IPE 341: Manufacturing Processes-II

Chip Formation Mechanism

Dr. M. Muhshin Aziz Khan

Professor
Department of IPE
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
 Chips are the pieces of unwanted or waste  Types of Chips
material resulting from machining or similar  Continuous Chips
subtractive manufacturing processes.
 Long continuous chips formed by the
 Chips can be of continuous plastic deformation of
 Small particles (e.g. coarse-grained metal without fracture in front of the
chips from grinding metals) cutting edge of the tool.
 Long, flat or coiled shape (e.g. springy  Results in the smooth flow of the chip
chips from turning tough metals) above tool face.
 The form of the chips is an important index  The chips obtained have same
of machining because it directly or thickness throughout.
indirectly indicates :  This type of chip is the most
 Nature and behavior of the work material desirable. Because it
under machining condition,  makes cutting process stable
 Specific energy requirement (amount of  results in generally good surface
energy required to remove unit volume of finish.
work material) in machining work,
 These chips are difficult to handle
 Nature and degree of interaction at the and disposal.
chip-tool interfaces.
 Tools are normally equipped with
chip breakers.
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
 A long continuous chip will result when  Discontinuous Chips
 work material is ductile  formed by a series of rupture
 Cutting speed is high occurring approximately normal to
the tool face.
 Small feed and depth of cut
 Chip elements
 Large rake angle
 flow over the tool face in the form
 A sharp cutting edge
of small segment.
 Low tool-chip friction
 may adhere loosely to each other
 Polished tool face and becomes slightly longer.
 Use of efficient cutting lubricants.  Since the chips break up into small
 Use of tool material with low- segments,
coefficient of friction.  the friction between the tool and
the chips reduces
 results in better surface finish.
 These chips are convenient to collect,
handle and dispose off.
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
 A discontinuous chip will result when  Continuous Chips with Built-up Edge
 Brittle work materials  Very similar to the continuous chip.
 Low cutting speeds  Only difference is
 Large feed and depth of cut  it has a built up edge adjacent to
 Small rack angle tool face,
 High tool-chip friction  it is not so smooth.
 A continuous chip with a built-up edge
will result when
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting speeds
 High local temperature and
extreme pressure in the cutting
and high tool-chip friction cause
portions of chip to adhere to rake
face near the cutting edge.
 BUE forms and grows, becomes
large and unstable, and then
breaks off, cyclically.
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
 Effect of BUE Formation
Formation of BUE causes several harmful
effects, such as:
 It unfavorably changes the rake angle at
the tool tip causing increase in cutting
forces and power consumption
 Repeated formation and dislodgement of
the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting
forces and thus induces vibration which
is harmful for the tool, job and the
machine tool.
 Problems with built-up edge formation
 Surface finish gets deteriorated
 Much of the detached BUE is carried
away with the chip, sometimes taking  May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-
portion of the rake face with it, which wear at its rake surface by adhesion and
reduce life of tool. flaking

 Portion of the detached BUE that are not

carried off with the chip become Occasionally, formation of thin flat type
imbedded in the newly work surface, stable BUE may reduce tool wear at the
causes the surface to become rough. rake face.
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
 Actual Chips Forms
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
The basic major types of chips and the conditions under which such type of chips form are
given below:
Discontinuous Type
Of irregular size and shape Work Material : Brittle like grey cast iron
Of regular size and shape Work Material : Ductile but hard and work hardenable
Feed : Large
Rake Angle : Negative
Cutting Fluid : Absent or inadequate
Continuous Type
Without Built-up Edge Work Material : Ductile
Cutting Velocity : High
Feed : Low
Rake Angle : Positive and large
Cutting Fluid : Both cooling and lubricating
Mechanics of Chip Formation: Types of Chips
The basic major types of chips and the conditions under which such type of chips form are
given below:
With Built-up Edge Work Material : Ductile

Cutting Velocity : Medium

Feed : Medium or large

Cutting fluid : inadequate or absent

Jointed or segmented type Work material : Semi-ductile

Cutting velocity : Low to medium

Feed : Medium to large

Rake Angle : Negative

Cutting fluid : Absent

Chip Formation Mechanism
 Knowledge of basic mechanism of chip  Mechanism of Chip Formation in
formation help us to Machining Ductile Material
 understand the characteristics of the  During continuous machining, cutting
chips tool applies compressive force on the
 attain the desirable chip forms. workpiece.
 Machining is a process of gradual removal  Uncut layer of the work material just
ahead of the cutting tool is subjected
of excess material from the preformed to almost all sided compression.
blanks in the form of chips.
 Form of Chips depends mainly on
 Work material
 Material and geometry of the cutting tool
 Cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut
 Machining environment or cutting fluid
that affects temperature and friction at
the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.  Shear stress develops, within that
compressed region, in different
directions and magnitude, and rapidly
increases in magnitude.
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Whenever and wherever the value of the  In case of actual machining chips,
shear stress reaches or exceeds the  such serrations are visible at their
shear strength of that work material in upper surface.
the deformation region,
 However, the lower surface becomes
 plastic deformation takes place by smooth due to further plastic
shearing along the plane of maximum deformation due to intensive rubbing
shear stress (a.k.a. shear plane). with the tool at high pressure and
 However, the compressive forces causing temperature.
the shear stresses in the deformation
region of the chip
 quickly diminishes and finally
disappears while that region moves
along the tool rake surface forwards
and then goes beyond the chip-tool
contact point.
 As a result, the slip or shear stops
propagating long before total
separation takes place.
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining concentration
Brittle Material  prevents its propagation as crack.
 During machining,  But in case of brittle materials,
 first a small crack develops at the  the initiated crack quickly propagates
tool tip due to wedging action of the under stressing action
cutting edge.
 total separation takes place from the
parent workpiece through the
minimum resistance path.

 At the sharp crack-tip, stress

concentration takes place.
 In case of ductile materials, immediately
yielding takes place at the crack-tip
 reduces the effect of stress
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Geometry and Characteristics of Chip to:
Forms  compression of the chip ahead of the
 The forces and energy required for a tool
particular machining work depends on  frictional resistance to chip flow
 the pattern and  lamellar sliding according to
 degree of deformation Piispannen
during chip formation
 The pattern and degree deformation
during chip formation are quantitatively
assessed and expressed by some
factors.
 Chip Reduction or Compression Ratio
 A measure of how thick the chip is
compared to the depth of cut.
 A measure of degree of thickening of
the chip.
 Usually the chip thickness after cut
becomes larger than the uncut chip
thickness. The reason can be attributed
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Chip Reduction or Compression Ratio
 The significant geometrical parameters  The ratio of a2 to a1 is called chip reduction
involved in chip formation are defined (in ratio i.e.
respect of straight turning) as: 𝒂𝟐
ξ=
t = depth of cut (mm) – perpendicular 𝒂𝟏
penetration of the cutting tool tip in where, ξ = chip reduction or compression
work surface coefficient or ratio.
So = feed (mm/rev) – axial travel of the tool  Since the chip thickness after cut is
per revolution of the job always greater than the corresponding
b1 = width (mm) of chip before cut thickness before cut, the chip
compression ratio will always be
b2 = width (mm) of chip after cut
greater than 1.0.
a1 = thickness (mm) of uncut layer (or
 Greater value of ξ means more
thickness of the chip before cut)
thickening of the chip
a2 = chip thickness (mm) – thickness of
 More force and energy is required for
chip after cut
machining a particular work
A1 = cross section (area, mm2) of chip material.
before cut
 It is, therefore, always desirable to
 As the chip is formed along the shear reduce a2 or ξ without sacrificing
plane, its thickness increases from a1 to a2. productivity, i.e. metal removal rate
(MRR)
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Chip Reduction or Compression Ratio
 The value of chip reduction coefficient, ξ
depends mainly upon
 tool rake angle, α
 chip-tool interaction, mainly friction, μ
 For orthogonal cutting,
π
μ( − α)
ξ=𝑒 2

 This relationship clearly depicts that the

value of ξ can be desirably reduced by
 Using tool having larger positive rake
 Reducing friction by using lubricant
 Chip thickening is also expressed as chip
thickness ratio or chip ratio or cutting
ratio.
 It is expressed by the reciprocal of ξ as
1 𝑎1
r= =
ξ 𝑎2
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Shear Plane Angle: shear plane which means lower shear force,
cutting forces, power, and temperature.

 Natural Chip-Tool Contact Length

From the Figure:  During orthogonal machining, chips formed
𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸𝟎 are in dynamic equilibrium
 tanβ0 = [it has been derived in class]
𝟏 −𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸𝟎  Forces acting on the chip by tool and work
 From the equation, it is evident that material are counter balanced,
 with the decrease in ξ, shear angle increases;  Moments acting on tool rake face and
 shear angle increases both directly and shear plane are counter balanced.
indirectly with the increase in rake angle.  Moments are taken about the cutting edge

 Increase in shear angle means more favorable  Normal forces acting tool rake face and
machining condition requiring lesser specific shear plane are uniformly distributed.
energy.  Hahn’s Analysis for Contact Length
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller Determination ( Eqn. is derived in the class)
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Chip Breaker  Facture is generated by the force and
 A notch or a groove formed in the face of the moment acting on the chip
the cutting tool parallel to the cutting surface.
edge.  An example of forced chip breaking.
 Groove is formed by grinding.
 A step formed by an adjustable  Need and Purpose of Chip-breaking
component clamped to the face of the  Continuous machining of ductile
cutting tool. materials produces continuous chips.
 Target: is to break the continuity of the  Chips formed are sharp, hard and hot.
chip.
 The sharp edged hot continuous chip
 Basic principle is to reduce the radius that comes out at very high speed
of curvature of the chip and
 becomes dangerous to the operator
eventually breaks it.
and the other people working in the
vicinity;
 creates difficulties in chip handling
and disposal;
 damages the surface of the job by
entangling with it;
 causes crater wear of the tool.
Chip Formation Mechanism
 Need and Purpose of Chip-breaking  The geometry of groove determines
 It is essentially needed to break such the radius of chip curvature
continuous chips into small regular  Obstruction type chip breaker
pieces for  Either integral or attached to the
 safety of the working people cutting tool.
 easy collection and disposal of chips  Attached chip breakers can be made
 prevention of damage of the product adjustable to the different cutting
condition.
 Types of Chip Breaker
 It causes less wear on tool face than
 Chip breakers are of two types: Groove
groove type chip breaker.
type and Obstruction type
 Groove type chip breaker
 A small groove is provided behind the
leading cutting edge of the tool insert
on the rake face.
Cutting Tool Geometry
 Various Angles of a Cutting Tool
Cutting Tool Geometry
 Various Angles of a Cutting Tool  material which work harden while being
 Back Rake Angle machined
 The angle formed by the face of the tool  Negative Rake Angle
and a line parallel to the floor.  It tilts the tool face up from the nose
 Its purpose is to control  Negative rack angle used for
 the direction of chip flow  machining high tensile strength
 thrust force (into spindle or away from) material,
of the cut  heavy feeds
 the strength of the cutting edges  interrupted cuts
 The size of angle depend upon the material  Side Rake Angle
to be machined.  The angle formed by the face of the tool and
 The softer the material the greater the centerline of the workpiece.
should be positive rake angle.  It also guides the direction of chip away
 Back rake angle may be positive, neutral from the job.
and negative.  The amount of chip bending depends on this
 Positive Rake Angle angle.
 It tilts the tool face back from the nose.  With increase in side rake angle, the
 Positive rakes are used when cutting amount of chip bending decreases and
hence the power required to part and bend
 low tensile strength and non ferrous chip decreases.
material,
Cutting Tool Geometry
 End Cutting Edge Angle  avoids the built-up edge formation
 The angle formed by the end flank of the  adds strength that influence the tool life
tool and a line parallel to the workpiece  distributes cutting forces
centerline.
 End Relief Angle
 Increasing the end cutting edge angle
tilts the far end of the cutting edge  The angle formed by the end flank of the
away from the workpiece. tool and a vertical line down to the floor.

 This angle  Increasing the end relief angle tilts the

end flank away from the workpiece.
 allows only small section of the end
cutting edge to contact the machined  This angle prevents the tool from rubbing.
surface  Its value varies from 6° to 10°.
 prevents chatter and vibration  Side Relief Angle
 It varies from 5° to 15°.  The angle formed by the side flank of the
 Side Cutting Edge Angle tool and a vertical line down to the floor.

 The angle formed by the side flank of the  It permits the tool to cut without rubbing
tool and a line perpendicular to the  If it is very large, the cutting edge of
workpiece centerline. the tool will break because of
 This angle insufficient support.

 controls direction of chip flow  If it is small, the tool will rub against
the job and will get overheated
 reduces the thickness of the chip
Cutting Tool Signature
 The numerical code that describes all the key angles of a given cutting tool.
 The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool can be stated in
the following order:

Reference Systems which are

the most popular in tool
nomenclature:
 American Standard
Association (ASA) System
 Orthogonal Rake system
(ORS) or International system
 British System
 German System
 Workout Examples: Self Study

Book: Machine Tool Engineering

Author: G. R. Nagpal
Chapter 01: 1-10, 1-12, 1-15
Chapter 02: 2-1 ~ 2-25