile, the English started fortifying Calcutta without obtaining permission from the Nawab. This
amounted to ignoring his sovereign power. The infuriated Nawab marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort
William in June 1756. Most of the English soldiers fled to Fulta.
Siraj-ud-daula after conquering Calcutta marched back to Murshidabad. Siraj’s success, however, was short-
lived. Robert Clive arrived with a strong military force and reconquered Calcutta at the beginning of 1757. He
compelled the Nawab to concede all the demands of the English including the right to fortify Calcutta.
The English, however, were not satisfied. They wanted to install a puppet Nawab on the throne of Bengal.
Clive entered into a conspiracy with Mir Jafar, the commander of the Nawab’s army, and others to overthrow
Siraj-ud-daula. Mir Jafar would be made the Nawab of Bengal in return of a huge sum of money as reward to
the Company.
The British now presented the Nawab with an impossible set of demands. Both sides realised that war was
inevitable. The two armies met at the field of Plassey, just over 20 miles south of Murshidabad, on 23rd June
1757.
The fateful battle of Plassey was a battle only in name. The major part of the Nawab’s army under Mir Jafar
took no part in the fighting. The Nawab was forced to flee. But he was captured and put to death by Mir Jafar’s
son, Miran.

Results:
The Battle of Plassey made the English the virtual masters of Bengal. It placed the vast wealth of Bengal in the
hands of the British. These resources helped them to win battles in the Carnatic. Mir Jafar was a puppet in the
hands of the English. The victory in the battle of Plassey transformed a mere trading company into a political
power. It paved the way for the establishment of British rule in India.
Mir Jafar was a weak and inefficient ruler. He had gifted a jagir to Clive and rich presents to others in the
Company in return for the Nawab ship. The treasury had become empty and Mir Jafar was unable to meet the
ever- increasing demands of the Company and its officials. So Mir Jafar was deposed and his son-in-law Mir
Qasim was put on the throne. Mir Qasim handed over the zamindaris of Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong
as a reward to the Company.

Battle of Buxar
The Battle of Buxar, a significant battle in the history of India, was fought between British East India
Company and the combined forces of Nawabs and the Mughal Emperor. While the East India Company's force
was led by Hector Munro, the Indian force was led by the Mughal rulers of three princely states - Mir Qasim,
the Nawab of Bengal, Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor. Both
the Nawabs were governors under the Mughal Emperor. This historic battle was fought on 23rd October, 1764.
The battle was fought at a place called Buxar, which was in Bengal during that time and later on it became a
part of Bihar, as it was just 130 km west of Patna.

The reasons that led to the Battle

The seeds of the Battle of Buxar were sown after the Battle of Plassey, when Mir Qasim became the Nawab of
Bengal. The primary cause was the conflict between the English and Mir Qasim. Mir Qasim was an
independent ruler and was the strongest and ablest of all Nawabs. He undertook some reformation, under
which there was a reduction in expenditure on administration and palaces; fire locks and guns were
manufactured, there was regular payment of salaries, new taxes were imposed and the capital was shifted from
Monghyar to Murshidabad, which annoyed the British nobles and officers. The English wanted Mir to remain
as a puppet in their hands. But, he always wanted to keep himself away from the British influence. This led to a
number of conflicts between him and the English. He was defeated in three successive battles (between June to
September 1763) before the Battle of Buxar, which eventually compelled him to flee to Allahabad where he
met Shuja-ud-Daulah. In the meantime, after the acquisition of power as the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II
also wanted to combine several states as one physically stronger empire, which included Bengal
(Bengal+Bihar+Orissa). But, he also could not overpower the British and was under the shelter of Shuja-ud-
Daulah who always wanted to destroy the English supremacy in Bengal. Thus, one of the main causes of
hostility between the English and the three rulers was the share of Bengal. Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah and
Shah Alam II joined hands to fight against the English to establish their sovereignty over the whole of Bengal
and reduce the power of the British. They declared war against the English on 23rd October, 1764 at the
battleground Katkauli, 6 kilometres from Buxar. This was a war which was fought for just few hours but
marked as one of the most significant wars in Indian History.

The Strength of Warring Forces

In the Mughal force, there were 40,000 men in the battle of Buxar, while the English East India Company's
Hector Monroe's forces included 10,000 men, out of which 7000 were from British Army (857 European
soldiers and 6213 sepoys). The Britishers had formed a stone memorial at Katkauli after the war. In the Battle
of Buxar, 847 were killed and wounded from the English forces while on the Indian side, more than 2,000
officers and soldiers were killed.
Aftermath of the battle: Winner and Loser
Winner: Hector Munro
Losers: Combined armies of Nawab Mir Qasim, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah & Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
The historic battle fought between the British and the Indian forces resulted in victory for the British. The three
combined army forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II
met with a crushing defeat under the hands of Major Munro. After the war, Mir Kasim fled to the North-West
and died. Shah Alam II left Shuja-ud-Daulah and sought shelter in the British camp. Shuja-ud-Daulah tried to
defeat the British till 1765 but was not successful. He later fled to Rohilkhand. According to historical reports
and studies, the main cause of defeat of the Mughals was the lack of co-ordination among the various Mughal
forces.

The Larger Implications of the Battle

The significant outcomes of this battle were as follows:
It led to the signing of the Allahabad Treaty in 1765 by Lord Robert Clive with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam
II.
With the defeat of Mir Kasim, the rule of Nawabs came to an end.
Diwani rights or fiscal rights were secured which meant that the British would administer and manage
revenues of large areas which included the present-day West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, as
well as of Bangladesh. The British became the masters of the people of these places.
In return of this right, the British would give Rs 26 lakh to the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II.
After the Buxar victory, the English armies moved towards Awadh and established their control over Banaras
and Allahabad.
Shuja-ud-Daulah would pay Rs 50 lakh immediately to the company as expenses of war. He also needed to pay
later Rs 25 lakh in instalments.
The treaty legalised the East India Company's control over the whole of Bengal. Thus, the British established
their control in the eastern part of the country.
Ghazipur and its adjacent area were handed over to the East India company.
The Allahabad fort became the home of the emperor and he would be protected by few men of the company's
army.
A vakil of the English would remain in the court of Shah Alam II. But he was not allowed to interfere in the
administration of the country.

The overall place and significance of the Battle in the Indian History
The Battle of Buxar paved the way for a more concrete British Empire in India. Though the initial foundation
of the British rule in India was laid after the Battle of Plassey by Clive, it became more strengthened after the
Battle of Buxar. The East India Company, after the battle of Buxar, gained dominance over entire Bengal. The
revenues collected by Shah Alam II from the princely states of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, went into the hands
of the company. The Mughal emperor came fully under the control of British. All duties and revenues from the
most prosperous Indian province went to the company. It also gained administrative power by controlling the
army, finances, and revenues. The responsibility of collecting revenues went to the Nawabs but they had no
power while the British East India Company had all the authority to control and also gain benefits from the
Nawabs. With the wealth of Bengal, the British could conquer other regions of India. The supremacy of the
British was established in the Eastern parts of India. British historian Ramsay Muir had rightly said that Buxar
finally riveted the shackles of company's rule upon Bengal.
The battle of Buxar was, indeed, a decisive battle in the Indian history which led to the beginning of the British
colonial rule that lasted for almost two centuries, leading to unending exploitation of India. The battle led to
the establishment of British sovereignty. It was also served as an eye opener to the political weaknesses and
military shortcomings of the Mughal Empire.

The treaty of Allahabad and grant of the Diwani by shah Alam:

In 1765, the Treaty of Allahabad was signed by Clive with Shuja-ud-daula and Shah Alam II. According to the
terms of the treaty:
Awadh was restored to Shuja-ud-daula on payment of 50 lakhs of rupees to the Company. The districts of Kora
and Allahabad were taken away from Awadh. In return, the Company promised to protect Awadh from
external threat.
The districts of Kora and Allahabad were given to the Mughal Emperor. In addition, an annual payment of 26
lakhs of rupees was to be given to the Emperor. In return the Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani of Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa to the East India Company. The Diwani gave to the Company the right to collect revenue
from these provinces. This marked the first step towards the direct administration of Bengal by the Company.
The Company got the legal right to control Bengal.
Dual government in Bengal:
In 1765 a dual government was established in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. By virtue of the Diwani, the East India
Company directly collected revenue from these areas. At the same time the Company enjoyed military power
and criminal jurisdiction over these areas.
However, the administration of the kingdom was left in the hands of the Nawab. This arrangement was called
‘dual government’. Thus, the Nawab was burdened with the responsibility of administering the country without
the resources for running it efficiently.
The Company which had control over the resources had no responsibility of administering the country.
Obviously the Company was unwilling to spend the revenue it collected on the administration and welfare of
the people.
This system of dual government resulted in utter misery for the people. The revenue officials extorted money
from poor peasants who were forced to starve. The year 1770 witnessed the most severe famine of the century.
About one- third of the population perished. At the time of Clive’s departure to England, the British were no
longer mere traders in Bengal. They were legally the rulers of the province.
Third battle of Panipat 1761:
The most important event of the period of Balaji was the third battle of Panipat which was fought between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan.
The Peshwa entered into a treaty with the Mughul emperor in 1752 A.D. By it the Mughul emperor gave the
Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from all over India and, in return, the Marathas were
obliged to help the Emperor in times of need. Thus, the Marathas involved themselves directly with the politics
at Delhi.
By that time, the Mughul nobility had sharply divided itself into conflicting groups. Among them, the one
group was that of the Indian Muslims and, the other one, that of the foreign Muslims particularly those of the
Turanis.
The Marathas were involved in that group-politics as well and supported the group of Indian Muslims. The
group of foreign Muslims, therefore, tried to seek foreign help which they readily received from the ruler of
Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Abdali claimed Kashmir, Multan and Punjab as his own provinces and, with a view to capture them, was keen
to interfere in the politics of Delhi. The Mughul emperors were weak enough and could not check this group-
rivalry.
Thus, opposite groups of nobility got the support of the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali respectively and,
with their help, tried to capture highest offices of the state and even change the monarchs for that purpose. This
resulted in serious conflicts among them which brought their supporters, viz., the Marathas and Ahmad Shah
Abdali in direct conflict against each other.
Thus, the weakness of Mughul emperors, the division of the nobility in contending groups, the ambition of the
Marathas to gain influence in the North and, for that purpose, their promise, of support to the Mughul emperor
and the ambition of Abdali to capture Kashmir, Multan and Punjab and, for that purpose, his support to the
Turani group of nobility, etc., were primary causes of the third battle of Panipat.
Abdali had attacked India in 1752 A.D. and Emperor Ahmad Shah was forced to surrender Multan and Punjab
to him. Abdali appointed Muin-ul-mulk as the subedar of those provinces and returned back. Muin-ul-mulk,
however, died in 1753 A.D. His widow, Muglani Begum, of course, took up the administration of those
provinces in her own hands but failed to govern them well.
In 1754 A.D., the Marathas reached Delhi under the command of Raghunath Rao and helped Vazir Gaziuddin
in raising Alamgir II to the Mughul throne in place of Ahmad Shah. That displeased the group of foreign
nobles among whom one was Nazib-ud-daula Ruhela. In 1756 A.D., Vazir Gaziuddin snatched away Multan
and Punjab from Muglani Begum.
That displeased Ahmad Shah Abdali and, when Muglani Begum and Nazib-ud-daula sought help from him, he
attacked Punjab the same year. In 1757 A.D., Abdali reached Delhi. He appointed Nazib-ud-daula as Mir
Bakshi, assigned Punjab to his son, Taimur Khan and, then, returned to Kabul.
At that time the Peshwa had asked Raghunath Rao to proceed to Delhi but, before he could reach there, Abdali
had retired. Raghunath Rao removed Nazib-ud-daula from the post of Mir Bakshi and appointed Ahmad Shah
Bangash in his place. He attacked Punjab, forced Taimur Khan to leave it and then handed it over to Adina
Beg.
In 1759 A.D., Raghunath Rao returned to Poona and his place at Delhi was taken over by Dattaji Sindhia.
Dattaji handed over Punjab to Sabaji Sindhia, opened negotiations with Nazib-ud-daula but, when failed,
besieged him at Sakartal. Abdali was not indifferent towards these affairs. He attacked Punjab. Sabaji Sindhia
fled away from there. Dattaji left Sakartal and moved to face Abdali.
In January 1760, he fought a battle against Abdali at Loni near Delhi. He was defeated and killed and Delhi
was occupied by Abdali. Nazib-ud-daula met Abdali in Delhi and requested him to stay in India till the
Maratha menace was finished forever.
When the Peshwa heard of the death and defeat of Dattaji, he despatched a Maratha army under the command
of Sadashiva Rao Bhau to the North with a view to turn out Abdali from India. The Maratha reached Delhi in
August 1760 A.D. when Abdali had left it. Now both Abdali and Sadashiva Rao Bhau tried to win over
different chiefs and rulers of north India to their respective sides.
Abdali declared that his aim was not to stay in India but desired to turn out the Marathas of the South and place
Emperor Shah Alam on the throne of Delhi. Nazib-ud-daula supported him and largely succeeded so that the
Marathas failed to get support of any important Muslim chief in the North. Bhau claimed that he aimed at
turning out the foreigner Abdali from India and, therefore, the ensuing contest was between the foreigners and
the Indians. But Bhau was no diplomat.
He failed to get support of any powerful chiefs in the North. The Rajput rulers were already dissatisfied with
the Marathas. Bhau even lost the support of Suraj Mal, the Jat Raja of Bharatpur who felt disgusted with his
behaviour and therefore, left the Maratha-camp. On the one hand, Nazib-ud-daula got Suja-ud-daula, the ruler
of Avadh to the side of Abdali by pleading to him in the name of Islam.
He successfully conspired with Malhar Rao Holkar as well. Bhau also proved incapable as a commander when
compared to Abdali. He felt shortage of supplies. Finally, he proceeded towards Panipat where Abdali had
already reached. In November 1760, both the armies faced each other though the battle was fought on January
14,1761 A.D.
On January 14, the Marathas attacked Abdali at 9 a.m. Malhar Rao Holkar fled away during the course of
battle. The artillery of Ibrahim Gardi damaged Abdali’s army very much. But, by the evening, the Marathas
were badly defeated. Most of the Maratha soldiers were killed and the rest of them fled away.
The massacre of the Marathas continued till next day. Many important Maratha chiefs including Bhau, son of
the Peshwa, Viswas Rao, Jaswant Rao Pawar, Tukoji Sindhia etc. were killed in the battle. There was not a
single family in Maharashtra which had not to grieve on the death of one of its relative.
Primary causes of the defeat of the Marathas were the diplomatic failure of Bhau and the superiority of Abdali
against Bhau as a commander. Besides, there were a large number of women and servants in the Maratha camp
who were simply burden to the army. The effective fighting force of the Marathas numbered only 45,000 while
the army of Abdali consisted of nearly 60,000 soldiers.
Bhau lost control over Doab and therefore, felt scarcity of supplies. He wasted three months by camping before
Abdali at Panipat and engaged in battle when, from the last two months, the Maratha army was semi-starved.
The Marathas did not use their guerilla method of warfare.
Instead they depended too much on the artillery under Ibrahim Gardi and therefore, fought a defensive battle.
Abdali had better cavalry than the Marathas. Bhau failed to get the support of the Rajputs and the Jats which
also was a cause of their defeat. Therefore, conditions were such that the defeat of the Marathas was nearly a
foregone conclusion.
Historians have differed regarding the results of this battle. Sardesai expressed the view that, certainly, the
Marathas suffered loss of life but neither the power of the Marathas was destroyed nor any change came in
their ideal. On the contrary, Dr Jadunath Sarkar has expressed the view that it was a very serious defeat of the
Marathas.
During the course of this battle, the Marathas lost the ablest of their leaders which opened the way for weak
and corrupt chiefs like Raghunath Rao to enter the arena of Maratha-leadership. The battle weakened the
Peshwa which resulted in the disintegration of the Maratha empire. It checked the progress of the Marathas
towards north India.
Of course, Sindhia remained protector of the Mughul emperor for some time but the Marathas failed to
strengthen their hold over the North. That is why the British could get the chance of eliminating the French in
India and capture power in Bengal also. The battle destroyed the prestige of the Marathas and they were no
more considered invincible.
The Marathas took a long time to reconsolidate their power and the time was utilised by other powers to
strengthen themselves. After their defeat in this battle, the Marathas could no longer claim to be the foremost
power in India. They, rather, became one of the powers in India. Thus, the defeat of the Marathas in the third
battle of Panipat was the beginning of their downfall.

India saw the rise of a great hero in the Southern India named Haidar Ali during the time of Warren Hastings.
He was a great hero among all the heroes of 18th century India. He established an independent kingdom in
India. He was illiterate and began his career as an ordinary soldier in the army of the Hindu King of Mysore.
The Prime Minister of the kingdom was impressed with his valour and showed him favour. Haidar began to
rise in ranks. At last he took full advantage of the king’s weakness and captured power. He was a man of
strong determination and iron will. He combined intelligence and diplomacy with courage and bravery.
After capturing the throne of Mysore he looked down over the Deccan for expansion of territories. The
aggressive designs of Haidar alarmed other powers. The English, the Marathas and the Nizam all were affected
by his hostile attitude and thus declared him as their common enemy. The Marathas being more powerful
defeated Haidar and captured some portions of his territory. On the other-hand the Nizam and Warren Hastings
entered into an agreement to combine their forces to fight against Haidar. But the Nizam apprehending danger
from Haidar’s side remained neutral.
Therefore Haidar’s anger fell upon the English and considered the English as his enemy. He began to punish
the English. In 1779 with his own army he attacked Madras. The English were not in readiness to fight and
therefore agreed to sign a treaty out of fear. It was decided that the English should help Haidar if and when
another power would attack him. But after sometime the Marathas attacked Haidar but the English did not
come to help him. That enraged Haidar. He waited for an opportunity to punish the English.
There was a small French factory at Mahe in the territory of Haidar. The English captured it. There upon
Haidar declared war in 1780. Haidar with 80,000 soldiers threatened the British power in the South. It was a
grave danger to the English Company’s position. Warren Hastings the English Governor General immediately
sent General Eyre Coote to face the enemy. Both the sides fought desperately. Haidar secured help from the
French navy.
The course of the war remained undecided. Haidar unfortunately died in the middle of the war in 1782. Eyre
Coote also died in 1783 in broken health in Madras. Haidar Ali earned fame in Indian history as a relentless
foe of the British Company. He was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan at that critical time. He was the worthy
son of a worthy father. He conducted the unfinished war of his father with equal determination.
He proved his worth as a soldier by defeating an English force and taking it as prisoner. But at last both the
sides got tired and ended the war by a treaty. Tipu ruled Mysore and Warren Hastings left India. There came
the Second Anglo-Mysore War to end with the treaty. Both sides however knew that peace was only a pause
and the treaty temporary. Tipu’s anger was deep. The British also knew him as one of their worst enemies.
During the early phase of Lord Cornwallis’s rule the situation was peaceful. His masters at home advised him
to avoid wars. But on arrival in India Cornwallis came to know that war with Tipu Sultan was unavoidable.
Tipu’s aggressive policy appeared for the English Company too dangerous. He was negotiating with France
and Turkey for military help. His ambassadors returned with high hopes.
The hostility of Tipu became a serious matter for Cornwallis. Thus he had no other alternative than to prepare
for war. It became very clear that both the sides wanted war. At last it was Tipu who took the aggressive step.
He invaded a tiny kingdom of Travancore.
The king of the state happened to be a friend of the English and the Company Government was responsible for
his security. An attack on a friendly state was regarded as an act of hostility and Cornwallis regarded it as
Tipu’s call of war. Tipu’s power also alarmed the Nizam and the Marathas. They thus prepared for war against
him. With the result the English, the Marathas and the Nizam formed an alliance against Tipu.
Their combined forces fought against the armies of Tipu. This war known as Third Anglo-Mysore War lasted
for two years. The forces of Tipu appeared to be too powerful. Lord Cornwallis therefore himself took the
battle field as the Commander-in-Chief. At last his army reached the capital of Tipu Sultan Srirangapattan.
Outside the capital Tipu fought a heroic battle but it became difficult for him to resist the English army. Tipu
therefore agreed for peace.
A treaty was signed known as the Treaty of Srirangapattan in 1792. According to the terms of the treaty Tipu
surrendered half of his territory to enemies which was divided among themselves by the English, the Marathas
and the Nizam. Tipu paid three million pounds to the English as war compensation. Further for his good
conduct in future he was forced to send two of his sons to Cornwallis as hostages.
Cornwallis was blamed in future for not destroying Tipu Sultan’s power once for all. Any peace with him was
temporary. He did not fight with English as long as Cornwallis stayed but after his departure once again war
with Tipu became inevitable. The Treaty of Srirangapattan however was a humiliating treaty with an Indian
independent ruler.
The most outstanding imperialist Governor General Lord Wellesley introduced the Subsidiary Alliance to curb
the independent authority of Indian native states. The weak Nizam of Hyderabad sold his sovereignty to the
English in order to gain security. Tipu Sultan, the brave warrior-ruler of Mysore could not even dream of
accepting an alliance like that. He was a relentless enemy of the British. Though defeated in the last battle he
never gave up his will to fight again.
He was in search of an opportunity to avenge his earlier defeats. By a series of measures he tried to improve
the stability of his kingdom. The capital city was fortified strongly. The army was reorganised with modern
lines with the help of the French Commanders. He allowed the French to hoist their flag in his own capital
Srirangapattan. He established good relation with the French. Thus the Sultan felt bold to fight with English
with new hopes.
On the other-hand Wellesley was not the man to telerate such activities. He declared that Tipu’s relation with
foreign country and his permission to the French to come were hostile acts against the British and he took it as
a challenge and a declaration of war against the company. With such arguments the imperialist Wellesley
proceeded to fight against Tipu.

Ruling History of Sindh

Sindhian history

Ruled by Brahmans until conquered by Muhammadans 711

A possession of the Khalif of the Ummayide dynasty 750

Conquered from them by Mahmud of Ghazni 1026

Sumra tribe obtain power 1051

Samas overthrow the Sumras 1351

 Conquered by Shah Beg Urghun 1519

Emperor Humayun places the country under contribution 1540

Tirkhans obtain power 1555

Sindh is the Sanskrit word Sindh or Sindhu, a
Annexed by Akbar to Delhi 1593river, or ocean. It was applied to the river
Nur Muhammad Kalhora obtains the Subehdarship 1719 Indus, the first great body of water encountered
Nadir Shah annexes Sindh to the Persian dominions 1740 by the Atyan invaders. Muhammadans derive
the word from Sindh, brother of Hind and son
Becomes subject to the Afghan throne 1748
of Nuh or Noah, whose descendants they
Kalhora dynasty overthrown, Talpur dynasty commences 1783 allege governed the country for many
Conquered by the British and annexed 1843 centuries. Sindh is bounded on the north and
west by Beluchistan; the Punjab on the north-
east; on the east Rajputana; and on the south are the Rann of Kachh and the Arabian Sea. The great mountain
barrier dividing Sindh and Beluchistan, known as the Khirthar or Hala range, attains a height of 7,000 feet.
Rising near one of its desolate peaks in the Mehar district, the river Hab flows through a valley of this range—
the only perennial stream in Sindh, excepting the Indus.
The earliest authentic history of Sindh dates from the time when Alexander the Great abandoned his scheme of
conquest towards the Ganges, alarmed at the discontent of his soldiers. Sind was found by Alexander (BC 327)
well peopled, in a high state of cultivation, under several chiefs. He embarked a portion of the army in boats,
floated them down the Jhelum and Chenab, and marched the remainder on the banks of the river till he came to
the Indus, down which, in a new and larger fleet, he conducted his army till he reached its mouth. There he
constructed a fleet, which sailed along the coast up the Persian Gulf with part of his forces, under the command
of Nearchus; while Alexander himself marched the remainder through Southern Beluchistan and Persia to
Sistan or Susa. Tatta is considered to be the same as Patala, mentioned by Arrian, as the spot whence
Alexander's fleet sailed for Persia.
From the time of Alexander till the khalifat of Walid (AD 705-715), Sind seems to have been chiefly under
Rajputs professing Hinduism. No Buddhist remains have hitherto been observed.
Sindh seems to have had a reputation of being wealthy, for in the time of the Khalifat of Baghdad several
attacks were made upon it. The Moslems used to carry off Hindu women as slave girls; and in an attack made
by the Raja on one of these convoys, some Muhammadans were killed and the remainder made prisoners. To
avenge this attack a Muhammadan army was sent, which ravaged the Raja's country; and when he left his
capital with an army to attack the enemy, he was defeated and slain, and his kingdom transferred to
Muhammadan rule.
In AH 93-94, AD 711-712, Muhammad Kasim, nephew of the ruling khalif, Walid I, led an army of 15,000
men against the ruler of Sind, Raja Daher, who fell in battle before Alor, AD 711. Kasim pursued his
conquests northwards to Multan. In AD 717, on the invitation of the ruling khalif, Umar-bin-Abdul Aziz, many
of the Sind princes adopted Muhammadanism.
In the confusion that resulted on Mahmud's death, a Rajput tribe in Sind, called Sumrah or Sumera, established
themselves, AD 1054, and held sway until overthrown by the the Sammah army, led by Darya Khan, and gave
Thatta up to plunder. Multan is supposed to have shaken off the Ghazni allegiance, and to have become part of
the dominions of the Sumras, the Rajput dynasty which had arisen in Sindh. The history of this event is
obscure, but there is no doubt that towards AD 1193, Multan was reduced by the Muhammadans, after Muaz-
ud-din bin Sham, called Shahab-ud-din, of the house of Ghor, had defeated Pifhora Rai of Delhi.
Though the Province was subject to perpetual raids from the Ghorians and the Khalji and Taghlakid rulers of
Delhi, and afterwards to the devastations of the Moghals, still, during eight centuries, after the rise to power of
the Sumras, it is possible to recognise the rule, more or less firmly established, of seven local dynasties in Sind;
first the Sumras, then the Sammas, who were also Rajputs — of the Lunar race — and ancestors of the
Samejas and Jarejas of Cutch, and were, like the Surrras, converted to Islam; and then the Arghuns,
descendants of Changiz Khan; the Tarkhans, who were in power for 38 years only before submitting to Akbar;
the Daudpotras, who founded Shikarpur; the Kalhoras, descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet, under
whose rule an English factory was established by the East India Company at Tatta in 1758, but was eventually
withdrawn in 1775; and, last of all, the Baluchi Talpurs. But these local dynasties did not always rule
continuously, nor always with exclusive authority.
Nasar-ud-din, son-in-law of Kutb-ud-din, afterwards emperor of Delhi, declared himself king of Sindh,
extended his territories considerably to the east of the Sutlej, towards Sirsa and Hissar, and reduced the
kingdom of the Sumras in Sindh to a small tract near Tatta. For twenty years he maintained his independence.
The city at that time was besieged and taken by Shams-ud-din Altamash, king of Delhi, and Nasar-ud-din was
drowned in the Indus while attempting to escape. Multan for 170 years remained subject to Delhi; but shortly
after the invasion of India by Tamerlane, it was for a second time independent under Afghan adventurers, who,
however, were overthrown about AD 1526, when Baber invaded India and seized Multan.
Sindh was partially independent, and the scene of great disorders until late in the sixteenth century, when it fell
into the hands of the emperor Akbar; and for a hundred and fifty years the chiefs paid tribute, but only as often
as they were compelled to do so, to the emperor at Delhi. From AD 1555 Multan remained under Akbar and
his successors, forming a portion of the Mughal empire, and thenceforward was ruled by a provincial governor,
who was appointed by the emperor. In 1739 Sindh, at the conquest of Delhi and overthrow of the Mughal
empire by Nadir Shah, was attached to the Persian dominions, together with the provinces west of the Indus;
after Nadir Shah's death it reverted to the imperial throne of Delhi. In 1748 the country became an appanage of
Kabul, as part of a dowry bestowed by the reigning emperor upon Timur, son of Ahmad Shah Durani, who
founded the kingdom of Afghanistan.
Since the middle of the eighteenth century Sindh had been ruled by the Kalhora family, who claimed descent
from Abbas, the uncle of the prophet Muhammad. Members of this family were chiefs there throughout all the
changes and disturbances that took place up to 1783, when a rebellion was raised by the Talpur tribe of
Beluchis, and the reigning Nawab of the Kalhora race was defeated and obliged to fly. The Durani government
of Afghanistan was unable to assist its Kalhora dependent, and therefore recognised the Beluchi chief of the
Talpur tribe. This man divided Sindh among those of his relatives who had assisted him in his adventures,
reserving Haidarabad, and the greater part of the land, to himself and his three brothers, residing with them in
the same palace, and administering the government with them in the same common Durbar.
The country was divided into three states: Haidarabad, Khairpur, and Mirpur. In 1839 there were four Amirs of
Haidarabad, the sons of the first Amirs. At the same time there were three Amirs at Khairpur and two at
Mirpur. The government of the Amirs was despotic, but they were too avaricious to keep an army of more than
1,500 men. On important occasions they mustered a force by means of their chieftains, who supplied a feudal
soldiery, being bound to bring into the field a proportionate number of men under pain of forfeiture of their
jagirs.
The connection of the British government with Sindh had its origin in AD 1758, when Ghulam Shah Kalhora,
on the 22nd of September of that year, granted a purwanah, or permit, to an officer in the East India Company's
service for the establishment of a factory in the province, with a view to the encouragement of trade between
the Indian territories and Sindh; and added to this permission certain immunities and exemptions from
customs.
In their relations with the British government the Amirs throughout displayed much jealousy of foreign
interference. Several treaties were made with them from time to time. In 1836, owing to the designs of Ranjit
Singh on Sindh, which, however, were not carried out because of the interposition of the British government,
more intimate connection with the Amirs was sought. Colonel Pottinger visited them to negotiate for this
purpose. It was not, however, till 1838 that a short treaty was concluded, in which it was stipulated that a
British minister should reside at Haidarabad. At this time the friendly alliance of the Amirs was deemed
necessary in the contemplated war with Afghanistan, which the British government was about to undertake, to
place a friendly ruler on the Afghan throne.
The events that followed led to the occupation of Karachi by the British, and placed the Amirs in subsidiary
dependence on the British government. New treaties became necessary, and Sir Charles Napier was sent to
Haidarabad to negotiate. On the 14th February 1843, the Amirs, except Nasir Khan of Khairpur, signed a
treaty, leaving Mir Roostum's rights to future investigation. The Beluchis were infuriated at this proceeding,
and openly insulted the officer, Sir James Outram, at the Residency at Haidarabad. Sir Charles Napier
thereupon attacked the Amir's forces at Meanee, on 17 February 1843, with 2,800 men and twelve pieces of
artillery, and succeeded in gaining a complete victory over 22,000 Beluchis, with the result that the whole of
Sindh was annexed to British India.
The battles of Meanee and Dubba subjected the whole of Sind to the British Government, with the exception of
the possessions of Ali Murad, who was established as chief of Khairpur, in the territories which belonged to
Mir Roostum, both by inheritance and in right of the turband, as well as in the lands of which he himself stood
rightfully possessed at the time of the conquest. But a fraud was clearly established by a commission, which
met in 1850, and Ali Murad was degraded from the rank of rais of Khairpur, and deprived of all his territories,
except those which he inherited under his father's will. The revenue of his possessions in AD 1860 was
estimated at Rs. 3,50,000, with power to try for capital offences any persons except British subjects. After the
conquest, the deposed Amirs were removed from Sind, and pensions were granted them by the British
Government.