Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.10 – MAGNETISM

MODULE 3

SUB MODULE 3.10

MAGNETISM

Rev. 01 3.10
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.10 – MAGNETISM

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Theory Of Magnetism..................................................................2 Magnetic Terms.........................................................................28

Properties Of A Magnet...............................................................4 Magnetic Circuit.........................................................................28
Properties Of Magnetic Flux Lines ..............................................6 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.) .................................................28
Action Of A Magnet Suspended In The Earths Magnetic Field ...8 Magnetizing Force Or Field Strength (H) ..................................28
Magnetization And Demagnetization.........................................10 Flux Density (B).........................................................................28
Magnetic Shielding And Induction .............................................12 Permeability Of Free Space Or Magnetic Space Constant .......30
Magnetic Field Around A Current Carrying Conductor..............14 Relative Permeability.................................................................32
Electromagnets .........................................................................16 Reluctance ................................................................................32
Solenoids...................................................................................18 Saturation Point.........................................................................36
Relays .......................................................................................18 Comparison Of A Magnetic Circuit And An Electric Circuit .......36
Force on a Conductor Carrying Current Across a Magnetic Field Hysteresis..................................................................................38
..................................................................................................20
Eddy Currents ...........................................................................40
Force Between Two Long Parallel Conductors Carrying Electric
Current ......................................................................................24 Care And Storage Of Magnets ..................................................42

Force Between Coils Carrying Electric Current.........................26 Magnetic Classification Of Materials .........................................42

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CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.10 – MAGNETISM

“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.

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 Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.10 – MAGNETISM

THEORY OF MAGNETISM
Almost everyone has witnessed the effects of magnetism, and
many have owned simple permanent magnets. However, few Rather than the electrons around individual atoms aligning
people realize the importance of magnetism and its relationship independently, the atoms are affected in clumps, or domains.
to electricity. It would be hard to refute the fact that electricity When the external magnetic field becomes strong enough, the
would not exist without magnetism. A magnet may be defined as electrons around the atoms in a domain will snap into alignment;
an object that attracts such magnetic substances as iron or steel. then other domains will follow, with their fields adding to the
It produces a magnetic field external to itself that reacts with strength of the magnetizing force.
magnetic substances. Therefore in a piece of unmagnetized iron, the domains are
The true nature of magnetism is not clearly understood, although oriented in a random fashion and there is no resultant
its effects are well known. One theory that seems to provide a magnetism. But when the iron is placed in a strong magnetic
logical explanation of magnetism assumes the following. field, the domains in the iron will all snap into alignment and the
iron will become magnetized.
We know that all matter is composed of atoms, made up of a
nucleus that contains positive electrical particles called protons When a piece of soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, almost all
and electrically neutral particles called neutrons. Spinning the molecules in the iron align themselves with the field, but as
around the nucleus are negatively charged particles called soon as the magnetizing field is removed, most of the molecules
electrons. These electrons rotate about their axes at an return to their random positions, and the substance is no longer
extremely high speed as they circle the nucleus, in much the magnetized. Because some of the molecules tend to remain in
same way the earth spins about its axis as it rotates about the the aligned position, every magnetic substance retains a slight
sun. amount of magnetism after having been demagnetized. This
retained magnetism is called residual magnetism.
Atoms of materials that contain iron behave in a special way.
The electrons that spin around the nucleus in atoms of iron and
some of the other elements can have their spin axes pulled into
alignment if the material is held in a magnetic field. It is reasoned
that electrons moving in such a way create minute magnetic
fields.

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CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.10 – MAGNETISM

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PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
The space or substance traversed by magnetic lines of force is
A permanent magnet is one that maintains an almost constant called the magnetic circuit. If a soft-iron bar is placed across
magnetic field without the application of any magnetizing force. the poles of a magnet, almost all the magnetic lines of force
Some magnetized substances show practically no loss of (flux) go through the bar, and the external field will be very weak.
magnetic strength over a period of several years.
The external field of a magnet is distorted when any magnetic
When such a bar shaped magnet was freely suspended, it substance is placed in that field because it is easier for the lines
always took a definite orientation. The pole that tends to point of force to travel through the magnetic substance than through
toward the earth's geographic north is called the magnet's North the air.
Pole. The opposite end is called the South Pole.
The opposition of a material to magnetic flux is called
The field of force existing between the poles of a magnet is reluctance and compares to resistance in an electric circuit. The
called a magnetic field. A magnetic field is assumed to consist symbol for reluctance is R and the unit is rel. As with electric
of invisible lines of force that leave the North Pole and enter the current, the material that will completely resist magnetic flux lines
South Pole. Whether there is any actual movement of force from is unknown. However, some materials will accept flux lines more
the North Pole to the south pole of a magnet is not known, but it easily than others.
is known that the force acts in a definite direction. This is
indicated by the fact that a north pole will repel another north
pole but will be attracted by a south pole.
Therefore we can say that, like magnetic poles repel each other,
and unlike poles attract.
A magnetic field, which surrounds each magnet, contains
magnetic flux lines. These flux lines are directly responsible for
the magnetic properties of the material.
The strength of any magnet is directly proportional to the density
of the flux field. That is, a stronger magnet will have a relatively
larger number of flux lines concentrated in a given area.
Magnetic fields are strongest near the poles of the magnet. This
is due to the concentration of flux lines at each pole.

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PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FLUX LINES

Pattern of behavior of the magnetic lines of force may be seen
by placing a stiff paper over a magnet and sprinkling iron filings
on the paper. As shown in Figure 1(a), the iron filings will line
up with the lines of magnetic force. It will be noted that the lines
directly between the poles are straight, but the lines farther from
the direct path are curved. This curving is due to the repulsion of
lines traveling in the same direction. If iron filings are sprinkled
on a paper placed over two north poles, the field will have the
pattern shown in Figure 1(b). Here the lines of force from the
two poles come out and curve away from one another. (a)

The direction of a line of magnetic flux at any point in a

nonmagnetic medium, such as air, is that of the north-seeking
pole of a compass needle placed at that point.
They travel from North Pole to south pole externally in a magnet
and from south to north internally in a magnet.
Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed path.
Lines of magnetic flux never intersect.
Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic cords, always
trying to shorten themselves.
Lines of magnetic flux, which are parallel and in the same
direction repel one another. (b)

Figure 1

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Figure 2

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ACTION OF A MAGNET SUSPENDED IN THE EARTHS

MAGNETIC FIELD
A natural magnet is one found in nature; it is called a The magnetic poles of the earth are not located at the
lodestone, or leading stone. The natural magnet received this geographic poles. The magnetic pole in the northern hemisphere
name because it was used by early navigators to determine is located east of geographic north. The magnetic South Pole is
direction. The lodestone is composed of an oxide of iron called located west of geographic south. The difference between the
magnetite. geographic and magnetic poles is called magnetic variation.
Magnetic variation is sometimes referred to as magnetic
When first discovered, the lodestone was found to have peculiar declination. In general, this principle of magnetic variation does
properties. When it was freely suspended, one end always not affect electrical phenomena; however, it becomes very
pointed in a northerly direction. For this reason, one end of the important when navigating aircraft using a magnetic compass.
lodestone was called the north seeking and the other the south-
seeking end. These terms have been short-ended to north and
south, respectively. The reason that a freely suspended magnet
assumes a north-south position is that the earth is a large
magnet and the earth's magnetic field exists over the entire
surface. The suspended magnet's lines of force interact with the
earth's magnetic field and align the magnet accordingly.
According to definition, the magnetic pole near the earth's north
geographic pole is actually the earth's south magnetic pole. This
can be demonstrated by suspending a magnet on a string and
noting the direction in which the north pole points. The magnet's
north pole points to the earth's geographic north, but by
definition, north should repel north; therefore, the earth's south
magnetic pole is actually nearest the earth's geographic north.
To eliminate confusion, the direction in which a magnet's north
pole points is called the earth's north pole. In reality it is
magnetic south.

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MAGNETIZATION AND DEMAGNETIZATION

The ability of a material to become easily magnetized is called
Certain substances, such as hard steel, are more difficult to the magnetic susceptibility or permeability. A material with high
magnetize because of the internal friction among the molecules. permeability is easy to magnetize or demagnetize than a
If such a substance is placed in a strong magnetic field and is material with low permeability, which is hard to magnetize or
struck several blows with a hammer, the molecules become demagnetize. And the ability of a material to retain its magnetism
aligned with the field. When the substance is removed from the after the magnetizing force has been removed is called its
magnetic field, it will retain its magnetism; hence it is called a retentivity.
permanent magnet. Hard steel and certain metallic alloys -such
as Alnico, an alloy containing nickel, aluminum, and cobalt- that
have the ability to retain magnetism are able to do so for the Hence we can summarize the magnetic properties of soft iron
same reason that they are difficult to magnetize; that is, the and hard iron materials as bellow.
molecules do not shift their positions easily. When the molecules
are aligned, all the north poles of the molecules point in the
same direction and produce the north pole of the magnet. In like SOFT IRON MATERIALS
manner, the south poles of the molecules produce the south pole
of the magnet. High susceptibility; low retentivity.

On the other hand, certain soft iron materials are easily Produce very little hysteresis and eddy current losses.
magnetized, and unlike in hard iron materials their magnetism is High magnetic stability.
lost once the magnetizing force is removed, almost entirely.
These materials are very useful in the construction of the cores
of electromagnets and transformers. HARD IRON MATERIALS
Many other substances have no appreciable magnetic proper- Low susceptibility; high retentivity.
ties. The atoms of these substances apparently have their
electron orbits in positions such that their fields cancel one Possess very high magnetic energy.
another. Among these substances are copper, silver, gold, and High magnetic stability.
lead.

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Magnetic shielding and induction

Without magnetic shielding much of today’s sophisticated
electronic equipment would find it impossible to function under
some magnetic environments. As components are made more In the Figure, N and S are the poles of a U shaped permanent
sensitive and packaging denser, susceptibility to electromagnetic magnet (M), A and B are soft iron rectangular blocks attached to
interaction increases dramatically, even in the best-engineered the magnet and C is a hollow cylinder of soft iron placed mid way
layouts. between A and B. The dotted lines represent the path of the
magnetic flux. It will be seen that these lines pass through A, B
Electromagnetic interference can originate from various sources. and C, making them into temporary magnets with the polarities
These could include permanent magnets or electromagnets, indicated by n and s. i.e. A, B and C are magnetized by magnetic
inductive components such as transformers, solenoids and induction. A, B and C will loose almost whole of their magnetism
reactors, AC and DC motors and generators, and cables when they are removed from the influence of the permanent
carrying large AC and DC currents at power frequencies. In magnet.
many cases, even the earth’s normal magnetic field can affect
proper functioning. In the Figure note that there is no magnetic flux passing through
the air space inside the cylinder C. Consequently, a body placed
To assure optimum performances, stray magnetic fields must be in this space would be screened from the magnetic field around
directed around critical electronic components as a rock in a it.
river diverts running water.
Shielding is accomplished by placing a material with permeability
much greater than one between the field source and the
sensitive components affected. Such material must be
conductive to prevent passage of electric fields and highly
permeable to prevent passage of magnetic fields. Shielding
materials commonly used have permeabilities from 300 to
500,000 depending on flux density.

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MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CURRENT CARRYING

CONDUCTOR If a current-carrying wire is bent into a loop, the loop assumes
the properties of a magnet; that is, one side of the loop will be a
north pole, and the other side will be a south pole. If a soft-iron
Anytime electrons flow in a conductor two things happen; heat is core is placed in the loop, the magnetic lines of force will
produced by friction or resistance of the conductor as it opposes traverse the iron core, and it becomes a magnet. When a wire is
the flow of electrons and, more important, a magnetic field is made into a coil and connected to a source of power, the fields
created around the conductor. The more electrons there are the entire coil, as shown in Figure 2(a). Figure 2(b) shows a
flowing, stronger the magnetic field will be. cross section of the same coil. Note that the lines of force
produced by one turn of the coil combine with the lines of force
from the other turns and thread through the coil, thus giving the
In Figure 1, the shaded circle represents a cross section of a coil a magnetic polarity.
conductor with current flowing in toward the paper. The current is
flowing from negative to positive. When the current flows as
indicated, the magnetic field is in a counter-clockwise direction. The polarity of the coil is easily determined by the use of the left-
This is easily determined by the use of the left-hand corkscrew hand rule for coils: When a coil is grasped in the left hand with
rule, which is based upon the true direction of current flow. the fingers pointing in the direction of current flow, that is, from
When a wire is grasped in the left hand with the thumb pointing negative to positive, the thumb will point toward the north pole of
from negative to positive, the magnetic field around the the coil.
conductor is in the direction that the fingers are pointing.

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Figure 1 Figure 2

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ELECTROMAGNETS

The strength of an electromagnet is directly proportional to the

Electromagnets, in various forms, are very useful items and have current carried by the wire coil and to the number of turns in that
become commonplace on modern aircraft. Electromagnets, as coil. That is, as either the current through the coil or the number
the name implies, are produced by using an electric current to of wire wraps around the coil increases, the electromagnet's
create a magnetic field. Around every conductor carrying current strength also increases. Also, use of a core material of high
a magnetic field exists. This magnetic field is created owing to permeability will increase an electromagnet's strength. The same
the movement of electrons through the conductor. Typically this electromagnet using a core of low permeability would have a
magnetic field is so small it is unnoticed. However, if the current decreased magnetic strength. Other factors also affect an
is very strong or the conductor is formed into a coil, the magnetic electromagnet's strength, although they are negligible for most
field strength increases. Most electromagnet conductors are general-purpose applications.
wound into coils to create the desired magnetic field strength.

The force exerted upon a magnetic material by an electromagnet

When a soft-iron core is placed in a coil, an electromagnet is is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
produced. Of course, the wire in the coil must be insulated so the pole of the magnet and the material. For example, if a
that there can be no short circuit between the turns of the coil. A magnet exerts a pull of 1lb [0.4536 kg] upon an iron bar when
typical electromagnet is made by winding many turns of the bar is 1/2in. [1.27 cm] from the magnet, then the pull will only
insulated wire on a soft-iron core that has been wrapped with an be 1/4 lb [0.1134 kg] when the bar is 1 in. [2.54 cm] from the
insulating material. The turns of wire are placed as close magnet. For this reason, the design of electric equipment using
together as possible to help prevent magnetic lines of force from electromagnetic actuation requires careful consideration of the
passing between the turns. distance through which the magnetic force must act.

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An Electromagnet

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SOLENOIDS RELAYS
It has been explained that a coil of wire, when carrying a current, Electromagnets that contain a fixed core and a pivoting
will have the properties of a magnet. Such coils are frequently mechanical linkage are called relays. Relays are usually used for
used to actuate various types of mechanisms. If a soft-iron bar is low-current switching applications.
placed in the field of a current-carrying coil, the bar will be
The part of the relay attracted by the electromagnet to close the
magnetized and will be drawn toward the center of the coil, thus
contact points is called the armature. There are several types of
becoming the core of an electromagnet. By means of suitable
armatures in electrical work, but in every case it will be found
attaching linkage, the movable core may be used to perform
that an armature consists, in part, of a bar or core of material
many mechanical functions. An electromagnet with a movable
that may be acted upon by a magnetic field. In a relay, the
core is called a solenoid.
armature is attracted to the electromagnet, and the movement of
A solenoid typically uses a split core; one part of the core is a the armature either closes or opens the contact points. In some
nonmagnetic outer sleeve fixed permanently inside the coils. The cases, the electromagnet operates several sets of contact points
other portion of the core is allowed to slide inside this fixed outer simultaneously.
sleeve; the spring typically holds the movable core partially
extended from one end of the electromagnetic coil. When the
coil is energized, the electromagnet's force pulls the movable NOTE
core into the hollow sleeve opposing the spring force. This There is much confusion surrounding the terminology of relays
imparts motion through a connecting rod to the mechanical and solenoids because of their similarities. Relays are often
linkage. called solenoids and vice versa. For the purpose of this text, and
Solenoids are commonly used to operate electrical contacts, as generally accepted in the aircraft industry, a solenoid is an
valves, circuit breakers, and several types of mechanical electromagnet with a movable core material, and a relay is an
devices. The chief advantage of solenoids is that they can be electromagnet with a fixed core. These definitions hold true
placed almost anywhere in an airplane and can be controlled whether the electromagnet is used for electrical switching or
remotely by small switches or electronic control units. Although other mechanical functions. Many aircraft manufacturers have
the use of solenoids is limited to operations where only a small substituted the term contactor or breaker for electrical switching
amount of movement is required, they have much greater range solenoids or relays.
of movement, quicker response, and greater strength than fixed-
core electromagnets.

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Solenoid Relay

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FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT Midway between the pole-pieces is a wire W passing vertically
ACROSS A MAGNETIC FIELD downward through G and connected through a switch to a 6-volt
battery capable of giving a very large current for a short time.
We have seen that a conductor carrying a current can produce a With the switch open, iron filings are sprinkled over G and the
force on a magnet situated in the vicinity of the conductor. By latter is gently tapped. The filings in the space between PP take
Newton's Third Law of Motion, namely that to every force there up the distribution shown in Fig. 2(c). If the switch is closed
must be an equal and opposite force, it follows that the magnet momentarily, the filings rearrange themselves as in Fig. 2(d). It
must exert an equal force on the conductor. One of the simplest will be seen that the magnetic flux has been so distorted that it
methods of demonstrating this effect is to take a stiff copper partially surrounds the wire. This distorted field acts like a
wire, about 1/16 in diameter, and bend it into a rectangular loop stretched elastic string bent out of the straight; the flux tries to
as represented by BC in Fig. 1(a). The two tapered ends of the return to the shortest path between PP, thereby exerting a force
loop dip into mercury contained in cups, one directly above the F urging the conductor out of the way.
other, the cups being attached to metal rods P and Q carried by
a wooden upright rod D. A current of about 5 amperes is passed It has already been shown that a wire W carrying a current
through the loop and the N pole of a permanent magnet NS is upwards in Fig. 2(a) produces a magnetic field as shown in Fig.
moved towards B. If the current in this wire is flowing upwards, 2(b). If this field is compared with that of Fig. 2(d), it is seen that
as indicated by the arrow, it is found that the loop, when viewed on the upper side the two fields are in the same direction,
from above, turns counterclockwise, as shown in plan in Fig. whereas on the lower side they are in opposition. Hence, the
1(b). If the magnet is reversed and again brought up to B, the combined effect is to strengthen the magnetic field on the upper
loop turns clockwise. side and weaken it on the lower side, thus giving the distribution
shown in Fig. 2(d).
If the magnet is placed on the other side of the loop, the latter
turns clockwise when the N pole of the magnet is moved near to By combining diagrams similar to Figs. 2(b) and 2(c), it is easy to
C, and counterclockwise when the magnet is reversed. understand that if either the current in W or the polarity of the
magnets NS is reversed, the field is strengthened on the lower
These effects can be further explained by the experiment shown side and weakened on the upper side, so that the direction of the
in elevation and plan in Fig. 2. Two permanent magnets NS rest force acting on W is then reversed.
on a sheet of paper or glass G, and soft-iron pole-pieces p are
added to increase the area of the magnetic field in the gap On the other hand, if both the current through Wand the polarity
between them. of the magnets are reversed, the distribution of the resultant
magnetic field and therefore the direction of the force on W
remain unaltered.

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(a)

(a)
(b) (c)

(b)
(d)

Figure 1
Figure 2
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MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR

CARRYING CURRENT ACROSS A MAGNETIC
FIELD
With the apparatus in Fig. 1(a) above, it can be shown For a magnetic field having a cross-sectional area of a meter2 and
qualitatively that the force on a conductor carrying a current at a uniform flux density of B Weber/meter2, the total flux in Weber (or
right angles to a magnetic field is increased when (a) the current
Wb) is represented by the Greek capital letter Φ(Phi), where
in the conductor is increased and (b) when the magnetic field is
made stronger by bringing the magnet nearer to the conductor. Φ(Wb) = B (Wb/m2) x a (m2)
With the aid of more elaborate apparatus, the force on the
conductor can be measured for various currents and various Φ
densities of the magnetic flux, and it is found that:
B= (Wb/m2)
a
Force on conductor ∝ current × flux density × length of conductor
The Weber is a large unit and either the milliweber (mWb) or the
If F = force on conductor in Newton, microweber (µWb) is often a more convenient unit to employ,
I = current through conductor in amperes where

And l = length, in meters, of conductor at right angles to the 1 milliweber = 10-3 Weber
magnetic flux, and 1 microweber = 10-6 Weber.
F (nektons) ∝ flux density x l (meters) x I (amperes).
The unit of flux density is taken as the density of a magnetic flux
such that a conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that
Example.
flux has a force of 1 Newton per meter acting upon it. This unit is
termed a Weber per square meter (Wb/m2) to commemorate a A conductor carries a current of 800A at right angles to a
German physicist, Wilhelm Eduardo Weber (1804-91), who was magnetic flux having a density of 0.5Wb/m2. Calculate the force
the first to develop a system of absolute electrical and magnetic on the conductor in Newton per meter length.
units. Hence, for a flux density of B Weber/meter2,
Force on conductor F F= BIl Newton

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FORCE BETWEEN TWO LONG PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

CARRYING ELECTRIC CURRENT

It was shown before that a current-carrying conductor is

It is evident that in the space between A and B the two fields
surrounded by a magnetic field and when such a conductor is
tend to neutralize each other, but in the space outside A and B
placed across another magnetic field a force acts upon the
they assist each other. Hence the resultant distribution is
conductor. It therefore follows that when two current carrying
somewhat as shown in Fig. 2(b). Since magnetic flux behaves
conductors are parallel to each other, there is force acting on
like a stretched elastic cord, the effect is to try to move
each of the conductors. This effect can be very easily
conductors A and B towards each other; in other words, there is
demonstrated by the following experiment.
a force of attraction between A and B.
In Figure 1(a), the rectangular loop BC has its tapered ends
If the current in B is reversed, the magnetic fields due to A and B
dipping into mercury in cups supported one directly above the
assist each other in the space between the conductors and the
other by rods P and Q, and a current of about 10 to 15 amperes
resultant distribution of the flux is shown in Fig. 2(c). The lateral
is passed through the loop. Part of the electrical circuit consists
pressure between the lines of flux exerts a force on the
of a long straight rod D, which, can be placed alongside B, as
conductors tending to push them apart.
shown. When the currents in D and B are in opposite directions,
as in Fig. 1(b), the two conductors repel each other and the loop It is this force between parallel current-carrying conductors that
(viewed from above) is deflected clockwise. On the other hand, if forms the basis for the definition of the ampere, adopted
rod D is turned through 180° so that the currents in B and D are internationally in 1948, namely, that current which, when flowing
in the same direction, as in Fig. 1(c), the conductors attract each in each of two infinitely long conductors, situated in a vacuum
other and the loop turns counter clockwise. and separated 1 meter between centers, causes each conductor
to have a force acting upon it of 2x10-7 Newton per meter length
These effects are most easily explained by first drawing the
of conductor.
magnetic fields produced by each conductor and then combining
these fields. Thus, Fig. 2(a) shows two conductors, A and B,
each carrying current towards the paper. The lines of magnetic
flux due to current in A alone are represented by the uniformly
dotted circles in Fig. 2(b), and those due to B alone are
represented by the chain dotted circles.

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(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 1 Figure 2

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FORCE BETWEEN COILS CARRYING ELECTRIC CURRENT

This lateral pressure between the lines of flux makes them
behave as if they were repelling one another, This force of
We are now in a position to explain why two co-axial coils,
repulsion is passed on to coils A and B, so that they try to move
placed one above the other, attract or repel each other,
away from each other.
depending upon the relative direction of their currents. Suppose
A and B in Fig. (a) to represent the cross-section of two coils
carrying currents in the directions shown by the dots and
crosses. Let us first consider the distribution of the magnetic
fields due to the coils acting independently. Thus, current
through A alone gives the flux distribution represented by the
uniformly dotted lines in Fig. (a), while current in the same
direction through B alone gives the distribution indicated by the
chain-dotted lines. It will be seen that in the space between the
coils the two fields oppose each other, while on the outside they
are in the same direction. Consequently the combined effect is to
give the distribution shown in Fig. (b). Since magnetic flux acts
as if it is in tension, it tends to move coils A and B towards each
other.
On the other hand, if the current through B is reversed, the
direction of the arrowheads on the chain-dotted lines in Fig. (a) is
reversed. Consequently, 'the magnetic fields of A and B are in
the same direction in the space between the coils and in
opposition outside the coils, so that the resultant distribution
becomes that shown in Fig, (c). But lines of magnetic flux exert a
lateral pressure on one another-just as stretched rubber cords
try to swell when allowed to contract in length, and thereby exert
sideways pressure on other rubber cords that are alongside,

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(a)

(b) (c)

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MAGNETIC TERMS MAGNETIZING FORCE OR FIELD STRENGTH (H)

The magnetizing force of a magnetic circuit is a measure of the

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT intensity of the magnetic effects at any given point in the
magnetic field. It is defined as the m.m.f. per unit length and is
measured in ampere-turns per meter (AT/m).
The closed path formed by lines of flux is referred to as the
magnetic circuit. One of the simplest forms of magnetic circuit is m.m. f . NI
shown. Thus, H= or H= (AT/m)
l l

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE (M.M.F.) FLUX DENSITY (B)

In an electric circuit, a current is established due to the existence This is the flux per unit area and is measured in Webers/meter2 or
of an electromotive force (e.m.f.). In the same way, in a magnetic Tesla (T). The relationship between flux and flux density is given
circuit, a magnetic flux is established due to the existence of a as follows where A is the area at right angles to the lines of flux
magnetomotive force (m.m.f.); the m.m.f. is produced by the measured in square meters (m2).
current flowing in the coil and its value is proportional to the
current and to the number of turns in the coil. Appropriately, the φ
unit of m.m.f. is the ampere-turn (AT).
Thus, B= (T)
A
Thus, m.m.f.=IN (ampere-turns)

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PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE OR MAGNETIC SPACE Hence,

CONSTANT
Flux Densiyt at C B 2 × 10 −7 Wm / m 2
= =
Magnetizing Force at C H 1 / 2π ampere − turms / meter
Suppose A in the Figure to represent the cross-section of a long
straight conductor, situated in a vacuum and carrying a current B
∴ = 4π × 10 −7 Hm −1
of one ampere towards the paper; and suppose the return path H
of this current to be some considerable distance away from A so
that the effect of the return current on the magnetic field in the The ratio B/H for the above condition is termed the permeability
vicinity of A may be neglected. The lines of magnetic flux of free space or the magnetic space constant and is
surrounding A will therefore be in the form of concentric circles. represented by the symbol µ0. The value of this ratio is almost
The dotted circle D represents the path of one of these lines of exactly the same whether the conductor A of is assumed to be
flux at a radius of 1 meter. Since conductor A and its return situated in a vacuum (or free space) or in air or in any other non-
conductor form 1 turn, the magnetomotive force acting on path D magnetic medium. Hence,
is 1 ampere-turn; and since the length of this line of flux is 2π B
meters, the magnetizing force, H, at a radius of 1 meter is 1/2π µ0 = for vacuum and non-magnetic materials.
ampere-turn/meter. If B is the flux density in webers/metre2 in the H
region of line D, it follows that the force per meter length on a =4π x 10-7 H/m
conductor C (parallel to A) carrying 1 ampere at right angles to
this flux is given by: Example

Force, in Newton, per meter length A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having
a mean circumference of 60 cm and a uniform cross-sectional
= B(Wb/m2) x 1 (m) x 1 (A). area of 5cm2. If the current through the coil is 4 A, calculate (a)
But, from the definition of the ampere; this force is the magnetizing force, (b) the flux density and (c) the to tat flux.

= 2 x 10-7 N. Calculate the ampere-turns required to produce a flux of 0.015

Wb across an air gap 0.1 in long, having an effective area of 30
∴Flux density at 1-m radius from conductor carrying 1 A in2.
= B = 2 x 10-7 Wb/m2.

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RELATIVE PERMEABILITY RELUCTANCE

In an earlier section it was shown that the magnetic flux inside a Let us consider an iron ring having a cross-sectional area of a
coil is intensified when an iron core is inserted. It follows that if square meters and a mean circumference of I meters wound
the non-magnetic core of a toroid, is replaced by an iron core, with N turns carrying a current I amperes; then
the flux produced by a given number of ampere-turns is greatly
Total flux Φ = flux density × area = Ba
increased; and the ratio of the flux density produced in a
material to the flux density produced in a vacuum (or in a And m.m.f. = Magnetizing force × length = Hl
non-magnetic core) by the same magnetizing force is termed
Φ Ba a
the relative permeability of that material and is denoted by the But, = = µ0µr ×
symbol µr. m.m. f Hl l
For air, µr = 1; but for nickel-iron alloys such as Mumetal, it may m.m. f l
be as high as 100 000. Graphs representing the values of µr are So that, = = reluctance of magnetic circuit.
Φ µ0µr a
given in Figs. (a) and (b) for various qualities of iron, and it will
be seen that for a given quality, the value of µr varies over a Since the m.m.f. is equal to the number of ampere-turns acting
wide range. on the magnetic circuit,
No of ampere − turns
Magnetic Flux =
For a non-magnetic material; B=µ0H reluc tan ce
l
Where, Re luc tan ce =
Hence, for a material having a relative permeability µr µ0µr a
B=µ0µrH l
Or Re luc tan ce = For non-magnetic materials
µ0µr a
∴ Absolute permeability = B/H = µ0µr The symbol for reluctance is S and the quantity is expressed in
µ = µ0µr ampere-turns/Weber.

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Variation of relative permeability with Variation of relative permeability with flux

magnetizing force density

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Examples

A mild-steel ring having a cross-sectional area of 5 cm2 and a

mean circumference of 40 cm has a coil of 200 turns wound
uniformly around it. Calculate (a) the reluctance of the ring and
(b) the current required to produce a flux of 800 µWb in the ring.

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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SATURATION POINT COMPARISON OF A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND AN ELECTRIC

CIRCUIT

An iron core can be considered to consist of a large number of

little magnets, which are randomly oriented when the core is not ELECTRIC CIRCUIT MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
magnetized. A magnetizing force applied to the core will tend to Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
line up the little magnets in the direction of the force. How easily
this is done will determine the permeability of the iron. If the emf Volt mmf Ampere turn
magnetizing force is increased, more and more of the magnets Current Ampere Magnetic flux Weber
will become lined up in the core and eventually a force will be Resistance Ohm Reluctance Ampere turns
reached when all of the magnets are perfectly lined up with the per Weber
direction of the force. The core is then said to be saturated and
no further increase of flux density can be obtained with
increasing magnetizing force. Note
Reluctance is the criterion of the opposition of the establishment
of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. Clearly reluctance is linked
to resistance in an electric circuit, and where there is more than
one reluctance in a magnetic circuit, their total reluctance is the
sum of the individual reluctances as for resistances in series.
The unit is ampere-turns per Weber.

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HYSTERESIS
We know that a magnetizing force H will produce a magnetic
field which will have a certain flux density B and that the direction The ability of a material to retain magnetism is dependant upon
of the field is determined by the direction of the current I. It would both its remanence and coercive force. It is called retentivity
appear therefore that when the current is reduced to zero the and is expressed as,
magnetic field should be zero. However, in the case of Coercive Force
ferromagnetic materials, this is not the case. Indeed, when the Retentivity =
current is zero, there is still magnetic flux in the core. This effect Remanence
of the magnetic field change lagging behind the current change The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop for a given material
producing it is called hysteresis. indicates the energy used in the magnetizing and de-
In the figure dotted line from the origin up to saturation shows magnetizing process. Thus the greater the area of the loop the
how the flux density B increases as the magnetizing field H is greater the energy loss, which usually appears as heat.
increased. Since the strength of the magnetizing field is NI and N Since there is little variation in remanence between different
is constant, the strength of H is dependant upon the value of the materials, the area of the loop is dependant mainly on the field
current I. strength required to produce saturation. From the above
It can be seen that if I is now gradually reduced back to zero, the expression it can be seen therefore that the area is determined
full line is a measure of the flux density being produced and to a very large degree by the materials retentivity.
when H is zero, i.e. I is zero, there is some flux density left. This Permanent magnetic materials are hard to magnetize and have
is called remanence or residual magnetism. very high retentivities, e.g. cobalt iron –25,000. Other materials
If now the current is made to increase negatively the flux density such as Permalloy are very easy to magnetize and have very
will continue to decrease until the magnetism has disappeared. low retentivity, which is only 4
The amount of negative H required to produce this is called
coercive force. By continuing to increase H in the negative
sense, the iron core will again become saturated.
By decreasing the –H field to zero and then increasing it in the
positive direction again to saturation, the complete closed loop is
produced. The whole loop is in fact called a hysteresis loop.

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EDDY CURRENTS Eddie currents in the core of a coil have several effects, the two
most important being;
(a) The core becomes hot, and the conversion of electrical
Consider a coil wound over an iron core. When the current in the energy into heat energy constitutes an energy loss termed eddy
coil changes, the magnetic flux linking with the iron core current loss. (This is in addition to any hysteresis loss in the
changes, and (according to Faraday's law) an e.m.f. is induced core).
in the core as well as in the coil. Such an induced e.m.f. in the (b) The eddy currents produce a flux of their own and, since this
core gives rise to circulating currents-these currents being will be in opposition to the main flux, a reduction in the main flux
termed eddy currents. results.

The direction of the flow of eddy currents in the core will be given In order to reduce the effects of eddy currents it is usual to
by Fleining's right-hand rule, the effective "motion" of the core "laminate" the core. The core is cut up into very thin slices or
being the reverse of the direction in which the field is moving. In laminations; each lamination is insulated from the next by a thin
Figure (a), the current in the coil is assumed to be increasing film of shellac or other insulator. The path to the flow of eddy
and the field is moving outwards. Thus, the effective “motion” of currents is thus broken up and the increase in resistance
the core is inwards. Applying Fleming's right-hand rule to the reduces the eddy currents. The thinner the laminations, the
core shows that the eddy currents, at this instant, are circulating smaller are the loss from eddy currents. For the laminations to
in the manner indicated. If the current in the coil is now be effective, they must be in the correct direction relative to the
decreased, the field tends to collapse inwards and the eddy field and to the eddy currents as shown in Figure (b).
currents will circulate in the reverse direction.

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CARE AND STORAGE OF MAGNETS MAGNETIC CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Always take care, magnets can snap together and injure
All materials are divided into three categories dependent upon
personal or damage themselves.
the effect that a magnetic field has upon them.
Keep magnets away from magnetic media such as floppy discs,
Ferromagnetic Materials-These exhibit very pronounced
credit cards, and computer monitors.
magnetic effects, tending to concentrate lines of flux into the
Store magnets in closed containers, so that they do not attract material. The permeability of these materials is much greater
metal debris. than 1, e.g. iron, steel, cobalt, etc.
If several magnets are being stored, they should be stored in Paramagnetic Materials-These types have no appreciable
attracting positions. effects and are generally considered non-magnetic. They have a
permeability slightly greater than 1, e.g. platinum, manganese,
Alnico magnets should be stored with “keepers” (iron or
chromium and aluminum.
magnetic steel plates that connect the poles of the magnet)
since they can easily become de magnetized. Diamagnetic Materials-These materials demonstrate the
minimum magnetic effects, rather like paramagnetic, but they
Magnets should be kept away from pacemakers.
tend to be slightly anti-magnetic and have a permeability of less
than 1, e.g. bismuth.
NOTE
Magnets become weaker with time due to ‘free’ poles near the
ends repelling each other and upsetting the alignment of tiny
magnets. To prevent this bar magnets are stored in pairs with
unlike poles opposite and pieces of soft iron keepers across the
ends. The keepers become induced magnets and their poles
neutralize the poles of the bar magnets.

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STUDENT NOTES :

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