Department of Electrical and Computer Eng.

Ambo University, IOT

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CHAPTER 3 TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
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3.1. First order transient circuits

Introduction
A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation. There are two
types of first-order circuits, RC & RL.

In addition there being two types of first-order circuits, there are two ways to excite the ckt’s:

(I) By initial conditions of the storage elements in the ckts, called source free ckts
(II) By independent sources.

The source- free RC circuit

ic + iR

C V R

Fig.3.1.1. A source free RC ckt

Our objective is to determine the circuit response (A circuit response is the manner in which
the circuit reacts to an excitation), which, we assume to be the voltage V(t) across the
capacitor. Since the capacitor is initially charged, we can assume that at time t = 0, the
initial voltage is

V(0) = V0

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in Fig.3.1.1,

𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0

But, 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑣/𝑅

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝐶 + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
Rearranging terms,

𝑑𝑣 1
=− 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑅𝐶

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Integrating both sides, we get

𝑡
ln(𝑣) = − + ln(𝐴)
𝑅𝐶
−𝑡
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑅𝐶

But from the initial conditions, V(0) = A = V0. Hence,

−𝑡 −𝑡
𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝑒 𝜏

Where τ = RC is the time constant of the ckt, which is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8 percent of its initial value. This shows that the voltage
response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage. Since the response
is due to the initial energy stored and the physical characteristics of the circuit and not due
to some external voltage or current source, it is called the natural response of the circuit.

Fig. 3.1.2 The voltage response of the RC circuit.

THE SOURCE-FREE RL CIRCUIT

i

- +
L VL R VR
+ -

Fig. 3.1.3. A source free RL ckt

Our goal is to determine the circuit response, which we will assume to be the current i(t)
through the inductor. We select the inductor current as the response in order to take
advantage of the idea that the inductor current cannot change instantaneously. At t = 0, we
assume that the inductor has an initial current I0, or

i(0) = I0

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Applying KVL around the loop in Fig.3.1.3,

vL + vR = 0

But vL = Ldi/dt and vR = iR. Thus,

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Rearranging terms and integrating gives
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖 𝑡𝑅 𝑅𝑡
∫𝐼 = − ∫0 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 ln 𝑖(𝑡) − ln 𝐼0 = − +0
0 𝑖 𝐿

−𝑅𝑡 −𝑡
L
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝜏 Where, τ = R is the time constant of the ckt

Fig. 3.1.4. The current response of the RL circuit

3.2 STEP RESPONSE OF AN RC & RL CIRCUITS AND SOLUTIONS

The step response is the response of the circuit due to a sudden application of a dc voltage
or current source. The step response o fan RC or RL circuit has two components. Thus, we
may write the response ( 𝑥) as:
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑓

Where,

𝑥𝑛 _ is the natural response of the circuit, Since this part of the response will decay
to almost zero after five time constants, it is also called the transient
Response because it is a temporary response that will die out with time.
𝑥𝑓 _is known as the forced response because it is produced by the circuit when an
External “force” is applied (a voltage source or current source). It represents
what the circuit is forced to do by the input excitation. It is also known as the
steady-state response, because it remains a long time after the circuit is
excited.
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(I) The differential equation approach

Solution of first order differential equation:

Consider the first order linear ordinary non-homogenous and homogenous differential
equations:

𝑑𝑋(𝑡)
+ 𝑎𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑏…………………………………………………3.2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑋(𝑡)
+ 𝑎𝑋(𝑡) = 0…………………………………………………3.3
𝑑𝑡

The question here is to find 𝑋(𝑡) that satisfies equation 3.2.

Theorem: if 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) is any solution of Eqn 3.2 (non homogenous eqn) and 𝑋(𝑡) =
𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) is any solution of the homogenous differential eqn 3.3 then

𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) + 𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)……………………………………………..3.4

Where:
𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) is particular solution (forced solution)
𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) is complementary solution (natural solution)

Particular solution:

What is the function 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) such that if its differential is summed to 𝑎 times 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) will give a
constant 𝑏? If they are to sum up to a constant, both terms must be constant. A derivative of
a given function is constant if the function is a linear function but the term 𝑎𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) would
not be constant. This will force us to make 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡)itself constant as the ultimate solution.

𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝐾1
Eqn 3.2 becomes
𝑑𝐾1
+ 𝑎𝐾1 = 𝑏
𝑑𝑡
𝐾1 = 𝑏/𝑎

𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝐾1 = 𝑏/𝑎……………………………………..3.5

Complementary solution:

Just solve eqn 3.3

𝑑𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) 1
[ ][ ] = −𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑑[ln(𝑋𝑐 (𝑡))] 1 𝑑𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)
From your basic calculus we have = [𝑋 ] [ ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

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𝑑𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) 1 𝑑[ln(𝑋𝑐 (𝑡))]

So, we have [ ] [𝑋 ] = = −𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥

ln(𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)) = ∫ −𝑎 𝑑𝑡

ln(𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)) = −𝑎𝑡 + 𝐶

𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡+𝐶

𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝐶

Let us define another constant, 𝐾2 = 𝑒 𝐶

𝑋𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐾2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 …………………………………….…….3.6

The overall solution:

𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) + 𝑋𝑐 (𝑡)

𝑋(𝑡) = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡

This solution would bear a complete meaning by reminding an additional quantity.

Time constant: as we have seen earlier, is a parameter that determines the rate of
decrease of 𝑋(𝑡) and given as follows.

𝜏 = 1/𝑎
So finally we have,
𝑋(𝑡) = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 ………………………………………3.7

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Example 3.2.1
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For the network given in fig 3.2.1 below find 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0

t=0
2Ω

iL(t)

20A 0.1Ω 2H 10Ω 40Ω

Fig 3.2.1

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I. Find the initial condition. In this case we are concerned with the initial value of
the current through the inductor. 𝑖𝐿 (0− ).

At 𝑡 = 0− the inductor behaves as short circuit since the source is DC. The resulting
equivalent circuit is shown here.

2Ω

20A 0.1Ω iL(0-) 10Ω 40Ω

Fig 3.2.2 the inductor acts as short circuit

It can easily be seen from the figure that all of the current from the source will flow through
the inductor. So, 𝑖𝐿 (0− ) = 20𝐴.

Remember the situation discussed in chapter one concerning the behavior of a current
through an inductor. One of those lines reads ‘the current through an inductor cannot
change instantaneously. This means, 𝑖𝐿 (0+ ) = 20𝐴.

II. At 𝑡 > 0 the switch is open and our circuit will reduce to one shown in fig 3.2.3
(a). Clearly it is not in the standard format and we need to transform it. The
circuit in fig (b) is obtained by combining the resistors in to one equivalent
resistor.

2Ω

+
iL(0+) 10Ω 40Ω 2H iL(t) Req=10Ω
2H
-

Fig3.2.3 (a) source is detached by the action Fig3.2.3 (b) resistors replaced with of
The switch equivalent value

Note that,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (10Ω ||40Ω) + 2Ω = 10Ω

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III. Taking KVL around the loop in fig 3.2.3(b) we have,

𝑉𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 0

𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
Replacing all values we have, + 5𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡

IV. Finally,
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐾2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡

From step three we can see that 𝑎 = 5 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐾2 𝑒 −5𝑡

𝐾2 could be obtained from the initial condition.

𝑖𝐿 (0) = 20𝐴 = 𝐾2 𝑒 −5(0)

𝐾2 = 20𝐴

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 20𝑒 −𝑎𝑡

II. STEP BY STEP APPROACH

The step by step approach is somehow the faster way to reach on the solution and could be
summarized in to the following steps.

I. Assume the solution is 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 .what else would it be?

II. Assume that the circuit is in steady state before the switch moves. This means we
should replace capacitors by open circuit and inductors by short circuit. Then
find 𝑉𝑐 (0− ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝐿 (0− ).

III. Now the switch is moved. Rearrange your circuit and do the following three.
 Replace a capacitor by voltage source = 𝑉𝑐 (0− ).
 Replace an inductor by a current source=𝑖𝐿 (0− ).
 And take a moment to solve for 𝑋(0).

IV. Assume 𝑡 = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑋(𝑡 = ∞) = 𝑋(∞) by replacing capacitor by open circuit
and inductor by short circuit.

V. Find the time constant. The thumb rule for doing this is to find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance w.r.t the terminals of the capacitor and the inductor. 𝜏 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜏 = 𝐿/𝑅𝑇𝐻 .

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VI. Find the constants by using,

𝐾1 = 𝑋(∞)

𝐾1 + 𝐾2 = 𝑋(0)

𝐾2 = 𝑋(0) − 𝑋(∞)

Finally, 𝑋(𝑡) = 𝑋(∞) + [𝑋(0) − 𝑋(∞)]𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

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Example 3.2.2 find 𝑉0 (𝑡) as indicated in the fig below.
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1Ω 2Ω

t=0

2Ω +
2µ F 2Ω Vo(t)
12V
-
8V

Fig 3.2.4

I. 𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 (∞) + [𝑉0 (0) − 𝑉0 (∞)]𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

II. Assume steady state and replace capacitor by open circuit.

1Ω 2Ω

+ 2Ω
12V Vo(0-) 2Ω
-
8V

Fig 3.2.5

Take mesh around the two loops.

−12 + 3𝑖1 + 2(𝑖1 −𝑖2 ) − 8 = 0……………………..i
2𝑖2 + 8 + 2(𝑖2 −𝑖1) = 0……………………………ii
Obtaining, 𝑉𝑐 (0− ) = 12 − (1Ω)𝑖1 = 12 − 1(4𝐴) = 8𝑉

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III. The switch is moved now at 𝑡 = 0. Replace the capacitor with voltage source
of 8V. Note that the 8V source and the 2Ω are cut out of the network.
2
Now, 𝑉0 (0) = 𝑉𝑐 (0− )[2+2] = 4𝑉

1Ω 2Ω

+
12V 8V 2Ω Vo(0)
-

Fig 3.2.6
IV. At 𝑡 = ∞ replace the capacitor by open circuit. So that,

2 24
𝑉0 (∞) = 12𝑉[ ]= 𝑉
2+2+1 5

V. Find the time constant. Find the thevenin equivalent resistance w.r.t to x,y
terminals as shown below.

4
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 1||(2 + 2) = Ω
5
4 8
𝜏 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝐶 = Ω(2F) =
5 5
1Ω 2Ω

x
12V RTh 2Ω
y

Fig 3.2.7 Thevenin equivalent across the terminals of the capacitor.

VI. 𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑉0 (∞) + [𝑉0 (0) − 𝑉0 (∞)]𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏

24 24 5
𝑉0 (𝑡) = + [4 − ] 𝑒 −8𝑡
5 5

24 4 −5𝑡
= − 𝑒 8
5 5

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3.3. Second order transient circuits

A second-order circuit is characterized by a second-order differential equation. It consists
of resistors and the equivalent of two energy storage elements. Given a second-order
circuit, we can determine its step response x(t) (which may be voltage or current) by taking
the following four steps:

1. We first determine the initial conditions 𝑥(0) and 𝑑𝑥(0)/𝑑𝑡 and the final value𝑥(∞).

2. We find the natural response 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) by turning off independent Sources and
applying KCL and KVL. Once a second-order differential equation is obtained in the
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
form of 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐵 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶𝑥 = 0, by setting 𝑠 = the characteristic equation would
𝑑𝑡

be 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝑐 = 0. Then determine its characteristic roots as (𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ±

√𝛼 2 − 𝑤0 ) Depending on whether the response is over damped, critically damped,
or under damped, we obtain 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) with two unknown constants.

Over damped Case (α>ω0)

𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡

Critically Damped Case (α = ω0)

𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) = (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑡)𝑒 −𝛼𝑡

Under damped Case (α<ω0)

𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑑 𝑡)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑑 = √𝑤0 2 − 𝛼 2

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3. We obtain the forced response as

𝑥𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑥(∞)
Where 𝑥(∞) is the final value of 𝑥 , obtained in step1.

4. The total response is now found as the sum of the natural response and forced
response
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑓 (𝑡)
We finally determine the constants associated with the natural response by
imposing the initial conditions 𝑥(0) and 𝑑𝑥(0)/𝑑𝑡 , determined in step1.
We can apply this general procedure to find the step response of any second-order
circuit.

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EXAMPLE 3.1
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Find the complete response 𝑣 and then 𝑖 for t > 0 in the circuit of Fig.3.3.1.

4Ω 1H

i
2Ω +
12v 0.5 F V
-
t=

Fig. 3.3.1.
Solution:
Step 1
We first find the initial and final values. At t = 0−, the circuit is at stead state. The switch is
open, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.3.3.2 (a).

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4Ω i(0-)

+
12v v(0-)

Fig.3.3.2 (a).

It is evident from the figure that, 𝑣(0− ) = 12𝑣, 𝑖(0− ) = 0

At t = 0+,the switch is closed; the equivalent circuit is in Fig.3.3.2(b).

4Ω 1H
a

i ic
+ 2Ω
12v V 0.5 F
-

Fig.3.3.2(b).

By the continuity of capacitor voltage and inductor current, we know that

𝑣(0+ ) = 𝑣(0− ) = 12V, 𝑖(0+ ) = 𝑖(0− ) = 0 ------------------------- (1)

To get dv(0+)/dt , we use Cdv/dt = iC or dv/dt = iC/C. Applying KCL at node a in Fig.3.3.2(b),
𝑣(0+ )
𝑖(0+ ) =𝑖𝑐 (0+ ) + 2

𝑖𝑐 (0+ ) = −6𝐴

Hence,
𝑑𝑣(0+ ) −6
= 0.5 = −12 𝑣/𝑠 --------------------------------------------- (2)
𝑑𝑡

The final values are obtained when the inductor is replaced by a short circuit and the capacitor by
an open circuit inFig.3.3.2(b), giving
12
𝑖(∞) = 4+2 = 2𝐴, 𝑣(∞) = 2𝑖(∞) = 4𝑣 ------------------------------------- (3)

Step 2

Next, we obtain the natural response for t > 0. By turning of f the 12-V voltage source, we have the
circuit in Fig.3.3.3.

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4Ω 1H
a

i
2Ω +
0.5 F V
-

Fig.3.3.3

Applying KCL at node a in Fig.3.3.3 gives

𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= + − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(4)
2 2 𝑑𝑡

Applying KVL to the left mesh results in

𝑑𝑖
4𝑖 + 1 + 𝑣 = 0 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (5)
𝑑𝑡

Since we are interested in v for the moment, we substitute i from Eq.4 in to [Link] obtain

𝑑2 𝑣 5𝑑𝑣
+ + 6𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

From this, we obtain the characteristic equation as

𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 6 = 0

With roots s =−2 and s =−[Link],the natural response is

𝑣𝑛 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 ------------------------------------------------------------ (6)

where A and B are unknown constants to be determined later.

Step 3
The forced response is

𝑣𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑣(∞) = 4 ------------------------------------------------------------ (7)

Step 4
The complete response is

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑣𝑓 = 4 + 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 --------------------------------------- (8)

We now determine A and B using the initial values. From Eq.(1), v(0) = 12. Substituting this in to
Eq.(8) at t = 0 gives

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12 = 4 + A + B ⇒ A + B = 8 ---------------------------------- (9)

Taking the derivative of v in Eq.(8),

𝑑𝑣
= −2𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 − 3𝐵𝑒 −3𝑡 --------------------------------------------- (10)
𝑑𝑡

Substituting Eq.(2) into Eq.(10) at t = 0 gives

−12 =−2A − 3B ⇒ 2A + 3B = 12 ---------------------------- (11)

From Eqs.(9) and (11), we obtain

A = 12, B =−4
So that Eq.(8) becomes

𝑣(𝑡) = 4 + 12𝑒 −2𝑡 − 4𝑒 −3𝑡 , 𝑡 > 0 ------------------------ (12)

From v, we can obtain i,

𝑣 1 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= + = 2 + 6𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −3𝑡 − 12𝑒 −2𝑡 + 6𝑒 −3𝑡
2 2 𝑑𝑡

= 2 − 6𝑒 −2𝑡 + 4𝑒 −3𝑡 , 𝑡>0

EXERCISE 1

Determine v and i for t > 0 in the circuit shown below.

10Ω 4Ω
2A
i
+
0.05 F V
- 2H

ANSWER: 8(1 − 𝑒 −5𝑡 )𝑉, 2(1 − 𝑒 −5𝑡 )𝐴

EXERCISE 2

For t> 0, obtain vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. below. (Hint: First find v1 and v2.)

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1Ω V1 1Ω

+ Vo -
5u(t) v 1/3 F
½F

ANSWER: 2(𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −6𝑡 ) 𝑉, 𝑡 > 0

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