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Lecture Notes Math 371: Algebra (Fall 2006) : by Nathanael Leedom Ackerman November 30, 2006

The document provides lecture notes on Boolean algebras and Boolean rings from a math class. It includes: 1) Definitions of Boolean algebras, ideals, symmetric difference, and equivalence relations in Boolean algebras. 2) Proving Boolean algebras form rings when using intersection as multiplication and symmetric difference as addition. 3) Defining atoms, atomic and atomless Boolean algebras. 4) Proving there exists a maximal ideal not containing any given element, and representing a Boolean algebra as sets of its maximal ideals. 5) Stating the Stone representation theorem - every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to an algebra of sets.

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89 views17 pages

Lecture Notes Math 371: Algebra (Fall 2006) : by Nathanael Leedom Ackerman November 30, 2006

The document provides lecture notes on Boolean algebras and Boolean rings from a math class. It includes: 1) Definitions of Boolean algebras, ideals, symmetric difference, and equivalence relations in Boolean algebras. 2) Proving Boolean algebras form rings when using intersection as multiplication and symmetric difference as addition. 3) Defining atoms, atomic and atomless Boolean algebras. 4) Proving there exists a maximal ideal not containing any given element, and representing a Boolean algebra as sets of its maximal ideals. 5) Stating the Stone representation theorem - every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to an algebra of sets.

Uploaded by

JohnNeftaliChinoCalderon
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Lecture Notes Math 371: Algebra (Fall 2006)

by Nathanael Leedom Ackerman

November 30, 2006


1

TALK SLOWLY AND WRITE NEATLY!!

0.1 Boolean Algebras

Definition of Boolean Algebra

Definition 0.1.0.1. A lattice (B, ∧, ∨, 0, 1) is a Boolean algebra


if

• 1 is the greatest element and 0 is the least element.

• B is distributive

• For all a ∈ B there is a unique a0 ∈ B such that


a∧a0 = 0 and a∨a0 = 1. We say a0 is the complement
of a and write a0 = ¬a.

Basic Results of Boolean Algebra

Lemma 0.1.0.2. (a) ¬¬a = a

(b) ¬(a ∧ b) = ¬a ∨ ¬b
2

(c) ¬(a ∨ b) = ¬a ∧ ¬b

Proof. (a) ¬(¬a) ∧ (¬a) = 0 and ¬(¬a) ∨ (¬a) = 1 and


a ∧ (¬a) = 0 and a ∨ (¬a) = 1 so because ¬a us unique
we must have ¬¬a = a.

(b)

(¬a ∨ ¬b) ∨ (a ∧ b) = (¬a ∨ ¬b ∨ a) ∧ (¬a ∨ ¬b ∨ b)


= 1∧1=1

(¬a ∨ ¬b) ∧ (a ∧ b) = (¬a ∧ a ∧ b) ∨ (¬b ∧ a ∧ b)


= 0∨0=0
(c) Is because ¬¬(a ∨ b) = a ∨ b

Ideal of Boolean Algebra

Definition 0.1.0.3. Let B be a boolean algebra. A set


I ⊆ B is an Ideal if

•0∈I
3

• (∀x ∈ I)y ≤ x → y ∈ I

• (∀x, y ∈ I)x ∨ y ∈ I

It is not hard to see that this definition corresponds to


the traditional definition with ∗ as ∧ because or all x,
a ∧ x ≤ x and if y ≤ x then y ∧ x = y. (WAVE MY
HANDS REGARDING PLUS)
Definition of Symmetric Difference
Definition 0.1.0.4. Let B be a boolean algebra. Let
a∆b = a + b = (a ∧ ¬b) ∨ (b¬a). We say a∆b is the
Symmetric Difference of a and b. We also define a/b =
a ∧ ¬b.

Example:
Give example in terms of sets.
Moding out in a Boolean Algebra
Definition 0.1.0.5. Let B be a boolean algebra and
let I ⊆ B be an ideal. Define a ∼I b to be a∆b ∈ I
4

Lemma 0.1.0.6. If B is a boolean algebra and I ⊂ B


is an ideal then ∼I is an equivalence relation.

Proof. Reflexivity
x∆x = 0 ∈ I

Symmetry
x∆y = y∆x so x ∼I y ↔ y ∼I x

Transitivity
Suppose x∆y, y∆z ∈ I. We want to show that x∆y ≤
x∆y ∨ y∆x.
x ∧ ¬z = x ∧ ¬z ∧ 1 = (x ∧ ¬z) ∧ (y ∨ ¬y)
= (x ∧ ¬y ∧ ¬z) ∧ (x ∧ ¬z ∧ ¬y)
≤ (y ∧ ¬z) ∨ (x ∧ ¬y)
Similarly we have ¬x ∧ z ≤ (y ∧ ¬z) ∨ (x ∧ ¬y) and so
x∆y ≤ x∆y ∨ y∆x.

Lemma 0.1.0.7. If B is a boolean algebra and I ⊂


5

B is an ideal then ∼I is preserved by the functions


∧, ∨, ¬.

Proof. Let a1 ∼I b1 and a2 ∼I b2. We then want to show


(a1 ∨ a2) ∼I (b1 ∨ b2), (a1 ∧ a2) ∼I (b1 ∧ b2), ¬a1 ∼I ¬b1.
We will show the first of these, the rest following in a
similar manner.

(a1 ∨ a2)∆(b1 ∨ b2) = a1/(b1 ∨ b2) ∨ a2/(b1 ∨ b2) ∨ b1/(a1 ∨ a2) ∨ b2


≤ a1/b1 ∨ a2/b2 ∨ b1/a1 ∨ b2/a2 = (a1∆b1) ∨ (a

Definition 0.1.0.8. If B is a boolean algebra and I ⊂


B is an ideal then we can define B/ ∼I = {a/I : a ∈ B}
where a/I = {x ∈ B : x ∼I a} and B/ ∼I inherits
∧, ∨, ¬ from B by the previous lemma.

Definition of Boolean Ring


6

Theorem 0.1.0.9. If (B, ∧, ∨, ¬, 0, 1) is a boolean al-


gebra then (B, ∧, +, 0, 1) is a ring. We call such a ring
a Boolean Ring

Proof. For notational convenience we will say ∧ = ∗.

It is clear that both +, ∗ are commutative and that ∗


is associative.

To see + is associative notice

(a + b) + c = [(a/b ∨ b/a) ∧ ¬c] ∨ [((a ∧ b) ∨ (¬a ∧ ¬b)) ∧ c]


= [(a/b¬c) ∨ (b/a¬c)] ∨ [(a ∧ b ∧ c) ∨ (¬a ∧ ¬b ∧ c)]

But this is symmetric in a, b, c and so (a + b) + c =


(c + b) + a. And so by commutativity we are done.

It is also clear that

a + 0 = (a ∧ 1) ∨ (¬a ∧ 0) = a
7

and
a + a = (a ∧ ¬a) ∨ (¬a ∧ a) = 0

So (B, +, 0) is a commutative group

So all that is left to check is distributivity.

(a + b) ∗ c = ((a ∧ ¬b) ∨ (¬a0 ∧ b)) ∧ c


= (a ∧ ¬b ∧ c) ∨ (¬a ∧ b ∧ c)
a ∗ c + b ∗ c = ((a ∧ c) ∧ ¬(b ∧ c)) ∨ (¬(a ∧ c) ∧ (b ∧ c))
= ((a ∧ c) ∧ (¬b ∨ ¬c)) ∨ ((¬a ∨ ¬c) ∧ (b ∧ c))
= (a ∧ c ∧ ¬b) ∨ (¬a ∧ b ∧ c)

And we are done.

Notice that in any such ring (B, +, ∗) we have that x2 =


x for all x ∈ B.
Definition of Idempotent

Definition 0.1.0.10. Let (B, +, ∗) be a ring. If x ∈ B


and x2 = x then we say x is idempotent. If every element
8

of B is idempotent then B is called a Boolean Ring

Lemma 0.1.0.11. If (B, +, ∗) is a boolean ring then


B is abelian and of characteristic 2.

Proof. Notice that a+b+ab+ba = a2 +b2 +ab+ba = (a+


b)2 = a+b. Hence ab+ba = 0 and aa+aa = 2a2 = 2a =
0 and a = −a. But we also have ab = −ba = ba.

Boolean Rings are Boolean Algebras

Theorem 0.1.0.12. Let (B, +, ∗, 0, 1) be a boolean


ring. Then if we define ∧ = ∗, a∨b = 1−(1−a)∗(1−b)
and ¬a = 1 − a. Then (B, ∧, ∨, ¬, 0, 1) is a boolean
algebra.

Proof. Commutativity
It is clear that both ∗, + are commutative.

Associativity
9

Let σ : B → B be defined by σ(x) = 1 − x. It is


then clear that σ 2 = 1 and that a ∨ b = σ −1(σ(a)σ(b)).
Hence, by associativity of multiplication we see that ∨ is
associative (notice that σ isn’t a ring homomorphism).

a∨a=a
a ∨ a = 2a − a2 = −a2 = a.

Negation
Notice that a ∨ (1 − a) = 1 − (1 − a)(1 − 1 − a) =
1 − a − a2 = 1 and a ∧ (1 − a) = a ∗ (1 − a) = a − a2 = 0.

Distributivity
(a∨b)∧c = (a+b−ab)c = ac+bc−abc = ac+bc−acbc =
ac ∨ bc = (a ∧ c) ∨ (b ∧ c)

Lattice conditions
10

(a ∧ b) ∨ a = ab + a − a2b = a and (a ∨ b) ∧ a =
(a + b − ab)a = a2 − ab − a2b = a

Theorem 0.1.0.13. Going from a boolean ring to a


boolean algebra as defined above is the inverse opera-
tion of going from a boolean algebra to a boolean ring.

Proof. Not hard but needs to be checked.

Definition of atom

Definition 0.1.0.14. Let B be a boolean algebra. An


element a ∈ B is called an atom if a 6= 0 and (∀b ∈
B)b ≤ a → b = a or b = 0.

Definition of atomic, atomless Boolean Algebr

Definition 0.1.0.15. A boolean algebra B is called


atomic if (∀b ∈ B)(∃a ∈ B)a ≤ b and a is an atom.
11

A boolean algebra B is called atomless if (∀b ∈ B)b


is not an atom.

0.1.1 Stone Representation Theorem

Definition of Maximal Ideal

Definition 0.1.1.1. Let B be a boolean algebra. A


maximal ideal of B is an ideal which is contained in no
proper ideals other than itself.

Theorem 0.1.1.2. Let B be a boolean algebra. Then


an ideal I is maximal if and only if for all x ∈ B
either x ∈ I or ¬x ∈ I.

Proof. Assume that I is maximal and there is some x


such that x, ¬x 6∈ I. But then the set

Ix = {y ∈ B|(∃a ∈ I)y ≤ x ∨ a}
12

and
I¬x = {y ∈ B|(∃a ∈ I)y ≤ ¬x ∨ a}

are ideals. Since I is maximal, I ⊂ Ix, I ⊂ I¬x x ∈ Ix −I


and ¬x ∈ I¬x − I we conclude that B = Ix = I¬x.

So, there exists a, b ∈ I such that x ∨ a = 1 and


¬x ∨ b = 1. Hence
a ∨ b = a ∨ b ∨ 0 = (a ∨ b) ∨ (x ∧ ¬x) = (a ∨ b ∨ x) ∧
(a ∨ b ∨ ¬x) = 1 ∧ 1 = 1.

However we assumed I was a proper ideal and hence


1 6∈ I ⇒⇐.

For all a exists maximal ideal without a

Theorem 0.1.1.3. For any element a ∈ B there is a


maximal ideal which does not contain a.
13

Proof. Let J = {I : ¬a ∈ I and I is a proper ideal of


B}. If I ∈ J then a 6∈ I as I is a proper ideal. Further
it is clear that J 6= ∅ {x : x ≤ ¬a} is an ideal and in J.

Hence (J, ⊂) is inclusive. I.e. the union of a chain of


elements is an element. So by Zorn’s lemma it contains
a maximal element I. We need to show I is a maximal
ideal.

Assume I is not a maximal ideal. Then there exists an


ideal K ) I. But we must therefore have ¬a ∈ K. But
K 6∈ J and so a ∈ K. Hence 1 = a ∨ ¬a ∈ K and K
isn’t a proper ideal ⇒⇐ So I is maximal.

Definition 0.1.1.4. Let B be a boolean algebra. Define


J(B) = {J : J is a maximal ideal of B}.

Stone Representation Theorem


14

Theorem 0.1.1.5. Let B be a boolean algebra and


define ϕ : B → P (J(B)) by ϕ(a) = {I ∈ J(B) : a 6∈
I}. Then ϕ is an injective homomorphism of boolean
algebras.

Proof. Part (a): ϕ is injective.


Assume not. I.e. there exists a, b ∈ B such that ϕ(a) =
ϕ(b) and a 6= b. Hence we must have either a 6≤ b or
b 6≤ a.

Without loss of generality we can assume that a 6≤ b.


So a ∧ ¬b 6= 0 because otherwise a ∧ b = a since a =
a ∧ 1 = a ∧ (b ∨ ¬b) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ ¬b)

By the previous theorem there exists a maximal ideal


I such that a ∧ ¬b 6∈ I. Hence a 6∈ I and ¬b 6∈ I. But
we then have that b ∈ I. Consequently I ∈ ϕ(a) and
I 6∈ ϕ(b). ⇒⇐.
15

Part (b): ϕ(a ∨ b) = ϕ(a) ∪ ϕ(b)


Lets first prove ϕ(a ∨ b) ⊆ ϕ(a) ∪ ϕ(b). Let Iinϕ(a ∨ b)
and lets assume to get a contradiction that a ∈ I and
b ∈ I. Now because I is maximal and a ∨ b 6∈ I we
have ¬(a ∨ b) ∈ I. But since a, b ∈ I we also have
a ∨ b ∈ I and hence I = B ⇒⇐. So I ∈ ϕ(a) ∪ ϕ(b)
and ϕ(a ∨ b) ⊆ ϕ(a) ∪ ϕ(b)

Now lets assume I ∈ ϕ(a) ∪ ϕ(b) and I 6∈ ϕ(a ∨ b).


So a ∨ b ∈ I and hence a, b ∈ I. Which means I 6∈ ϕ(a)
and I 6∈ ϕ(b) ⇒⇐.

Part (c): ϕ(a ∧ b) = ϕ(a) ∧ ϕ(b)


Similar to Part (b).

Part (d): J − ϕ(a) = ϕ(¬a).


16

If I ∈ J − ϕ(a) then I 6∈ ϕ(a) and a ∈ I. So, since I


is maximal ¬a 6∈ I and I ∈ ϕ(¬a) and J −ϕ(a) ⊆ ϕ(¬a)

If I ∈ ϕ(¬a) then ¬a 6∈ I. But since I is maximal


this means that a ∈ I and hence I 6∈ ϕ(a) or equiva-
lently I ∈ J − ϕ(a) and hence ϕ(¬a) ⊆ J − ϕ(a) and
we are done.

Theorem 0.1.1.6 (Stone Theorem). Every boolean al-


gebra is isomorphic to some algebra of sets.

Proof. This is immediate from the previous theorem.

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