Engineering drawing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Technical drawing of a certification listing for a firestop system

An engineering drawing, a type of technical drawing, is created within the technical drawing
discipline, and used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview

• 2 Engineering drawings: common features

o 2.1 Line styles and types

o 2.2 Multiple views and projections

 2.2.1 Orthographic projection

 2.2.2 Auxiliary projection

 2.2.3 Isometric projection

 2.2.4 Oblique projection

 2.2.5 Perspective

 2.2.6 Section Views

 o 2.3 Scale

o 2.4 Showing dimensions

o 2.5 Sizes of drawings

o 2.6 Technical lettering

• 3 Example of an engineering drawing

• 4 See also

• 5 References

• 6 Further reading

• 7 External links

[edit]Overview

Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout,
nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc. One such
standardized convention is called GD&T.

Each field in the Fields of engineering will have its own set of requirements for the producing drawings
in terms line weight, symbols, and technical jargon. Some fields of engineering have no GD&T
requirements.

The purpose of such a drawing is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features
of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required
information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.

Engineering drawings used to be created by hand using tools such as pencils, ink, straightedges, T-
squares, French curves, triangles, rulers, scales, and erasers. Today they are usually done
electronically with computer-aided design (CAD).

The drawings are still often referred to as "blueprints" or "bluelines", although those terms
areanachronistic from a literal perspective, since most copies of engineering drawings that were
formerly made using a chemical-printing process that yielded graphics on blue-colored paper or,
alternatively, of blue-lines on white paper, have been superseded by more modern reproduction
processes that yield black or multicolour lines on white paper. The more generic term "print" is now in
common usage in the U.S. to mean any paper copy of an engineering drawing.

The process of producing engineering drawings, and the skill of producing them, is often referred to as
technical drawing or drafting, although technical drawings are also required for disciplines that would
not ordinarily be thought of as parts of engineering.
[edit]Engineering drawings: common features
Drawings convey the following critical information:

 Geometry – the shape of the object; represented as views; how the object will look when it is
viewed from various angles, such as front, top, side, etc.

 Dimensions – the size of the object is captured in accepted units.

 tolerances – the allowable variations for each dimension.

 Material – represents what the item is made of.

 Finish – specifies the surface quality of the item, functional or cosmetic. For example, a mass-
marketed product usually requires a much higher surface quality than, say, a component that goes
inside industrial machinery.

[edit]Line styles and types

Standard engineering drawing line types

A variety of line styles graphically represent physical objects. Types of lines include the following:

 visible – are continuous lines used to depict edges directly visible from a particular angle.

 hidden – are short-dashed lines that may be used to represent edges that are not directly
visible.

 center – are alternately long- and short-dashed lines that may be used to represent the axes
of circular features.

 cutting plane – are thin, medium-dashed lines, or thick alternately long- and double short-
dashed that may be used to define sections for section views.
  section – are thin lines in a pattern (pattern determined by the material being "cut" or
"sectioned") used to indicate surfaces in section views resulting from "cutting." Section lines are
commonly referred to as "cross-hatching."

 phantom - (not shown) are alternately long- and double short-dashed thin lines used to
represent a feature or component that is not part of the specified part or assembly. E.g. billet ends
that may be used for testing, or the machined product that is the focus of a tooling drawing.

Lines can also be classified by a letter classification in which each line is given a letter.

 Type A lines show the outline of the feature of an object. They are the thickest lines on a
drawing and done with a pencil softer than HB.

 Type B lines are dimension lines and are used for dimensioning, projecting, extending, or
leaders. A harder pencil should be used, such as a 2H.

 Type C lines are used for breaks when the whole object is not shown. They are freehand
drawn and only for short breaks. 2H pencil

 Type D lines are similar to Type C, except they are zigzagged and only for longer breaks. 2H
pencil

 Type E lines indicate hidden outlines of internal features of an object. They are dotted lines.
2H pencil

 Type F lines are Type F[typo] lines, except they are used for drawings in electrotechnology.
2H pencil

 Type G lines are used for centre lines. They are dotted lines, but a long line of 10–20 mm,
then a gap, then a small line of 2 mm. 2H pencil

 Type H lines are the same as Type G, except that every second long line is thicker. They
indicate the cutting plane of an object. 2H pencil

 Type K lines indicate the alternate positions of an object and the line taken by that object.
They are drawn with a long line of 10–20 mm, then a small gap, then a small line of 2 mm, then a
gap, then another small line. 2H pencil.

[edit]Multiple views and projections

Image of a part represented in First Angle Projection

Symbols used to define whether a projection is either Third Angle (right) or First Angle (left).

Isometric view of the object shown in the engineering drawing below.

Main article: Graphical projection

In most cases, a single view is not sufficient to show all necessary features, and several views are
used. Types of viewsinclude the following:

[edit]Orthographic projection

The orthographic projection shows the object as it looks from the front, right, left, top, bottom, or back,
and are typically positioned relative to each other according to the rules of eitherfirst-angle or third-
angle projection.

 First angle projection is the ISO standard and is primarily used in Europe. The 3D object is
projected into 2D "paper" space as if you were looking at an X-ray of the object: the top view is
under the front view, the right view is at the left of the front view.

 Third angle projection is primarily used in the United States and Canada, where it is the
default projection system according to BS 8888:2006, the left view is placed on the left and the top
view on the top.
Not all views are necessarily used, and determination of what surface constitutes the front, back, top
and bottom varies depending on the projection used.

[edit]Auxiliary projection

An auxiliary view is an orthographic view that is projected into any plane other than one of the six
principal views.[1] These views are typically used when an object contains some sort of inclined plane.
Using the auxiliary view allows for that inclined plane (and any other significant features) to be
projected in their true size and shape. The true size and shape of any feature in an engineering
drawing can only be known when the Line of Sight (LOS) is perpendicular to the plane being
referenced.

[edit]Isometric projection

The isometric projection show the object from angles in which the scales along each axis of the object
are equal. Isometric projection corresponds to rotation of the object by ± 45° about the vertical axis,
followed by rotation of approximately ± 35.264° [= arcsin(tan(30°))] about the horizontal axis starting
from an orthographic projection view. "Isometric" comes from the Greek for "same measure". One of
the things that makes isometric drawings so attractive is the ease with which 60 degree angles can be
constructed with only a compass and straightedge.

Isometric projection is a type of axonometric projection. The other two types of axonometric projection
are:

 Dimetric projection

 Trimetric projection

[edit]Oblique projection

An oblique projection is a simple type of graphical projection used for producing pictorial, two-
dimensional images of three-dimensional objects:

 it projects an image by intersecting parallel rays (projectors)

 from the three-dimensional source object with the drawing surface (projection plan).

In both oblique projection and orthographic projection, parallel lines of the source object produce
parallel lines in the projected image.

[edit]Perspective

Perspective is an approximate representation on a flat surface, of an image as it is perceived by the

eye. The two most characteristic features of perspective are that objects are drawn:
  Smaller as their distance from the observer increases

 Foreshortened: the size of an object's dimensions along the line of sight are relatively shorter
than dimensions across the line of sight.

[edit]Section Views

Projected views (either Auxiliary or Orthographic) which show a cross section of the source object
along the specified cut plane. These views are commonly used to show internal features with more
clarity than may be available using regular projections or hidden lines. In assembly drawings, hardware
components (e.g. nuts, screws, washers) are typically not sectioned.

[edit]Scale

Main articles: Architect's scale, Engineer's scale, and Metric scale

Plans are usually "scale drawings", meaning that the plans are drawn at specific ratio relative to the
actual size of the place or object. Various scales may be used for different drawings in a set. For
example, a floor plan may be drawn at 1:50 (1:48 or 1/4"=1'-0") whereas a detailed view may be drawn
at 1:25 (1:24 or 1/2"=1'-0"). Site plans are often drawn at 1:200 or 1:100.

[edit]Showing dimensions
The required sizes of features are conveyed through use of dimensions. Distances may be indicated
with either of two standardized forms of dimension: linear and ordinate.

 With linear dimensions, two parallel lines, called "extension lines," spaced at the distance
between two features, are shown at each of the features. A line perpendicular to the extension
lines, called a "dimension line," with arrows at its endpoints, is shown between, and terminating at,
the extension lines. The distance is indicated numerically at the midpoint of the dimension line,
either adjacent to it, or in a gap provided for it.

 With ordinate dimensions, one horizontal and one vertical extension line establish an origin for
the entire view. The origin is identified with zeroes placed at the ends of these extension lines.
Distances along the x- and y-axes to other features are specified using other extension lines, with
the distances indicated numerically at their ends.

Sizes of circular features are indicated using either diametral or radial dimensions. Radial dimensions
use an "R" followed by the value for the radius; Diametral dimensions use a circle with forward-leaning
diagonal line through it, called the diameter symbol, followed by the value for the diameter. A radially-
aligned line with arrowhead pointing to the circular feature, called a leader, is used in conjunction with
both diametral and radial dimensions. All types of dimensions are typically composed of two parts:
thenominal value, which is the "ideal" size of the feature, and the tolerance, which specifies the
amount that the value may vary above and below the nominal.

 Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing is a method of specifying the functional geometry of

an object.

Technical lettering
Technical lettering is the process of forming letters, numerals, and other characters in technical
drawing. It is used to describe, or provide detailed specifications for, an object. With the goals
oflegibility and uniformity, styles are standardized and lettering ability has little relationship to
normal writing ability. Engineering drawings use a Gothic sans-serif script, formed by a series of
short strokes. Lower case letters are rare in most drawings of machines.

[edit]Example of an engineering drawing

Example mechanical drawing

Here is an example of an engineering drawing (an isometric view of the same object is shown
above). The different line types are colored for clarity.

 Black = object line and hatching

 Red = hidden line
 Blue = center line of piece or opening
 Magenta = phantom line or cutting plane line

Sectional views are indicated by the direction of arrows, as in the example above.

[edit]See also
 Architectural drawing  Engineering drawing symbols
 CAD standards  Geometric tolerance
  Descriptive geometry  ISO 128 Technical drawings – General principles of
presentation
 Document management
 Patent drawing
system
 Specification (technical standard)
[edit]References

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Example of dimensioning and tolerancing.

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a symbolic language used on engineering

drawingsand computer generated three-dimensional solid models for explicitly describing
nominal geometry and its allowable variation.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Overview

• 2 Dimensioning and tolerancing philosophy

• 3 Symbols
 • 4 GD&T data exchange

• 5 GD&T standards

o 5.1 GD&T standards for technical drawings (2D)

o 5.2 GD&T standards for CAD systems (3D)

o 5.3 GD&T standards for data exchange and integration

• 6 References

• 7 Further reading

• 8 External links

[edit]Overview

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is used to define the nominal (theoretically perfect)
geometry of parts and assemblies, to define the allowable variation in form and possibly size of
individual features, and to define the allowable variation between features. Dimensioning and
tolerancing and geometric dimensioning and tolerancing specifications are used as follows:

 Dimensioning specifications define the nominal, as-modeled or as-intended geometry. One

example is a basic dimension.

 Tolerancing specifications define the allowable variation for the form and possibly the size of
individual features, and the allowable variation in orientation and location between features. Two
examples are linear dimensions and feature control frames using a datum reference (both shown
above).

There are several standards available worldwide that describe the symbols and define the rules used
in GD&T. One such standard is American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Y14.5M-1994.
This article is based on that standard, but other standards, such as those from the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), may vary slightly. The Y14.5M standard has the advantage of
providing a fairly complete set of standards for GD&T in one document. The ISO standards, in
comparison, typically only address a single topic at a time. There are separate standards that provide
the details for each of the major symbols and topics below (e.g. position, flatness, profile, etc.).

[edit]Dimensioning and tolerancing philosophy

According to the ASME Y14.5M-1994 standard, the purpose of geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing (GD&T) is to describe the engineering intent of parts and assemblies. This is not a
completely correct explanation of the purpose of GD&T or dimensioning and tolerancing in general.
The purpose of GD&T is more accurately defined as describing the geometric requirements for part
and assembly geometry. Proper application of GD&T will ensure that the allowable part and assembly
geometry defined on the drawing leads to parts that have the desired form and fit (within limits) and
function as intended.

There are some fundamental rules that need to be applied (these can be found on page 4 of the 1994
edition of the standard):

 All dimensions must have a tolerance. Every feature on every manufactured part is subject to
variation, therefore, the limits of allowable variation must be specified. Plus and minus tolerances
may be applied directly to dimensions or applied from a general tolerance block or general note.
For basic dimensions, geometric tolerances are indirectly applied in a related Feature Control
Frame. The only exceptions are for dimensions marked as minimum, maximum, stock or
reference.

 Dimensioning and tolerancing shall completely define the nominal geometry and allowable
variation. Measurement and scaling of the drawing is not allowed except in certain cases.

 Engineering drawings define the requirements of finished (complete) parts. Every dimension
and tolerance required to define the finished part shall be shown on the drawing. If additional
dimensions would be helpful, but are not required, they may be marked as reference.

 Dimensions should be applied to features and arranged in such a way as to represent the
function of the features.

 Descriptions of manufacturing methods should be avoided. The geometry should be

described without explicitly defining the method of manufacture.

 If certain sizes are required during manufacturing but are not required in the final geometry
(due to shrinkage or other causes) they should be marked as non-mandatory.

 All dimensioning and tolerancing should be arranged for maximum readability and should be
applied to visible lines in true profiles.

 When geometry is normally controlled by gage sizes or by code (e.g. stock materials), the
dimension(s) shall be included with the gage or code number in parentheses following or below
the dimension.

 Angles of 90° are assumed when lines (including center lines) are shown at right angles, but
no angular dimension is explicitly shown. (This also applies to other orthogonal angles of 0°, 180°,
270°, etc.)

 Dimensions and tolerances are valid at 20 °C unless stated otherwise.

 Unless explicitly stated, all dimensions and tolerances are valid when the item is in a free
state.
  Dimensions and tolerances apply to the full length, width, and depth of a feature.

 Dimensions and tolerances only apply at the level of the drawing where they are specified. It
is not mandatory that they apply at other drawing levels, unless the specifications are repeated on
the higher level drawing(s).

(Note: The rules above are not the exact rules stated in the ASME Y14.5M-1994 standard.)

[edit]Symbols

Geometric tolerancing reference chart

Per ANSI Y14.5 M-1982

Can
be Can be
Can be appli Can Datum Can use Can use Can be
affected
Type of Geometric applied ed to affect referen affected
by a
toleran characteristi Symbol to a a virtual ce by a shift
bonus
ce cs feature featu condition used? modifier modifier tolerance
? ? tolerance
? re of ? ?
?
size?

Form Straightness Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes No

(note 1) (note 1) (note 5) (note 4)

Form Flatness Yes No No No No No No No

(note 5)

Form Circularity Yes No No No No No No No

(note 5)

Form Cylindricity Yes No No No No No No No

(note 5)

Profile of a Yes No Yes

Profile Yes No No No No
line (note 2) (note 5) (note 3)

Profile of a Yes No Yes

Profile Yes No No No No
surface (note 2) (note 5) (note 3)

Orientat Perpendicul Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Yes Yes Yes
ion arity (note 1) (note 1) (note 5) (note 4) (note 3)

Orientat Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Angularity Yes Yes Yes
ion (note 1) (note 1) (note 5) (note 4) (note 3)

Orientat Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Parallelism Yes Yes Yes
ion (note 1) (note 1) (note 5) (note 4) (note 3)

Locatio ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Symmetry
n (note 6) (note 6) (note 6) (note 6) (note 6) (note 6) (note 6) (note 6)

Locatio Positional Yes Yes

No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
n tolerance (note 4) (note 3)

Locatio Concentricit No
No Yes Yes Yes No No No
n y (note 5)

Runout Circular Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No

 runout (note 1) (note 5)

Total Yes No
Runout Yes Yes Yes No No No
runout (note 1) (note 5)

Notes:

1. When applied to a feature-of-size

2. Can also be used as a form control without a datum reference

3. When a datum feature-of-size is referenced with the MMC modifier

4. When an MMC modifier is used

5. Automatic per rule #3

6. The symmetry symbol's characteristics were not included in the version of the chart
that this chart is derived from. The symmetry symbol was dropped from the Y14.5M standard
around 1988 and re-added around 1994. (It's been speculated that it will be re-dropped the next time the
standard is revised.)

Symbol Modifier
Free state

Least material condition (LMC)

Maximum material condition (MMC)

Projected tolerance zone

Regardless of feature size (RFS) (note 1)

Tangent plane

Unilateral (note 2)

Notes:

1. The symbol is not part of the 1994 version. See para. A5, bullet 3. Also para. D3.
Also, Figure 3-8.
2. The symbol appears in the 2009 version of the standard, and refers to unequal
profile distribution.
3. All the symbols above are used in a feature control frame to specify a feature's
description, tolerance, modifier and datum references.

[edit]GD&T data exchange

Exchange of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) information between CAD systems is
available on different levels of fidelity for different purposes:

 In the early days of CAD exchange only lines, texts and symbols were written into the
exchange file. A receiving system could display them on the screen or print them out, but only a
human could interpret them.

 GD&T presentation: On a next higher level the presentation information is enhanced by

grouping them together into callouts for a particular purpose, e.g. a datum feature callout and
a datum reference frame. And there is also the information which of the curves in the exchange
file are leader, projection or dimension curves and which are used to form the shape of a product.

 GD&T representation: Unlike GD&T presentation, the GD&T representation does not deal with
how the information is presented to the user but only deal with which element of a shape of a
product has which GD&T characteristic. A system supporting GD&T representation may display
the GD&T information in some tree and other dialogs and allow the user to directly select and
highlight the corresponding feature on the shape of the product, 2D and 3D.

 Ideally both GD&T presentation and representation are available in the exchange file and are
associated with each other. Then a receiving system can allow a user to select a GD&T callout
and get the corresponding feature highlighted on the shape of the product.

 An enhancement of GD&T representation is defining a formal language for GD&T (similar like
a programming language) which also has built-in rules and restrictions for the proper GD&T
usage. This is still a research area (see below reference to McCaleb and ISO 10303-1666).

 GD&T validation: Based on GD&T representation data (but not on GD&T presentation) and
the shape of a product in some useful format (e.g. a Boundary representation), it is possible to
validate the completeness and consistency of the GD&T information. The software tool FBTol from
theKansas City Plant is probably the first one in this area.

 GD&T representation information can also be used for the software assisted manufacturing
planning and cost calculation of parts. See ISO 10303-224 and 238 below.

[edit]GD&T standards
[edit]GD&T standards for technical drawings (2D)

 ASME Y14.5 - 2009 Dimensioning and Tolerancing

 ASME Y14.5M-1994 Dimensioning and Tolerancing

 ASME Y14.5.1M-1994 Mathematical Definition of Dimensioning and Tolerancing Principles

  ISO 286-1:1988 ISO system of limits and fits — Part 1: Bases of tolerances, deviations and
fits

 ISO 286-2:1988 ISO system of limits and fits — Part 2: Tables of standard tolerance grades
and limit deviations for holes and shafts

 ISO 1101:2005 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Geometrical tolerancing —

Tolerancing of form, orientation, location and run-out

 ISO 5458:1998 Geometric Product Specifications (GPS) — Geometrical tolerancing —

Positional tolerancing

 ISO 5459:1981 Technical drawings — Geometrical tolerancing — Datums and datum-

systems for geometrical tolerances

[edit]GD&T standards for CAD systems (3D)

 ASME Y14.41-2003 Digital Product Definition Data Practices

 ISO 16792:2006 Technical product documentation—Digital product definition data practices

(Note: ISO 16792:2006 was derived from ASME Y14.41-2003 by permission of ASME.)

[edit]GD&T standards for data exchange and integration

 ISO 10303 Industrial automation systems and integration — Product data representation and
exchange

 ISO 10303-47:1997 Integrated generic resource: Shape variation tolerances

 ISO/TS 10303-1130:2006 Application module: Derived shape element

 ISO/TS 10303-1050:2006 Application module: Dimension tolerance

 ISO/TS 10303-1051:2006 Application module: Geometric tolerance

 ISO/TS 10303-1052:2005 Application module: Default tolerance

 ISO/TS 10303-1666:2006 Application module: Extended geometric tolerance

 ISO 10303-203:2007/8 Application protocol: Configuration controlled 3D design of

mechanical parts and assemblies

 ISO 10303-210:2001 Application protocol: Electronic assembly, interconnection, and

packaging design

 ISO 10303-214:2003 Application protocol: Core data for automotive mechanical

design processes

 ISO 10303-224:2006 Application protocol: Mechanical product definition for process

planning using machining features
  ISO 10303-238:2007 Application protocol: Application interpreted model for
computerized numerical controllers (STEP-NC)

[edit]References