PHASE DIAGRAMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Solubility Limit

1 Consider the sugar–water phase diagram of Figure 1.

(a) How much sugar will dissolve in 1500 g water at 90C (363 K)?

(b) If the saturated liquid solution in part (a) is cooled to 20C (293 K), some of the sugar will
precipitate out as a solid. What will be the composition of the saturated liquid solution (in wt%
sugar) at 20C?

(c) How much of the solid sugar will come out of solution upon cooling to 20C?

Solution

(a) We are asked to determine how much sugar will dissolve in 1000 g of water at 90C (363 K). From the
solubility limit curve in Figure 1, at 90C (363 K) the maximum concentration of sugar in the syrup is
about 77 wt%. It is now possible to calculate the mass of sugar using Equation 4.3 as
 m
sugar

Csugar (wt%) =  100


m m
sugar water 

m 
sugar

 100
77 wt% = m  1500 g
sugar

Solving for msugar yields msugar = 5022 g

(b) Again using this same plot, at 20C (293 K) the solubility limit (or the concentration of the
saturated solution) is about 64 wt% sugar.

(c) The mass of sugar in this saturated solution at 20C (293 K) (m'sugar ) may also be calculated using

Equation 4.3 as follows:

m'
sugar

64 wt% = m'sugar  1500 g  100

which yields a value for m'sugar of 2667 g. Subtracting the latter from the former of these sugar

concentrations yields the amount of sugar that precipitated out of the solution upon cooling m"sugar ;

that is

m"sugar = msugar − m'sugar = 5022 g − 2667 g = 2355 g

2 At 500C (773 K), what is the maximum solubility (a) of Cu in Ag? (b) Of Ag in Cu?

Solution

(a) From Figure 7, the maximum solubility of Cu in Ag at 500C (773 K) corresponds to the position
of the β − (α + β) phase boundary at this temperature, or to about 2 wt% Cu.

(b) From this same figure, the maximum solubility of Ag in Cu corresponds to the position of the α −

(α + β) phase boundary at this temperature, or about 1.5 wt% Ag.

Microstructure

3 Cite three variables that determine the microstructure of an alloy.

Solution

Three variables that determine the microstructure of an alloy are (1) the alloying elements
present, (2) the concentrations of these alloying elements, and (3) the heat treatment of the alloy.
 Phase Equilibria

4 What thermodynamic condition must be met for a state of equilibrium to exist?

Solution

In order for a system to exist in a state of equilibrium the free energy must be a minimum for
some specified combination of temperature, pressure, and composition.

One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams

5 Consider a specimen of ice that is at − 10C and 101.3 kPa pressure. Using Figure 2, the
pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O, determine the pressure to which the specimen
must be raised or lowered to cause it (a) to melt, and (b) to sublime.

Solution

The figure below shows the pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O, Figure 2; a vertical
line has been constructed at − 10C, and the location on this line at 101.3 kPa pressure (point B) is also
noted.
(a) Melting occurs, (by changing pressure) as, moving vertically (upward) at this temperature, we
cross the Ice–Liquid phase boundary. This occurs at approximately 58 MPa; thus, the pressure of the
specimen must be raised from 101.3 kPa to 57741 kPa.

(b) In order to determine the pressure at which sublimation occurs at this temperature, we move
vertically downward from 101.3 kPa until we cross the Ice–Vapor phase boundary. This intersection
occurs at approximately 0.23 MPa.

6 At a pressure of 1 kPa, determine (a) the melting temperature for ice, and (b) the boiling
temperature for water.

Solution

The melting temperature for ice and the boiling temperature for water at a pressure of 1 kPa,
may be determined from the pressure–temperature diagram for this system, Figure 2, which is shown
below; a horizontal line has been constructed across this diagram at a pressure of 1 kPa.
The melting and boiling temperatures for ice at a pressure of 1 kPa, may be determined by moving
horizontally across the pressure–temperature diagram at this pressure. The temperature corresponding
to the intersection of the Ice–Liquid phase boundary is the melting temperature, which is approximately
1C (274 K). On the other hand, the boiling temperature is at the intersection of the horizontal line with
the Liquid–Vapor phase boundary—approximately 16C (289 K).

Binary Isomorphous Systems

7 Given here are the solidus and liquidus temperatures for the germanium-silicon system.

Construct the phase diagram for this system and label each region.

Composition Solidus Temperature Liquidus Temperature

(wt% Si) (°C) (K) (°C) (K)

0 938 1211 938 1211

10 1005 1278 1147 1420

20 1065 1338 1226 1499

30 1123 1396 1278 1551

40 1178 1451 1315 1588

50 1232 1505 1346 1619

60 1282 1555 1367 1640

70 1326 1599 1385 1658

80 1359 1632 1397 1670

90 1390 1663 1408 1681

100 1414 1687 1414 1687

Solution
 The germanium–silicon phase diagram is constructed below.

Interpretation of Phase Diagrams

8 Cite the phases that are present and the phase compositions for the following alloys:

(a) 90 wt% Zn-10 wt% Cu at 400C (673 K)

(b) 75 wt% Sn-25 wt% Pb at 175C (448 K)

(c) 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu at 900C (1173 K)

(d) 30 wt% Pb-70 wt% Mg at 425C (698 K)

(e) 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu at 500C (773 K)

(f) 16.8 kg Pb and 2.9 kg Mg at 400C (673 K)

(g) 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu at 1250C (1523 K)

(h) 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb at 200C (473 K)

Solution

This problem asks that we cite the phase or phases present for several alloys at specified
temperatures.
(a) That portion of the Cu–Zn phase diagram (Figure 19) that pertains to this problem is shown
below; the point labeled A represents the 90 wt% Zn–10 wt% Cu composition at 400C (673 K).

As may be noted, point A lies within the ∈ and η phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 400C
(673 K) its intersection with the ∈ − (∈ + η phase boundary is at 87 wt% Zn, which corresponds to
the composition of the ε phase. Similarly, the tie line intersection with the (∈ + η − η phase boundary
occurs at 97 wt% Zn, which is the composition of the η phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as
follows:

C∈ = 87 wt% Zn–13 wt% Cu

Cη = 97 wt% Zn–3 wt% Cu

(b) That portion of the Pb–Sn phase diagram (Figure 8) that pertains to this problem is shown below;
the point labeled B represents the 75 wt% Sn–25 wt% Pb composition at 175C (448 K).
As may be noted, point B lies within the α + β phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 175C
(448 K); its intersection with the α − (α + β phase boundary is at 16 wt% Sn, which corresponds to
the composition of the α phase. Similarly, the tie line intersection with the (α + β − β phase boundary
occurs at 97 wt% Sn, which is the composition of the β phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as
follows:

Cα = 16 wt% Sn–84 wt% Pb

Cβ = 97 wt% Sn–3 wt% Pb

(c) The Ag–Cu phase diagram (Figure 7) is shown below; the point labeled C represents the 55 wt%
Ag–45 wt% Cu composition at 900C (1173 K).
As may be noted, point C lies within the Liquid phase field. Therefore, only the liquid phase is present;
its composition is 55 wt% Ag–45 wt% Cu.

(d) The Mg–Pb phase diagram (Figure 20) is shown below; the point labeled D represents the 30 wt%
Pb–70 wt% Mg composition at 425C (698 K).

As may be noted, point D lies within the α phase field. Therefore, only the α phase is present; its
composition is 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg.

(e) For an alloy composed of 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu and at 500C (773 K), we must first determine
the Zn and Cu concentrations, as

2.12 kg
CZn   100  53 wt%
2.12 kg  1.88 kg

1.88 kg
CCu   100  47 wt%
2.12 kg  1.88 kg
That portion of the Cu–Zn phase diagram (Figure 19) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the
point labeled E represents the 53 wt% Zn–47 wt% Cu composition at 500C (773 K).

As may be noted, point E lies within the β + γ phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 500C
(773 K); its intersection with the β − (β + γ phase boundary is at 49 wt% Zn, which corresponds to the
composition of the β phase. Similarly, the tie line intersection with the (β + γ − γ phase boundary
occurs at 58 wt% Zn, which is the composition of the γ phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as
follows:

Cβ = 49 wt% Zn–51 wt% Cu

Cγ = 58 wt% Zn–42 wt% Cu

(f) For an alloy composed of 16.8 kg Pb and 2.9 kg Mg and at 400C (673 K), we must first determine
the Pb and Mg concentrations, as
 16.8 kg
CPb   100 85 wt%
16.8kg  2.9kg

2.9kg
CMg   100  15 wt%
16.8kg  2.9kg

That portion of the Mg–Pb phase diagram (Figure 20) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the
point labeled F represents the 85 wt% Pb–15 wt% Mg composition at 400C (673 K).

As may be noted, point F lies within the L + Mg2Pb phase field. A tie line has been constructed at
400C; it intersects the vertical line at 81 wt% Pb, which corresponds to the composition of Mg 2Pb.
Furthermore, the tie line intersection with the (L + Mg2Pb) − L phase boundary is at 93 wt% Pb, which

is the composition of the liquid phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as follows:

CMg 2Pb  81wt% Pb − 19 wt% Mg

CL = 93 wt% Pb–7 wt% Mg

(g) For an alloy composed of 8.2 mol Ni and 4.3 mol Cu and at 1250C (1523 K), it is first necessary
to determine the Ni and Cu concentrations, which we will do in wt% as follows:
n ′  n A  (8.2 mol)(58.69 g/mol)=481.3 g

m
Ni
Ni Ni

n′ n A  (4.3 mol)(63.55 g/mol)=273.3 g

m
Cu
Cu Cu

481.3 g
CNi   100  63.8 wt%
481.3 g + 273.3 g

273.3 g
CCu   100  36.2 wt%
481.3 g + 273.3 g
The Cu–Ni phase diagram (Figure 3a) is shown below; the point labeled G represents the 63.8 wt%
Ni–36.2 wt% Cu composition at 1250C (1523 K).

As may be noted, point G lies within the α phase field. Therefore, only the α phase is present; its
composition is 63.8 wt% Ni–36.2 wt% Cu.

(h) For an alloy composed of 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb and at 200C (473 K), it is first necessary to
determine the Sn and Pb concentrations, which we will do in weight percent as follows:

n′ n A  (4.5 mol)(118.71 g/mol)=534.2 g

m
Sn
Sn Sn

n′  n A  (0.45 mol)(207.2 g/mol)=93.2 g

Pb mPb Pb

534.2 g
C 
Sn
 100 85.1 wt%
534.2 g + 93.2 g

C  93.2 g  100  14.9 wt%

Pb
 534.2 g  93.2 g

That portion of the Pb–Sn phase diagram (Figure 8) that pertains to this problem is shown below; the
point labeled H represents the 85.1 wt% Sn–14.9 wt% Pb composition at 200C (473 K).
As may be noted, point H lies within the β + L phase field. A tie line has been constructed at 200C
(473 K); its intersection with the L − β + L) phase boundary is at 74 wt% Sn, which corresponds to
the composition of the L phase. Similarly, the tie line intersection with the (β + L) − β phase boundary
occurs at 97.5 wt% Sn, which is the composition of the β phase. Thus, the phase compositions are as
follows:

Cβ = 97.5 wt% Sn–2.5 wt% Pb

CL = 74 wt% Sn–26 wt% Pb

9 Is it possible to have a copper–nickel alloy that, at equilibrium, consists of a liquid phase of

composition 20 wt% Ni–80 wt% Cu and also an α phase of composition 37 wt% Ni–63 wt%
Cu? If so, what will be the approximate temperature of the alloy? If this is not possible, explain
why.

Solution

It is not possible to have a Cu–Ni alloy, which at equilibrium, consists of a liquid phase of
composition 20 wt% Ni–80 wt% Cu and an α phase of composition 37 wt% Ni–63 wt% Cu. From
Figure 3a, a single tie line does not exist within the α + L region that intersects the phase boundaries at
the given compositions. At 20 wt% Ni, the L − (α + L) phase boundary is at about 1200C (1473 K),
whereas at 37 wt% Ni the (L + α) − α phase boundary is at about 1230C (1503 K).
10 Is it possible to have a copper–zinc alloy that, at equilibrium, consists of an ∈ phase of
composition 75 wt% Zn–25 wt% Cu, and also a liquid phase of composition 90 wt% Zn and 10
wt% Cu? If so, what will be the approximate temperature of the alloy? If this is not possible,
explain why.

Solution

It is not possible to have a Cu–Zn alloy, which at equilibrium consists of an ∈ phase of

composition 75 wt% Zn and 25 wt% Cu and also a liquid phase of composition 90 wt% Zn and 10 wt%
Cu. From Figure 19 a single tie line does not exist within the ∈ + L region which intersects the phase
boundaries at the given compositions. At 75 wt% Zn, the ∈ − (∈ + L) phase boundary is at about
550C, whereas at 90 wt% Zn the (∈ + L) − L phase boundary is at about 580C.

11 A copper–nickel alloy of composition 75 wt% Ni–25 wt% Cu is slowly heated from a

temperature of 1300C (1573).

(a) At what temperature does the first liquid phase form?

(b) What is the composition of this liquid phase?

(c) At what temperature does complete melting of the alloy occur?

(d) What is the composition of the last solid remaining prior to complete melting?

Solution

Shown below is the Cu–Ni phase diagram (Figure 3a) and a vertical line constructed at a
composition of 70 wt% Ni–30 wt% Cu.
(a) Upon heating from 1300C (1573 K), the first liquid phase forms at the temperature at which this
vertical line intersects the α − (α + L) phase boundary—i.e., about 1345C (1618 K).

(b) The composition of this liquid phase corresponds to the intersection with the ( α + L) − L phase
boundary, of a tie line constructed across the α + L phase region at 1345C (1618 K)—i.e., 59 wt% Ni.

(c) Complete melting of the alloy occurs at the intersection of this same vertical line at 70 wt% Ni
with the (α + L) − L phase boundary—i.e., about 1380C (1653 K).

(d) The composition of the last solid remaining prior to complete melting corresponds to the
intersection with α − (α + L) phase boundary, of the tie line constructed across the α + L phase region
at 1380C (1653 K)—i.e., about 79 wt% Ni.
12 A 50 wt% Pb–50 wt% Mg alloy is slowly cooled from 700C (973 K) to 400C (673 K).

(a) At what temperature does the first solid phase form?

(b) What is the composition of this solid phase?

(c) At what temperature does the liquid solidify?

(d) What is the composition of this last remaining liquid phase?

Solution

Shown below is the Mg–Pb phase diagram (Figure 20) and a vertical line constructed at a
composition of 50 wt% Pb–50 wt% Mg.
(a) Upon cooling from 700C (973 K), the first solid phase forms at the temperature at which a
vertical line at this composition intersects the L − (α + L) phase boundary—i.e., about 560C (833 K).

(b) The composition of this solid phase corresponds to the intersection with the α − (α + L) phase
boundary, of a tie line constructed across the α + L phase region at 560C (833 K)—i.e., 21 wt% Pb–
79 wt% Mg.

(c) Complete solidification of the alloy occurs at the intersection of this same vertical line at 50 wt%
Pb with the eutectic isotherm—i.e., about 465C (738 K).

(d) The composition of the last liquid phase remaining prior to complete solidification corresponds to
the eutectic composition—i.e., about 67 wt% Pb–33 wt% Mg.

13 For an alloy of composition 74 wt% Zn–26 wt% Cu, cite the phases present and their
compositions at the following temperatures: 850C, 750C, 680C, 600C, and 500C.

Solution

This problem asks us to determine the phases present and their concentrations at several
temperatures, for an alloy of composition 74 wt% Zn–26 wt% Cu. From Figure 19 (the Cu–Zn phase
diagram), which is shown below with a vertical line constructed at the specified composition:
At 850C (1123 K), a liquid phase is present; CL = 74 wt% Zn–26 wt% Cu

At 750C (1023 K), γ and liquid phases are present; Cγ = 67 wt% Zn–33 wt% Cu; CL = 77 wt% Zn–23
wt% Cu

At 680C (953 K), δ and liquid phases are present; Cδ = 73 wt% Zn–27 wt% Cu; CL = 82 wt% Zn–18
wt% Cu

At 600C (873 K), the δ phase is present; Cδ = 74 wt% Zn–26 wt% Cu

At 500C (773 K), γ and ∈ phases are present; Cγ = 69 wt% Zn–31 wt% Cu; C∈ = 78 wt% Zn–22
wt% Cu

14 Determine the relative amounts (in terms of mass fractions) of the phases for the alloys and
temperatures given in Problem 8.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the phase mass fractions for the alloys and temperatures
in Problem 8.

(a) From Problem 8a, ∈ and η phases are present for a 90 wt% Zn–10 wt% Cu alloy at 400C (673
K), as represented in the portion of the Cu–Zn phase diagram shown below (at point A).
Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are
C∈ = 87 wt% Zn–13 wt% Cu

Cη = 97 wt% Zn–3 wt% Cu

Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 90 wt% Zn, application of the appropriate lever rule

expressions (for compositions in weight percent zinc) leads to

Cη −
W∈ C0 97 − 90
= = = 0.70
Cη −
C∈ 97 − 87

C0 − 90 −
C∈ 87
Wη = = = 0.30
Cη − 97 −
C∈ 87

(b) From Problem 8b, α and β phases are present for a 75 wt% Sn–25 wt% Pb alloy at 175C (448 K),
as represented in the portion of the Pb–Sn phase diagram shown below (at point B).
furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are
Cα = 16 wt% Sn–84 wt% Pb

Cβ = 97 wt% Sn–3 wt% Pb

Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 75 wt% Sn, application of the appropriate lever rule

expressions (for compositions in weight percent tin) leads to

Cβ −
C0 97 − 75
Wα = = = 0.27
Cβ −
Cα 97 − 16

C0 − 75 −
Cα 16
Wβ = = = 0.73
Cβ − 97 −
Cα 16

(c) From Problem 8c, just the liquid phase is present for a 55 wt% Ag–45 wt% Cu alloy at 900C, as
may be noted in the Ag–Cu phase diagram shown below (at point C)—i.e., WL = 1.0
(d) From Problem 8d, just the α phase is present for a 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg alloy at 425C (698 K),
as may be noted in the Mg–Pb phase diagram shown below (at point D)—i.e., Wα = 1.0
(e) From Problem 8e, β and γ phases are present for an alloy composed of 2.12 kg Zn and 1.88 kg Cu
(i.e., of composition 53 wt% Zn–47 wt% Cu) at 500C (773 K). This is represented in the portion of the
Cu–Zn phase diagram shown below (at point E).

Furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are
Cβ = 49 wt% Zn–51 wt% Cu

Cγ = 58 wt% Zn–42 wt% Cu

Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 53 wt% Zn and application of the appropriate lever rule

expressions (for compositions in weight percent zinc) leads to

Cγ −
C0 58 − 53
Wβ = = = 0.56

Cγ − Cβ 58 − 49

C0 − Cβ 53 − 49
Wγ = = = 0.44

Cγ − Cβ 58 − 49
(f) From Problem 8f, L and Mg2Pb phases are present for an alloy composed of 16.8 kg Pb and 2.9 kg

Mg (85 wt% Pb–15 wt% Mg) at 400C (673 K). This is represented in the portion of the Pb–Mg phase
diagram shown below (at point F).

furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are

CMg 2Pb  81wt% Pb − 19 wt% Mg

CL = 93 wt% Pb–7 wt% Mg

Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 85 wt% Pb and application of the appropriate lever rule

expressions (for compositions in weight percent lead) leads to

−
CL − C0 93 85
W = = = 0.67

Mg 2Pb

C −C −
L Mg 2 Pb 93 81

85 −
C0
−C
Mg 2 Pb 81
W    0.33

93 −
C −C 81
L Mg 2
 Pb

(g) From Problem 8g, just the α phase is present (i.e., Wα = 1.0) for an alloy composed of 8.2 mol Ni
and 4.3 mol Cu (i.e., 63.8 wt% Ni–36.2 wt% Cu) at 1250C (1523 K); such may be noted (as point G)
in the Cu–Ni phase diagram shown below.

(h) from Problem 8h, β and L phases are present for an alloy composed of 4.5 mol Sn and 0.45 mol Pb
(85.1 wt% Sn–14.9 wt% Pb ) and at 200C (473 K). This is represented in the portion of the Pb–Sn
phase diagram shown below (at point H).
furthermore, the compositions of the phases, as determined from the tie line are
Cβ = 97.5 wt% Sn–2.5 wt% Pb

CL = 74 wt% Sn–26 wt% Pb

Inasmuch as the composition of the alloy C0 = 85.1 wt% Sn, application of the appropriate lever rule

expressions (for compositions in weight percent lead) leads to

 C0 − CL 85.1 − 74
Wβ = = = 0.47
C − C 97.5 − 74
β L

Cβ − C0 97.5 − 85.1
W = = = 0.53

L
−
Cβ CL 97.5 − 74

A 1.5-kg specimen of a 90 wt% Pb–10 wt% Sn alloy is heated to 250C (523 K); at this
temperature it is entirely an α-phase solid solution (Figure 8). The alloy is to be melted to the
extent that 50% of the specimen is liquid, the remainder being the α phase. This may be
accomplished either by heating the alloy or changing its composition while holding the
temperature constant.

(a) To what temperature must the specimen be heated?

(b) How much tin must be added to the 1.5-kg specimen at 250C to achieve this state?

Solution

(a) Probably the easiest way to solve this part of the problem is by trial and error—that is, on the Pb–
Sn phase diagram (Figure 8), moving vertically at the given composition, through the α + L region until
the tie line lengths on both sides of the given composition are the same. This occurs at approximately
295C (568 K).

(b) We can also produce a 50% liquid solution at 250C (523 K), by adding Sn to the alloy. At 250C
(523 K) and within the α + L phase region

Cα = 14 wt% Sn–86 wt% Pb

CL = 34 wt% Sn–66 wt% Pb

Let C0 be the new alloy composition to give Wα = WL = 0.5. Then,

 C L − C0 34 − C0
Wα = 0.5 = =
C − C 34 − 14
L α

And solving for C0 gives 24 wt% Sn. Now, let mSn be the mass of Sn added to the alloy to achieve this

new composition. The amount of Sn in the original alloy is

(0.10)(1.5 kg) = 0.15 kg

Then, using a modified form of Equation 4.3

m
0.15 kg  Sn

100 = 24

m
1.5 kg  Sn

And, solving for mSn (the mass of tin to be added), yields mSn = 0.276 kg.
16 A magnesium-lead alloy of mass 5.5 kg consists of a solid α phase that has a composition that is
just slightly below the solubility limit at 200C (473 K).

(a) What mass of lead is in the alloy?

(b) If the alloy is heated to 350C (623 K), how much more lead may be dissolved in the α

phase without exceeding the solubility limit of this phase?

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we calculate, for a Pb–Mg alloy, the mass of lead in 5.5 kg of
the solid α phase at 200C (473 K) just below the solubility limit. From Figure 20, the solubility

limit for the α phase at 200C (473 K) corresponds to the position (composition) of the α − (α +
Mg2Pb) phase boundary at this temperature, which is about 5 wt% Pb. Therefore, the mass of Pb in the
alloy is just (0.05)(5.5 kg) = 0.28 kg.

(b) At 350C (623 K), the solubility limit of the α phase increases to approximately 25 wt% Pb. In
order to determine the additional amount of Pb that may be added (mPb), we utilize a modified form of
Equation 4.3 as

0.28 kg  mPb
CPb = 25 wt% =  100

5.5 kg  mPb

Solving for mPb yields mPb = 1.46 kg.

17 A 90 wt% Ag–10 wt% Cu alloy is heated to a temperature within the β + liquid phase region. If
the composition of the liquid phase is 85 wt% Ag, determine:

(a) The temperature of the alloy

(b) The composition of the β phase

(c) The mass fractions of both phases

Solution

(a) In order to determine the temperature of a 90 wt% Ag–10 wt% Cu alloy for which β and liquid
phases are present with the liquid phase of composition 85 wt% Ag, we need to construct a tie line
across the β + L phase region of Figure 7 that intersects the liquidus line at 85 wt% Ag; this is possible
at about 850C (1123 K).

(b) The composition of the β phase at this temperature is determined from the intersection of this same
tie line with solidus line, which corresponds to about 95 wt% Ag.

(c) The mass fractions of the two phases are determined using the lever rule, Equations 1 and 2 with
C0 = 90 wt% Ag, CL = 85 wt% Ag, and Cβ = 95 wt% Ag, as

C0 − CL 90 − 85
Wβ = = = 0.50
C − C 95 − 85
β L

Cβ − C0 95 − 90
W = = = 0.50

C
β − CL 95 − 85
18 A 25 wt% Sn–75 wt% Pb alloy is heated to a temperature within the α + liquid phase region. If
the mass fraction of each phase is 0.5, estimate:

(a) The temperature of the alloy

(b) The compositions of the two phases

Solution

(a) We are given that the mass fractions of α and liquid phases are both 0.5 for a 25 wt% Sn–75 wt%
Pb alloy and asked to estimate the temperature of the alloy. Using the appropriate phase diagram,
Figure 8, by trial and error with a ruler, a tie line within the α + L phase region that is divided in half
for an alloy of this composition exists at about 270C (543 K).

(b) We are now asked to determine the compositions of the two phases. This is accomplished by

noting the intersections of this tie line with both the solidus and liquidus lines. From these
intersections, Cα = 15 wt% Sn, and CL = 43 wt% Sn.
19 For alloys of two hypothetical metals A and B, there exist an α, A-rich phase and a β, B-rich
phase. From the mass fractions of both phases for two different alloys provided in the table
below, (which are at the same temperature), determine the composition of the phase boundary
(or solubility limit) for both α and β phases at this temperature.

Alloy Composition Fraction Fraction

α Phase β Phase

60 wt% A–40 wt% B 0.57 0.43

30 wt% A–70 wt% B 0.14 0.86

Solution

The problem is to solve for compositions at the phase boundaries for both α and β phases (i.e.,
Cα and Cβ). We may set up two independent lever rule expressions, one for each composition, in terms
of Cα and Cβ as follows:

C −
β

Cβ −
C
01 60
W = 0.57 = =

α1

Cβ − Cα Cβ − Cα

Cβ − Cβ −
C02 30
W = 0.14 = =

α2
Cβ −
Cβ − Cα Cα

In these expressions, compositions are given in wt% of A. Solving for Cα and Cβ from these equations,
yield

Cα = 90 (or 90 wt% A–10 wt% B)

Cβ = 20.2 (or 20.2 wt% A–78 wt% B)
20 A hypothetical A–B alloy of composition 55 wt% B–45 wt% A at some temperature is found to
consist of mass fractions of 0.5 for both α and β phases. If the composition of the β phase is 90
wt% B–10 wt% A, what is the composition of the α phase?

Solution

For this problem, we are asked to determine the composition of the β phase given that

C0 = 55 (or 55 wt% B–45 wt% A)

Cβ = 90 (or 90 wt% B–10 wt% A)

Wα = Wβ= 0.5

If we set up the lever rule for Wα

Cβ − C0 90 − 55
Wα = 0.5 = =

Cβ − Cα 90 − Cα

And solving for Cα

Cα = 20 (or 20 wt% B–80 wt% A)

21 Is it possible to have a copper–silver alloy of composition 50 wt% Ag–50 wt% Cu, which, at
equilibrium, consists of α and β phases having mass fractions Wα = 0.60 and Wβ = 0.40? If so,
what will be the approximate temperature of the alloy? If such an alloy is not possible, explain
why.

Solution

It is not possible to have a Cu–Ag alloy of composition 50 wt% Ag–50 wt% Cu which
consists of mass fractions Wα = 0.60 and Wβ = 0.40. Using the appropriate phase diagram, Figure 7,
and, using Equations 1 and 2 let us determine Wα and Wβ at just below the eutectic temperature and
also at room temperature. At just below the eutectic, Cα = 8.0 wt% Ag and Cβ = 91.2 wt% Ag; thus,

C
β − C0 91.2 − 50
Wα =   0.50

Cβ − Cα 91.2 − 8

Wβ =1.00 − Wα =1.00 − 0.50=0.50

Furthermore, at room temperature, Cα = 0 wt% Ag and Cβ = 100 wt% Ag; employment of Equations 1
and 2 yields

100 −
Cβ − C0 50
Wα    0.50

Cβ − Cα 100 − 0

And, Wβ = 0.50. Thus, the mass fractions of the α and β phases, upon cooling through the α + β phase
region will remain approximately constant at about 0.5, and will never have values of Wα = 0.60 and
Wβ = 0.40 as called for in the problem.
22 For 11.20 kg of a magnesium–lead alloy of composition 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg, is it possible,
at equilibrium, to have α and Mg2Pb phases having respective masses of 7.39 kg and 3.81 kg? If
so, what will be the approximate temperature of the alloy? If such an alloy is not possible,
explain why.

Solution

Yes, it is possible to have a 30 wt% Pb–70 wt% Mg alloy which has masses of 7.39 kg and
3.81 kg for the α and Mg2Pb phases, respectively. In order to demonstrate this, it is first necessary to
determine the mass fraction of each phase as follows:

mα 7.39 kg

Wα = m  m = 7.39 kg  3.81 kg = 0.66

α Mg 2 Pb

WMg2Pb = 1.00 − 0.66 = 0.34

Now, if we apply the lever rule expression for Wα

C −
W= Mg 2 Pb
Cα
0 CMg 2 Pb −
Cα

Since the Mg2Pb phase exists only at 81 wt% Pb, and C0 = 30 wt% Pb

81 − 30

W = 0.66 =
α 81 − Cα

Solving for Cα from this expression yields Cα = 3.7 wt% Pb. The position along the α − α + Mg2Pb)
phase boundary of Figure 20 corresponding to this composition is approximately 190C (463 K).
23 Derive Equations 6a and 7a, which may be used to convert mass fraction to volume fraction, and
vice versa.

Solution

This portion of the problem asks that we derive Equation 6a, which is used to convert from
phase weight fraction to phase volume fraction. Volume fraction of phase α, Vα, is defined by Equation
5 as

v
α

Vα =
vα  vβ (S1)

where vα and vβ are the volumes of the respective phases in the alloy. Furthermore, the density of each
phase is equal to the ratio of its mass and volume, or upon rearrangement

mα
v
α ρ (S2a)
α

m
β

v
β = ρβ (S2b)

Substitution of these expressions into Equation S1 leads to

mα

ρα

m
Vα  mα β (S3)

ρ ρ

α β

in which m's and ρ's denote masses and densities, respectively. Now, the mass fractions of the α and β
phases (i.e., Wα and Wβ) are defined in terms of the phase masses as
 mα

Wα = mα  mβ (S4a)

mβ

Wβ = mα  mβ (S4b)

Which, upon rearrangement yield

mα = Wα ( mα + mβ ) (S5a)

mβ = Wβ ( mα + mβ ) (S5b)
Incorporation of these relationships into Equation S3 leads to

Wα ( m α + m β )

ρ
α

Vα  Wα ( mα + mβ ) Wβ ( m α + m β )


ρα ρβ

W
α

ρα

Vα = Wα Wβ (S6)

ρ ρ

α β

which is the desired equation.

For this portion of the problem we are asked to derive Equation 7a, which is used to convert
from phase volume fraction to mass fraction. Mass fraction of the α phase is defined as

mα Substitut
W 
ion of
these
 mα  mβ expressi
ons into
Equatio
n S7
yields
From Equations S2a and S2b

mα = vα ρα

m β = v β ρβ
 v ρ
α α

v α ρα  v β ρβ
(S7)

From Equation 5 and its equivalent for Vβ the following may be written:

vα = Vα (vα + vβ )

(S8a)

vβ = Vβ ( vα + vβ )

(S8b)

(S9)

(S10a)

(S10b)
Substitution of Equations S10a and S10b into Equation S9 yields

V α ( v α + v β ) ρα

Wα = Vα (vα + vβ ) ρα  Vβ ( vα + vβ )ρβ

Vα ρα

Wα  Vα ρα  Vβ ρβ (S11)

which is the desired expression.

24 Determine the relative amounts (in terms of volume fractions) of the phases for the alloys and
temperatures given in Problem 8a, b, and c. Below are given the approximate densities of the
various metals at the alloy temperatures:

Metal Temperature Density

(°C) (K) (g/cm3)

Ag 900 1173 97

Cu 400 673 8.77

Cu 900 1173 8.56

Pb 175 448 11.20

Sn 175 448 7.22

Zn 400 673 6.83

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the phase volume fractions for the alloys and
temperatures in Problems 8a, b, and c. This is accomplished by using the technique illustrated in
Example Problem 3, and also the results of Problems 8 and 14.

(a) This is a Cu–Zn alloy at 400C (673 K), wherein

C∈ = 87 wt% Zn–13 wt% Cu

Cη = 97 wt% Zn–3 wt% Cu

W∈ = 0.70

Wη = 0.30

ρCu = 8.77 g/cm3

ρZn = 6.83 g/cm3

 Using these data it is first necessary to compute the densities of the ∈ and η phases using
Equation 4.10a. Thus

100
ρ

∈ =
C
Zn ( ∈)  CCu ( ∈)

ρ Zn ρCu

100
3
= = 7.03 g/cm
87 13

3 3
6.83 g/cm  8.77 g/cm
 100

ρη = C C
Zn ( η) Cu ( η)


ρ Zn ρCu

100
3
= = 6.88 g/cm
97 3

3 3
6.83 g/cm  8.77 g/cm

Now we may determine the V∈ and Vη values using Equation 6. Thus,

ρ
V∈
∈
= W Wη
∈

ρ  ρ

∈ η

0.70

3
7.03 g/cm
= = 0.70
0.70 0.30

3 3
7.03 g/cm  6.88 g/cm

W
η

ρη

Vη = W W
∈

η
 ρ ρ

∈ η

0.30

3
6.88 g/cm
= = 0.30
0.70 0.30

3 3
7.03 g/cm  6.88 g/cm

(b) This is a Pb–Sn alloy at 175C (448 K), wherein

Cα = 16 wt% Sn–84 wt% Pb

Cβ = 97 wt% Sn–3 wt% Pb

Wα = 0.27

Wβ = 0.73

ρSn = 7.22 g/cm3

ρPb = 11.20 g/cm3

Using this data it is first necessary to compute the densities of the α and β phases. Thus

100
ρ
α =C C
Sn ( α )  Pb( α )

ρSn ρPb

100
3
= = 10.29 g/cm
16 84

3 3
7.22 g/cm  11.20 g/cm

100
ρ
β = C C
Sn ( β ) Pb( β )


ρSn ρPb

100
3
= = 7.30 g/cm
97 3

3 3
7.22 g/cm  11.20 g/cm

Now we may determine the Vα and Vβ values using Equation 6. Thus,

Wα

ρα

Vα = W α Wβ

ρ ρ
α β

0.27

3
10.29 g/cm
= = 0.21
0.27  0.73
 3 3
10.29 g/cm 7.30 g/cm

W
β

ρβ

W
Vβ  W α β


ρ ρ
α β

0.73

3
7.30 g/cm
= = 0.79
0.27 0.73

3 3
10.29 g/cm  7.30 g/cm

(c) This is a Ag–Cu alloy at 900C (1173 K), wherein only the liquid phase is present. Therefore, VL =

1.0.
 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys

25 (a) Briefly describe the phenomenon of coring and why it occurs.

(b) Cite one undesirable consequence of coring.

Solution

(a) Coring is the phenomenon whereby concentration gradients exist across grains in
polycrystalline alloys, with higher concentrations of the component having the lower melting
temperature at the grain boundaries. It occurs, during solidification, as a consequence of cooling rates
that are too rapid to allow for the maintenance of the equilibrium composition of the solid phase.

(b) One undesirable consequence of a cored structure is that, upon heating, the grain
boundary regions will melt first and at a temperature below the equilibrium phase boundary from the
phase diagram; this melting results in a loss in mechanical integrity of the alloy.
 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys

26 It is desirable to produce a copper-nickel alloy that has a minimum noncold-worked tensile

strength of 350 MPa and a ductility of at least 48%EL. Is such an alloy possible? If so, what
must be its composition? If this is not possible, then explain why.

Solution

From Figure 6a, a tensile strength greater than 350 MPa is possible for compositions between
about 22.5 and 98 wt% Ni. On the other hand, according to Figure 6b, ductilities greater than 48%EL
exist for compositions less than about 8 wt% and greater than about 98 wt% Ni. Therefore, the
stipulated criteria are met only at a composition of 98 wt% Ni.
 Binary Eutectic Systems

27 A 45 wt% Pb–55 wt% Mg alloy is rapidly quenched to room temperature from an elevated
temperature in such a way that the high-temperature microstructure is preserved. This
microstructure is found to consist of the α phase and Mg2Pb, having respective mass fractions of
0.65 and 0.35. Determine the approximate temperature from which the alloy was quenched.

Solution

We are asked to determine the approximate temperature from which a 45 wt% Pb–55 wt% Mg
alloy was quenched, given the mass fractions of α and Mg2Pb phases. We can write a lever rule
expression for the mass fraction of the α phase as

C − C0
Wα = 0.65 = Mg
2
Pb

C − C
Mg 2 Pb α

The value of C0 is stated as 45 wt% Pb–55 wt% Mg, and CMg 2Pb is 81 wt% Pb–19 wt% Mg, which is

independent of temperature (Figure 20); thus,

81 − 45
0.65 =

81 − Cα

which yields

Cα = 25.6 wt% Pb

The temperature at which the α – (α + Mg2Pb) phase boundary (Figure 20) has a value of 25.6 wt% Pb
is about 360C (633 K).
 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys

28 Briefly explain why, upon solidification, an alloy of eutectic composition forms a microstructure
consisting of alternating layers of the two solid phases.

Solution

Upon solidification, an alloy of eutectic composition forms a microstructure consisting of

alternating layers of the two solid phases because during the solidification atomic diffusion must occur,
and with this layered configuration the diffusion path length for the atoms is a minimum.
29 What is the difference between a phase and a microconstituent?

Solution

A “phase” is a homogeneous portion of the system having uniform physical and chemical
characteristics, whereas a “microconstituent” is an identifiable element of the microstructure (that may
consist of more than one phase).
30 Is it possible to have a copper–silver alloy in which the mass fractions of primary β and total β
are 0.68 and 0.925, respectively, at 775C (1048 K)? Why or why not?

Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have a Cu–Ag alloy for which the mass fractions of
primary β and total β are 0.68 and 0.925, respectively at 775C (1048 K). In order to make this
determination we need to set up the appropriate lever rule expression for each of these quantities. From
Figure 7 and at 775C (1048 K). Cα = 8.0 wt% Ag, Cβ = 91.2 wt% Ag, and Ceutectic = 71.9 wt% Ag.

For primary β

C−C
0 eutectic C0 − 71.9
Wβ ’ = = = 0.68
C − C
β eutectic 91.2 − 71.9

Solving for C0 gives C0 = 85 wt% Ag.

Now the analogous expression for total β

−
C0 Cα C0 − 8.0
Wβ = = = 0.925

Cβ − Cα 91.2 − 8.0

And this value of C0 is 85 wt% Ag. Therefore, since these two C0 values are the same (85 wt% Ag),

this alloy is possible.

31 For 6.70 kg of a magnesium–lead alloy, is it possible to have the masses of primary α and total

α of 4.23 kg and 6.00 kg, respectively, at 460C (733 K)? Why or why not?
Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have a Mg–Pb alloy for which the masses of primary α
and total α are 4.23 kg and 6.00 kg, respectively in 6.70 kg total of the alloy at 460C. In order to make
this determination we first need to convert these masses to mass fractions. Thus,

4.23 kg

W = = 0.631
α ′ 6.70 kg

6.00 kg

W = = 0.896
α 6.70 kg

Next it is necessary to set up the appropriate lever rule expression for each of these quantities. From
Figure 20 and at 460C, Cα = 41 wt% Pb, CMg 2Pb  81 wt% Pb, and Ceutectic = 66 wt% Pb

For primary α

C − C
eutectic 0 66 − C0
W = = = 0.631

α’

C − C
eutectic α 66 − 41

And solving for C0 gives C0 = 50.2 wt% Pb.

Now the analogous expression for total α

C −C
Mg Pb 0 81− C
2 0

Wα = = = 0.896
C Mg2 Pb − C 81 − 41
 α

And this value of C0 is 45.2 wt% Pb. Therefore, since these two C0 values are different, this alloy is

not possible.
32 For a copper–silver alloy of composition 30 wt% Ag–70 wt% Cu and at 775C (1048 K) do the
following:

(a) Determine the mass fractions of α and β phases.

(b) Determine the mass fractions of primary α and eutectic microconstituents.

(c) Determine the mass fraction of eutectic α.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we determine the mass fractions of α and β phases for an 30
wt% Ag–70 wt% Cu alloy (at 775C (1048 K)). In order to do this it is necessary to employ the lever
rule using a tie line that extends entirely across the α + β phase field. From Figure 7 and at 775C

(1048 K), Cα = 8.0 wt% Ag, Cβ = 91.2 wt% Ag, and Ceutectic = 71.9 wt% Sn. Therefore, the two lever
rule expressions are as follows:

Cβ −
C0 91.2 − 30
Wα    0.736
Cβ − 91.2 −
Cα 8.0

C0 −
Cα 30 − 8.0
Wβ    0.264
Cβ − 91.2 −
Cα 8.0

(b) Now it is necessary to determine the mass fractions of primary α and eutectic microconstituents for
this same alloy. This requires us to utilize the lever rule and a tie line that extends from the maximum
solubility of Ag in the α phase at 775C (1048 K) (i.e., 8.0 wt% Ag) to the eutectic composition (71.9
wt% Ag). Thus

C − C
eutectic 0 71.9 − 30
Wα ′    0.656
C − C 71.9 − 8.0
eutectic α

C0 − Cα 30 − 8.0
W   0.344
 e

C − 71.9 −
eutectic
Cα 8.0

(c) And, finally, we are asked to compute the mass fraction of eutectic α, Weα. This quantity is simply
the difference between the mass fractions of total α and primary α as

Weα  Wα − Wα ′  0.736 − 0.656  0.08

33 The microstructure of a lead–tin alloy at 180C (453 K) consists of primary β and eutectic structures.
If the mass fractions of these two microconstituents are 0.55 and 0.45 respectively, determine the
composition of the alloy.

Solution

Since there is a primary β microconstituent present, then we know that the alloy composition, C0
is between 61.9 and 97.8 wt% Sn (Figure 8). Furthermore, this figure also indicates that Cβ = 97.8 wt% Sn
and Ceutectic = 61.9 wt% Sn. Applying the appropriate lever rule expression for Wβ'

C −C
0 eutectic C0 − 61.9
W 
β ′ C − C 97.8 − 61.9  0.55

β eutectic

and solving for C0 yields C0 = 81.6 wt% Sn.

34 Consider the hypothetical eutectic phase diagram for metals A and B, which is similar to that for the
lead–tin system, Figure 8. Assume that (1) α and β phases exist at the A and B extremities of the
phase diagram, respectively; (2) the eutectic composition is 47 wt% B–53 wt% A; and (3) the
composition of the β phase at the eutectic temperature is 92.6 wt% B–7.4 wt% A. Determine the
composition of an alloy that will yield primary α and total α mass fractions of 0.356 and 0.693,
respectively.

Solution

We are given a hypothetical eutectic phase diagram for which Ceutectic = 47 wt% B, Cβ = 92.6
wt% B at the eutectic temperature, and also that Wα' = 0.356 and Wα = 0.693; from this we are asked to
determine the composition of the alloy. Let us write lever rule expressions for Wα' and Wα

Cβ − C0 92.6 − C
0

Wα = = = 0.693

Cβ − Cα 92.6 − Cα

C −C 47 −
eutectic 0 C0
W = = = 0.356

α’
C −
eutectic

47 −
C
α Cα

Thus, we have two simultaneous equations with C0 and Cα as unknowns. Solving them for C0 gives C0 =
32.6 wt% B.
35 For an 85 wt% Pb–15 wt% Mg alloy, make schematic sketches of the microstructure that would
be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following temperatures: 600C (873 K),
500C (773 K), 270C (543 K), and 200C (473 K). Label all phases and indicate their
approximate compositions.

Solution

The illustration below is the Mg–Pb phase diagram (Figure 20). A vertical line at a
composition of 85 wt% Pb–15 wt% Mg has been drawn, and, in addition, horizontal arrows at the four
temperatures called for in the problem statement: 600C, 500C, 270C, and 200C (i.e., 873 K, 773 K,
543 K, and 473 K).
On the basis of the locations of the four temperature-composition points, schematic sketches of the four
respective microstructures along with phase compositions are represented as follows:
36 For a 68 wt% Zn–32 wt% Cu alloy, make schematic sketches of the microstructure that would
be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following temperatures: 1000C (1273
K), 760C (1033 K), 600C (873 K), and 400C (673 K). Label all phases and indicate their
approximate compositions.

Solution

The illustration below is the Cu–Zn phase diagram (Figure 19). A vertical line at a
composition of 68 wt% Zn–32 wt% Cu has been drawn, and, in addition, horizontal arrows at the four
temperatures called for in the problem statement: 1000C, 760C, 600C, and 400C (i.e., 1273 K,
1033 K, 873 K, and 673 K).
On the basis of the locations of the four temperature–composition points, schematic sketches of the
four respective microstructures along with phase compositions are represented as follows:
37 For a 30 wt% Zn–70 wt% Cu alloy, make schematic sketches of the microstructure that would
be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following temperatures: 1100C (1373
K), 950C (1223 K), 900C (1173 K), and 700C (973 K). Label all phases and indicate their
approximate compositions.

Solution

The illustration below is the Cu–Zn phase diagram (Figure 19). A vertical line at a
composition of 30 wt% Zn–70 wt% Cu has been drawn, and, in addition, horizontal arrows at the four
temperatures called for in the problem statement: 1100C, 950C, 900C, and 700C (i.e., 1373 K,
1223 K, 1173 K, and 973 K).
On the basis of the locations of the four temperature–composition points, schematic sketches of the
four respective microstructures along with phase compositions are represented as follows:
38 On the basis of the photomicrograph (i.e., the relative amounts of the microconstituents) for the
lead–tin alloy shown in Figure 17 and the Pb–Sn phase diagram (Figure 8), estimate the
composition of the alloy, and then compare this estimate with the composition given in the
figure legend of Figure 17. Make the following assumptions: (1) the area fraction of each phase
and microconstituent in the photomicrograph is equal to its volume fraction; (2) the densities of
the α and β phases as well as the eutectic structure are 11.2, 7.3, and 8.7 g/cm3, respectively;
and (3) this photomicrograph represents the equilibrium microstructure at 180°C (453 K).

Solution

Below is shown the micrograph of the Pb–Sn alloy, Figure 17:

Primary α and eutectic microconstituents are present in the photomicrograph, and it is given that their
densities are 11.2 and 8.7 g/cm3, respectively. Below is shown a square grid network onto which is
superimposed outlines of the primary α phase areas.
 The area fraction of this primary α phase may be determined by counting squares. There are a
total of 644 squares, and of these, approximately 104 lie within the primary α phase particles. Thus, the
area fraction of primary α is 104/644 = 0.16, which is also assumed to be the volume fraction.

We now want to convert the volume fractions into mass fractions in order to employ the lever
rule to the Pb–Sn phase diagram. To do this, it is necessary to utilize Equations 7a and 7b as follows:

V ρ
α ′ α ′

Wα’ =
V ρ V ρeutectic
α′ α′ eutectic

3
(0.16)(11.2 g /cm )

3
= (0.16)(11.2 g /cm )  (0.84)(8.7 g /cm3) = 0.197

V
eutectic
ρeutectic
W
eutectic
=
V ρ V ρeutectic
α′ α′ eutectic

3
(0.84)(8.7 g /cm )

3
= (0.16)(11.2 g /cm )  (0.84)(8.7 g /cm3) = 0.803

From Figure 8, we want to use the lever rule and a tie line that extends from the eutectic composition
(61.9 wt% Sn) to the α – (α + β) phase boundary at 180C (about 18.3 wt% Sn). Accordingly

61.9 − C
Wα ′ = 0.197 = 0

61.9 − 18.3

wherein C0 is the alloy composition (in wt% Sn). Solving for C0 yields C0 = 53.3 wt% Sn. This value

is in good agreement with the actual composition—viz. 50 wt% Sn.

39 The room-temperature tensile strengths of pure lead and pure tin are 17 MPa and 14.7 MPa,
respectively.

(a) Make a schematic graph of the room-temperature tensile strength versus composition for all
compositions between pure lead and pure tin. (Hint: you may want to consult Sections 10 and
11, as well as Equation 24 in Problem 64.)

(b) On this same graph schematically plot tensile strength versus composition at 150°C.

(c) Explain the shapes of these two curves, as well as any differences between them.

Solution

The (a) and (b) portions of the problem ask that we make schematic plots on the same graph
for the tensile strength versus composition for lead–tin alloys at both room temperature and 150C (423
K), such a graph is shown below.
 (c) Upon consultation of the Pb–Sn phase diagram (Figure 8) we note that, at room
temperature (20C (293 K)), about 1.5 wt% of Sn is soluble in Pb (within the α-phase region at the left
extremity of the phase diagram). Similarly, only about 1 wt% of Pb is soluble in Sn (within the β-phase
region at the left extremity). Thus, there will a solid-solution strengthening effect on both ends of the
phase diagram—strength increases slightly with additions of Sn to Pb [in the α phase region (left-hand
side)] and with additions of Pb to Sn [in the β phase region (right-hand side)]; these effects are noted in
the above figure. This figure also shows that the tensile strength of pure lead is greater than pure tin,
which is in agreement with tensile strength values provided in the problem statement.

In addition, at room temperature, for compositions between about 1.5 wt% Sn and 99 wt% Sn,
both α and β phase will coexist, (Figure 8), Furthermore, for compositions within this range, tensile
strength will depend (approximately) on the tensile strengths of each of the α and β phases as well as
their phase fractions in a manner described by Equation 24 for the elastic modulus (Problem 64).
 That is, for this problem

(TS )alloy ≅ (TS )αVα + (TS )β Vβ

in which TS and V denote tensile strength and volume fraction, respectively, and the subscripts
represent the alloy/phases. Also, mass fractions of the α and β phases change linearly with changing
composition (according to the lever rule). Furthermore, although there is some disparity between the
densities of Pb and Sn (11.35 versus 7.27 g/cm3), weight and volume fractions of the α and β phases
will also be similar (see Equation 6).

At 150C (423 K), the curve will be shifted to significantly lower tensile strengths inasmuch
as tensile strength diminishes with increasing temperature (Section 6.6, Figure 6.14). In addition,
according to Figure 8, solubility limits for both α and β phases increase—for the α phase from 1.5 to
10 wt% Sn, and for the β phase from 1 to about 2 wt% Pb. Thus, the compositional ranges over which
solid–solution strengthening occurs increase somewhat from the room-temperature ranges; these effects
are also noted on the 150C (423 K) curve above. Furthermore, at 150C (423 K), it would be expected
that the tensile strength of lead will be greater than that of tin; and for compositions over which both α
and β phases coexist, strength will decrease approximately linearly with increasing Sn content.
 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds

40 Two intermetallic compounds, AB and AB2, exist for elements A and B. If the compositions for

AB and AB2 are 34.5 wt% A–65.5 wt% B and 20.5 wt% A–75 wt% B, respectively, and
element A is potassium, identify element B.

Solution

This problem gives us the compositions in weight percent for the two intermetallic compounds
AB and AB2, and then asks us to identify element B if element A is potassium. Probably the easiest
way to solve this problem is to first compute the ratio of the atomic weights of these two elements
using Equation 4.6a; then, since we know the atomic weight of potassium (310 g/mol, per front section
of the book), it is possible to determine the atomic weight of element B, from which an identification
may be made.

First of all, consider the AB intermetallic compound; inasmuch as it contains the same
numbers of A and B atoms, its composition in atomic percent is 50 at% A–50 at% B. Equation 4.6a
may be written in the form:

C B AA
'
C =  100

CA A B  CB A A

where AA and AB are the atomic weights for elements A and B, and CA and CB are their compositions

in weight percent. For this AB compound, and making the appropriate substitutions in the above
equation leads to

(65.5wt% B)( AA )

50 at% B  (34.5 wt% A)( A )  (65.5 wt% B)( A ) 100

B A

Now, solving this expression yields,

 AB = 1.898 AA

Since potassium is element A and it has an atomic weight of 310 g/mol, the atomic weight of element B
is just

AB = (1.898)(310 g/mol) = 74.21 g/mol

Upon consultation of the period table of the elements (Figure 2.6) we note the element that has an
atomic weight closest to this value is arsenic (74.92 g/mol). Therefore, element B is arsenic, and the
two intermetallic compounds are KAs and KAs2.
 Congruent Phase Transformations

Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions

41 What is the principal difference between congruent and incongruent phase transformations?

Solution

The principal difference between congruent and incongruent phase transformations is that for
congruent, no compositional changes occur with any of the phases that are involved in the
transformation. For incongruent, there will be compositional alterations of the phases.
42 Figure 36 is the aluminum–neodymium phase diagram, for which only single-phase regions are
labeled. Specify temperature-composition points at which all eutectics, eutectoids, peritectics,
and congruent phase transformations occur. Also, for each, write the reaction upon cooling.

Solution

Below is shown the aluminum–neodymium phase diagram (Figure 36).

There are two eutectics on this phase diagram. One exists at 12 wt% Nd–88 wt% Al and 632C. The
reaction upon cooling is
 L → Al  Al11Nd3

The other eutectic exists at about 97 wt% Nd–3 wt% Al and 635C. This reaction upon cooling is

L→ AlNd3 + Nd

There are four peritectics. One exists at 59 wt% Nd–41 wt% Al and 1235C. Its reaction upon cooling
is as follows:

L + Al2Nd → Al11Nd3

The second peritectic exists at 84 wt% Nd–16 wt% Al and 940C (1213 K). This reaction upon cooling
is
 L + Al2 Nd → AlNd

The third peritectic exists at 91 wt% Nd–9 wt% Al and 795C (1068 K). This reaction upon cooling is

L + AlNd → AlNd2

The fourth peritectic exists at 94 wt% Nd–6 wt% Al and 675C (948 K). This reaction upon cooling is

L + AlNd2 → AlNd3

There is one congruent melting point at about 73 wt% Nd–27 wt% Al and 1460C (1733 K). Its
reaction upon cooling is

L→ Al2 Nd

No eutectoids are present.

43 Figure 37 is a portion of the titanium–copper phase diagram for which only single-phase regions
are labeled. Specify all temperature–composition points at which eutectics, eutectoids,
peritectics, and congruent phase transformations occur. Also, for each, write the reaction upon
cooling.

Solution

Below is shown the titanium–copper phase diagram (Figure 37).

 There is one eutectic on this phase diagram, which exists at about 51 wt% Cu–49 wt% Ti and
960C (1233 K). Its reaction upon cooling is

L → Ti2Cu + TiCu

There is one eutectoid for this system. It exists at about 7.5 wt% Cu–92.5 wt% Ti and 790C
(1063 K). This reaction upon cooling is

β → α + Ti2Cu

There is one peritectic on this phase diagram. It exists at about 40 wt% Cu–60 wt% Ti and
1005C (1278 K). The reaction upon cooling is

β  L → Ti2Cu
 There is a single congruent melting point that exists at about 57.5 wt% Cu–42.5 wt% Ti and
982C (1255 K). The reaction upon cooling is

L → TiCu
44 Construct the hypothetical phase diagram for metals A and B between temperatures of 600C
and 1000C given the following information:

• The melting temperature of metal A is 940C.

• The solubility of B in A is negligible at all temperatures.

• The melting temperature of metal B is 830C.

• The maximum solubility of A in B is 12 wt% A, which occurs at 700C.

• At 600C, the solubility of A in B is 8 wt% A.

• One eutectic occurs at 700C, and 75 wt% B–25 wt% A.

• A second eutectic occurs at 730C, and 60 wt% B–40 wt% A.

• A third eutectic occurs at 755C and 40 wt% B–60 wt% A.

• One congruent melting point occurs at 780C and 51 wt% B–49 wt% A.

• A second congruent melting point occurs at 755C and 67 wt% B–33 wt% A.

• The intermetallic compound AB exists at 51 wt% B–49 wt% A.

• The intermetallic compound AB2 exists at 67 wt% B–33 wt% A.

Solution

Below is shown the phase diagram for these two A and B metals.
 The Gibbs Phase Rule

45 Figure 38 shows the pressure–temperature phase diagram for H2O. Apply the Gibbs phase rule at

points A, B, and C; that is, specify the number of degrees of freedom at each of the points— that
is, the number of externally controllable variables that need be specified to completely define the
system.

Solution

We are asked to specify the value of F for Gibbs phase rule at points A, B, and C on the
pressure–temperature diagram for H2O, Figure 38, which is shown below.
 Gibbs phase rule in general form is

P+F=C+N

For this system, the number of components, C, is 1, whereas N, the number of noncompositional
variables, is 2—viz. temperature and pressure. Thus, the phase rule now becomes

P+F=1+2=3

Or

F=3–P

where P is the number of phases present at equilibrium.

 At point A, three phases are present (viz. ice I, ice III, and liquid) and P = 3; thus, the number
of degrees of freedom is zero since

F=3–P=3–3=0

Thus, point A is an invariant point (in this case a triple point), and we have no choice in the selection of
externally controllable variables in order to define the system.

At point B on the figure, only a single (vapor) phase is present (i.e., P = 1), or

F=3–P=3− 1=2

which means that specification of both temperature and pressure are necessary to define the system.

And, finally, at point C which is on the phase boundary between liquid and ice I phases, two
phases are in equilibrium (P = 2); hence

F=3− P=3− 2=1

Or that we need to specify the value of either temperature or pressure, which determines the value of
the other parameter (pressure or temperature).
 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram

Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys

46 Compute the mass fractions of α-ferrite and cementite in pearlite.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the mass fractions of α-ferrite and cementite in pearlite.
The lever rule expression for ferrite is

C
Wα = Fe 3C

− C0

C − C
Fe3C α

and, since CFe 3C  6.70 wt% C, C0 = 0.76 wt% C, and Cα = 0.022 wt% C

6.70 − 0.76

W = = 0.89
α 6.70 − 0.022

Similarly, for cementite

C0 − Cα 0.76 − 0.022
W = = = 0.11

Fe 3C

C −C
Fe 3C α 6.70 − 0.022
47 (a) What is the distinction between hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels?

(b) In a hypoeutectoid steel, both eutectoid and proeutectoid ferrite exist. Explain the difference
between them. What will be the carbon concentration in each?

Solution

(a) A “hypoeutectoid” steel has a carbon concentration less than the eutectoid; on the other hand, a
“hypereutectoid” steel has a carbon content greater than the eutectoid.

(b) For a hypoeutectoid steel, the proeutectoid ferrite is a microconstituent that formed above the
eutectoid temperature. The eutectoid ferrite is one of the constituents of pearlite that formed at a
temperature below the eutectoid. The carbon concentration for both ferrites is 0.022 wt% C.
48 What is the carbon concentration of an iron–carbon alloy for which the fraction of total ferrite is

0.94?

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the carbon concentration of an iron–carbon alloy for
which the fraction of total ferrite is 0.94. Application of the lever rule (of the form of Equation 12)
yields

C
Fe C − C0′ 6.70 − C ′
3 0

Wα = 0.94 = C − C = 6.70 − 0.022

Fe 3C α

and solving for C0′

C0′  0.42 wt% C

49 What is the proeutectoid phase for an iron–carbon alloy in which the mass fractions of total
ferrite and total cementite are 0.92 and 0.08, respectively? Why?

Solution

In this problem we are given values of Wα and WFe 3C (0.92 and 0.08, respectively) for an
iron– carbon alloy and then are asked to specify the proeutectoid phase. Employment of the lever rule
for total α leads to

C C −
Fe
C0 6.70 − C
3 0

Wα = 0.92 = C − C = 6.70 − 0.022

Fe 3C α

Now, solving for C0, the alloy composition, leads to C0 = 0.56 wt% C. Therefore, the proeutectoid
phase is α-ferrite since C0 is less than 0.76 wt% C.
50 Consider 1.0 kg of austenite containing 1.15 wt% C, cooled to below 725C (998 K).

(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?

(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?

(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?

(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Solution

(a) The proeutectoid phase will be Fe3C since 1.15 wt% C is greater than the eutectoid composition
(0.76 wt% C).
(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and cementite
form. Application of the appropriate lever rule expression yields

C −C
Fe 3C 0 6.70 − 1.15
Wα = = = 0.83
C − C 6.70 − 0.022
Fe 3C α

which, when multiplied by the total mass of the alloy (1.0 kg), gives 0.83 kg of total ferrite.

Similarly, for total cementite,

C0 − Cα 1.15 − 0.022
W = = = 0.17

Fe 3C

C −C
Fe 3C α 6.70 − 0.022

And the mass of total cementite that forms is (0.17)(1.0 kg) = 0.17 kg.

(c) Now we are asked to calculate how much pearlite and the proeutectoid phase (cementite) form.
Applying Equation 22, in which C1′ = 1.15 wt% C
 6.70 − C1′ 6.70 − 1.15
Wp = = = 0.93
6.70 − 0.76 6.70 − 0.76

which corresponds to a mass of 0.93 kg. Likewise, from Equation 23

C1′ − 0.76 1.15 − 0.76

W = = = 0.07

Fe 3C’

5.94 5.94

which is equivalent to 0.07 kg of the total 1.0 kg mass.

(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as:
51 Consider 2.5 kg of austenite containing 0.65 wt% C, cooled to below 727C (1000 K).

(a) What is the proeutectoid phase?

(b) How many kilograms each of total ferrite and cementite form?

(c) How many kilograms each of pearlite and the proeutectoid phase form?

(d) Schematically sketch and label the resulting microstructure.

Solution

(a) Ferrite is the proeutectoid phase since 0.65 wt% C is less than 0.76 wt% C.

(b) For this portion of the problem, we are asked to determine how much total ferrite and cementite
form. For ferrite, application of the appropriate lever rule expression yields

C −C
Fe 3C 0 6.70 − 0.65
Wα = = = 0.91
C − C 6.70 − 0.022
Fe 3C α

which corresponds to (0.91)(2.5 kg) = 2.27 kg of total ferrite.

Similarly, for total cementite,

C0 − Cα 0.65 − 0.022
W = = = 0.09

Fe 3C

C −C
Fe 3C α 6.70 − 0.022

Or (0.09)(2.5 kg) = 0.23 kg of total cementite form.

(c) Now consider the amounts of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite. Using Equation 20
 C0′ − 0.022 0.65 − 0.022
Wp = = = 0.85
0.74 0.74

This corresponds to (0.85)(2.5 kg) = 2.12 kg of pearlite.

Also, from Equation 21,

 0.76 − 0.65 

W 0.15
α ′ 0.74

Or, there are (0.15)(2.5 kg) = 0.38 kg of proeutectoid ferrite.

(d) Schematically, the microstructure would appear as:
52 Compute the mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite that form in an iron–carbon alloy
containing 0.30 wt% C.

Solution

The mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite that form in a 0.25 wt% C iron–carbon
alloy are considered in this problem. From Equation 20

C0′ − 0.30 −
0.022 0.022
Wp    0.38
0.74 0.74

And, from Equation 21 (for proeutectoid ferrite)

0.76 − C ′ 0.76 − 0.30

Wα ′  0   0.62

0.74 0.74
53 The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy consists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass
fractions of these two microconstituents are 0.280 and 0.720, respectively. Determine the
concentration of carbon in this alloy.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the carbon concentration in an iron–carbon alloy, given
the mass fractions of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite. From Equation 20

C ′ − 0.022
Wp  0.720  0

0.74

which yields C0′ = 0.55 wt% C.

54 The mass fractions of total ferrite and total cementite in an iron–carbon alloy are 0.88 and 0.12,
respectively. Is this a hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid alloy? Why?

Solution

In this problem we are given values of Wα and WFe 3C for an iron–carbon alloy (0.88 and 0.12,
respectively), and then are asked to specify whether the alloy is hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid.
Employment of the lever rule for total α leads to

C
Fe
C − C0 6.70 − C
3 0

Wα = 0.88 = C − C = 6.70 − 0.022

Fe 3C α

Now, solving for C0, the alloy composition, leads to C0 = 0.82 wt% C. Therefore, the alloy is

hypereutectoid since C0 is greater than 0.76 wt% C.

55 The microstructure of an iron–carbon alloy consists of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite; the mass

fractions of these microconstituents are 0.20 and 0.80, respectively. Determine the

concentration of carbon in this alloy.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to determine the concentration of carbon in an alloy for which
Wα ′ = 0.20 and Wp = 0.80. If we let C0′ equal the carbon concentration in the alloy, employment of

the appropriate lever rule expression, Equation 20, leads to

C ′ − 0.022
Wp = 0 = 0.80

0.74

Solving for C0′ yields C0′ = 0.61 wt% C.

56 Consider 2.0 kg of a 95 wt% Fe–0.5 wt% C alloy that is cooled to a temperature just below the
eutectoid.

(a) How many kilograms of proeutectoid ferrite form?

(b) How many kilograms of eutectoid ferrite form?

(c) How many kilograms of cementite form?

Solution

In this problem we are asked to consider 2.0 kg of a 95 wt% Fe–0.5 wt% C alloy that is cooled
to a temperature below the eutectoid.

(a) Equation 21 must be used in computing the amount of proeutectoid ferrite that forms. Thus,

0.76 − C ′ 0.76 − 0.50

Wα ′  0   0.351

0.74 0.74

Or, (0.351)(2.0 kg) = 0.70 kg of proeutectoid ferrite forms.

(b) In order to determine the amount of eutectoid ferrite, it first becomes necessary to compute the
amount of total ferrite using the lever rule applied entirely across the α + Fe3C phase field, as

C −
Fe 3C

C′
0 6.70 − 0.40
Wα =   0.94
6.70 −
C − C 0.022
Fe 3C α

which corresponds to (0.94)(2.0 kg) = 1.88 kg. Now, the amount of eutectoid ferrite is just the
difference between total and proeutectoid ferrites, or

1.88 kg − 0.70 kg = 1.18 kg

(c) With regard to the amount of cementite that forms, again application of the lever rule across the
entirety of the α + Fe3C phase field, leads to

C0′ − Cα 0.40 − 0.022

W = = = 0.057

Fe 3C

C −C
Fe 3C α 6.70 − 0.022

which amounts to (0.057)(2.0 kg) = 0.114 kg cementite in the alloy.

57 Compute the maximum mass fraction of proeutectoid cementite possible for a hypereutectoid

iron–carbon alloy.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the maximum mass fraction of proeutectoid cementite
possible for a hypereutectoid iron–carbon alloy. This requires that we utilize Equation 23 with C1′ =

2.14 wt% C, the maximum solubility of carbon in austenite. Thus,

C 1′ −
0.76 2.14 − 0.76
W    0.232

Fe 3C′

5.94 5.94
58 Is it possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for which the mass fractions of total ferrite and
proeutectoid cementite are 0.850 and 0.045, respectively? Why or why not?

Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for which Wα = 0.850 and W Fe
3C′ = 0.045. In order to make this determination, it is necessary to set up lever rule expressions for

these two mass fractions in terms of the alloy composition, then to solve for the alloy composition of
each; if both alloy composition values are equal, then such an alloy is possible. The expression for the
mass fraction of total ferrite is

C −C
Fe C 0 6.70 − C
3 0

6.70 −
Wα  C −C  0.022  0.850
Fe 3C α

Solving for this C0 yields C0 = 1.06 wt% C. Now for WFe 3C′ we utilize Equation 23 as

'
C − 0.76
1

W   0.045

Fe 3C′

5.94

This expression leads to C1′ = 1.03 wt% C. And, since C0 ≠ C1′ , this alloy is not possible.
59 Is it possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for which the mass fractions of total cementite and
pearlite are 0.040 and 0.420, respectively? Why or why not?

Solution

This problem asks if it is possible to have an iron–carbon alloy for which WFe 3C = 0.040 and

Wp = 0.420. In order to make this determination, it is necessary to set up lever rule expressions for
these two mass fractions in terms of the alloy composition, then to solve for the alloy composition of
each; if both alloy composition values are equal, then such an alloy is possible. The expression for the
mass fraction of total cementite is

C0 − Cα C0 − 0.022
W    0.040

Fe 3C

C −C
Fe 3C α 6.70 − 0.022

Solving for this C0 yields C0 = 0.29 wt% C. Therefore, this alloy is hypoeutectoid since C0 is less than

the eutectoid composition (0.76 wt%). Thus, it is necessary to use Equation 20 for Wp as

C ′ − 0.022
Wp  0  0.420

0.74

This expression leads to C0′ = 0.33 wt% C. Since C0 and C0′ are different, this alloy is not possible.
60 Compute the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron–carbon alloy that contains 0.45 wt% C.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to compute mass fractions of total and
proeutectoid ferrites, and then to subtract the latter from the former. To calculate the mass fraction of
total ferrite, it is necessary to use the lever rule and a tie line that extends across the entire α + Fe3C
phase field as

C −
Fe 3C
− C0 6.70 0.45
Wα    0.936
6.70 −
C − C 0.022
Fe 3C α

Now, for the mass fraction of proeutectoid ferrite we use Equation 21 as

 0.76 − 0.45 

W 0.419
α ′ 0.74

And, finally, the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite Wα ′′ is just

Wα ′′  Wα − Wα ′  0.936 − 0.419  0.517

61 The mass fraction of eutectoid cementite in an iron–carbon alloy is 0.102.
On the basis of this
information, is it possible to determine the composition of the alloy?
If so, what is its
composition? If this is not possible, explain why.

Solution

This problem asks whether or not it is possible to determine the composition of an iron–
carbon alloy for which the mass fraction of eutectoid cementite is 0.102; and if so, to calculate the
composition. Yes, it is possible to determine the alloy composition; and, in fact, there are two possible
answers. For the first, the eutectoid cementite exists in addition to proeutectoid cementite. For this case
the mass fraction of eutectoid cementite (WFe 3C '' ) is just the difference between total cementite and
proeutectoid cementite mass fractions; that is

W W −W
Fe 3 C '' Fe 3 C Fe 3C '

Now, it is possible to write expressions for WFe 3C (of the form of Equation 12) and WFe 3C ' (Equation

23) in terms of C0, the alloy composition. Thus,

C0 − Cα C0 − 0.76
W =
Fe 3C"
−
C
Fe3 C
− Cα 5.94

C0 − 0.022 C0 − 0.76

= 6.70 − 0.022 − 5.94 = 0.102

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 1.2 wt% C.

For the second possibility, we have a hypoeutectoid alloy wherein all of the cementite is
eutectoid cementite. Thus, it is necessary to set up a lever rule expression wherein the mass fraction of
total cementite is 0.102. Therefore,

W = C0 − Cα = C0 − 0.022 = 0.102
Fe 3C
 C −
Fe 3C

C
α 6.70 − 0.022

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 0.70 wt% C.

62 The mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite in an iron–carbon alloy is 0.84.
On the basis of this
information, is it possible to determine the composition of the alloy?
If so, what is its
composition? If this is not possible, explain why.

Solution

This problem asks whether or not it is possible to determine the composition of an iron–
carbon alloy for which the mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite is 0.84; and if so, to calculate the
composition. Yes, it is possible to determine the alloy composition; and, in fact, there are two possible
answers. For the first, the eutectoid ferrite exists in addition to proeutectoid ferrite. For this case the
mass fraction of eutectoid ferrite (Wα ′′ ) is just the difference between total ferrite and proeutectoid
ferrite mass fractions; that is

W W − W
α ′′ a a′

Now, it is possible to write expressions for Wα (of the form of Equation 12) and Wα ′ (Equation 21) in
terms of C0, the alloy composition. Thus,

C
Fe C − C0 0.76 − C
3 0

W
α ′′ = −
C
Fe 3C
− Cα 0.74

6.70 − C0 0.76 − C0
= − = 0.84
6.70 − 0.022 0.74

And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 0.72 wt% C.

For the second possibility, we have a hypereutectoid alloy wherein all of the ferrite is
eutectoid ferrite. Thus, it is necessary to set up a lever rule expression wherein the mass fraction of total
ferrite is 0.84. Therefore,

C
Fe C − C0 6.70 − C
3 0

6.70 −
Wα  C − C  0.022  0.84
Fe 3C α
And, solving for C0 yields C0 = 1.1 wt% C.
63 For an iron–carbon alloy of composition 5 wt% C–95 wt% Fe, make schematic sketches of the
microstructure that would be observed for conditions of very slow cooling at the following
temperatures: 1180C (1453 K), 1150C (1423 K), and 700C (973 K). Label the phases and
indicate their compositions (approximate).

Solution

Below is shown the Fe–Fe3C phase diagram (Figure 24). A vertical line at a composition of 5

wt% C–95 wt% Fe has been drawn, and, in addition, horizontal arrows at the three temperatures called
for in the problem statement (i.e., 1180C, 1150C, and 700C).
 On the basis of the locations of the three temperature–composition points, schematic sketches
of the respective microstructures along with phase compositions are represented as follows:
64 Often, the properties of multiphase alloys may be approximated by the relationship

E (alloy) = EαVα + EβVβ (24)

where E represents a specific property (modulus of elasticity, hardness, etc.), and V is the
volume fraction. The subscripts α and β denote the existing phases or microconstituents.
Employ the relationship above to determine the approximate Brinell hardness of a 980 wt%
Fe–0.20 wt% C alloy. Assume Brinell hardnesses of 80 and 280 for ferrite and pearlite,
respectively, and that volume fractions may be approximated by mass fractions.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the approximate Brinell hardness of a 980 wt% Fe– 0.20
wt% C alloy, using a relationship similar to Equation 24. First, we compute the mass fractions of
pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite using Equations 20 and 21, as

C0′ − −
0.022 0.20 0.022
Wp    0.24

0.74 0.74

−
0.76 − C0′ 0.76 0.20
W
α ′ = = = 0.76
0.74 0.74

Now, we compute the Brinell hardness of the alloy using a modified form of Equation 24 as

HB = HB W + HB W
alloy α ′ α ′ p p

= (80)(0.76) + (280)(0.24) = 128

 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements

65 A steel alloy contains 97.0 wt% Fe, 2.0 wt% Mo, and 1.0 wt% C.

(a) What is the eutectoid temperature of this alloy?

(b) What is the eutectoid composition?

(c) What is the proeutectoid phase?

Assume that there are no changes in the positions of other phase boundaries with the addition of
Mo.

Solution

(a) From Figure 34, the eutectoid temperature for 2.0 wt% Mo is approximately 850C.

(b) From Figure 35, the eutectoid composition is approximately 0.22 wt% C.

(c) Since the carbon concentration of the alloy (1.0 wt%) is greater than the eutectoid (0.22 wt% C),
cementite is the proeutectoid phase.
66 A steel alloy is known to contain 93.6 wt% Fe, 6.0 wt% Ni, and 0.4 wt% C.

(a) What is the approximate eutectoid temperature of this alloy?

(b) What is the proeutectoid phase when this alloy is cooled to a temperature just below the
eutectoid?

(c) Compute the relative amounts of the proeutectoid phase and pearlite.

Assume that there are no alterations in the positions of other phase boundaries with the addition of
Ni.

Solution

(d) From Figure 34, the eutectoid temperature for 6.0 wt% Ni is approximately 650C (923 K).

(e) From Figure 35, the eutectoid composition is approximately 0.62 wt% C. Since the carbon
concentration in the alloy (0.4 wt%) is less than the eutectoid (0.62 wt% C), the proeutectoid phase is
ferrite.

(f) Assume that the α − (α + Fe3C) phase boundary is at a negligible carbon concentration. Modifying
Equation 21 leads to

0.62 − 0.62 −
W  C0′ 0.4
α ′   0.35
0.62 − 0 0.62

Likewise, using a modified Equation 20

0.4 − 0
Wp   0.65
0.62 −
0