ECOLOGY LABORATORY (Exercises 1-4)

Formula
Exercise 1: Data Sampling Techniques

 Data sampling is used in order

to capture, manipulate, analyze
and display data
Expected value: sample size /
 This may be done manually
(number of rows) (number of
(written) or electronically
columns)
1. Data Gathering
Degrees of freedom: (rows -1)
2. Statistical Analysis
(columns -1)
Parametric Non-Parametric
 Comparison of  RANKS
the means and  Comparison of the Sample Problem:
variances Medians 1. A reforested area consists of the
 Normal  Ex: Number of tree species A, B, and C, and four
Distribution males in the species of endemic bird species
 Ex: Length, time, classroom
weight and
1,2,3, and 4. The timber concession
temperature that owns the area is preparing to cut
T-Test, Z-Test, Pearson Mann-Whitney, Kruskal- down the trees for use as wood pulp
and ANOVA Wallis, Wilcoxon, Chi- for paper manufacturing. As part of
Square, Spearman the deal with the WWF, the timber
concession can only cut down one
Chi-Square Test species of tree. To help them decide
 Non-Parametric Test what species of tree to cut, the
 Two categorical variables from a company hired an ornithologist who
single population did a survey of each tree species, and
 Test for independence what bird species was found utilizing
 Test if there is a significant each tree species. The results of the
association between the two survey are listed as:
categories
 Test if there is a difference Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4

between the distributions of a

Tree A 12 7 5 17
categorical data
 Comparison of the observed and Tree B 14 6 22 9
expected frequencies
 Are the two nominal values Tree C 35 12 7 11
independent?
Solution:
1. Make the null and alternate
hypothesis
HO: “the two variables are
independent”
 HA: “the two variables are not Kruskal-Wallis Test
independent”  Non-Parametric Test
2. Get the expected value  Test for comparison
3. Compute for the Chi-square  Only use the Kruskal-Wallis when
statistic comparing 3 or more conditions
4. Degrees of Freedom
5. Compare the Chi-square Formula
statistic to the critical value
6. If the Chi-square statistic Kruskal-Wallis value
<critical value, accept the Ho.
If the Chi-square statistic >
critical value, reject Ho.

Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4 Total

Tree A 12 7 5 17 41
Where H = Kruskal-Wallis value
Tree B 14 6 22 9 51 N = number of total scores
Tree C 35 12 7 11 65 k = sample size
Total 61 25 34 37 157 Ri = ranked total per sample
ni = number of scores per sample
Computation for the expected value:
= 61+25+34+37/ (3)(4) = 13 Formula for df:
Df= number of groups -1
Chi-Square Statistic
Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4 Mean rank
2 2 2 2
(12-13) / 13 (7-13) / 13 (5-13) / 13 (17-13) / Solution:
= 0.077 = 2.77 = 4.92 13 = 1.23
2 2 2 2 1. Get the mean rank per category
(14-13) / (6-13) / 13 (22-13) / (9-13) / 13 2. Get the Kruskal wallis value or
13 = 0.077 = 3.77 13 = 6.23 =1.23
2 2 2 2
the H value
(35-13) / (12-13) / (7-13) / 13 (11-13) / 3. Compute for the degrees of
13 = 37.23 13 = 0.077 = 2.77 13 = 0.31
freedom
4. Get the Critical value
Computation for df: 5. Compare the Critical value with
= (3-1) x (4-1) = 6 the H value
6. If the H value > critical value,
Level of confidence: 0.05 reject Ho.
Critical X2= 12.592 (based on the table) If H value < critical value, accept
Ho.
Sum of all Chi-Square Statistic: 60.691
Sample Problem:
Answer: 60.691 > 12.592
Chi-Square value is greater than the critical 1. A marine biologist in charge of four
value, reject Ho. marine reserves located on a small
island noticed that one of the marine
 reserves (Area ‘A’) was twice the
other areas (‘B’,’C’ and ‘D’).
Considering that all other aspects of
the marine reserves were equal except
for size, the biologist wanted to find
out if the size of the marine reserve
had an effect on the overall number of
fishes living within them. To test this,
he designated a single species
Acanthurus olivaceus as the test
species, and Degrees of freedom: 4-1 = 3
established ten counting stations and Level of confidence = 0.05
noted the number of A. olivaceus in Critical x2 value = 7.8147
each station and noted those in the
data sheet. He did this for all areas and H value = 16.34
listed his data below.
Area Answer: 16.34 >7.8147
A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 80 89 Reject Ho.
Area
B 78 78 83 81 78 81 81 82 76 76
Area ANOVA (Analysis of Variance Test)
C 79 73 79 75 77 78 80 78 83 84  Parametric Test
Area
D 77 69 75 70 74 83 80 75 76 75  To test if there is any
significant difference between
Mean Rank the means of three or more
independent (unrelated)
groups
A rank B rank C rank D rank  Any group differences
78 17 78 17 79 20.5 77 12.5  Two-way or One-way ANOVA
88 38.5 78 17 73 3 69 1
 Used for Comparisson

87 37 83 33.5 79 20.5 75 6.5 Sample Problem

88 38.5 81 27.5 75 6.5 70 2
1. A marine biologist in charge of
four marine reserves located on a
83 33.5 78 17 77 12.5 74 4 small island noticed that one of
82 30.5 81 27.5 78 17 83 33.5 the marine reserves (Area ‘A’)
was twice the size of the other
81 27.5 81 27.5 80 23.5 80 23.5 areas (‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’).
80 23.5 82 30.5 78 17 75 6.5 Considering that all other aspects
of the marine reserves were equal
80 23.5 76 10 83 33.5 76 10 except for size, the biologist
89 40 76 10 84 36 75 6.5 wanted to find out if the size of
the marine reserve had an effect
TOTAL 309.5 TOTAL 217.5 TOTAL 190 TOTAL 106 on the overall size of fish species
A rank B rank C rank D rank living within them. To test this, he
designated a single fish species
 Acanthurus olivaceous as the test
species, and collected 10
specimens of this fish in each of
the four marine reserves. He
measured each fish (in cm) and
tabulated the data below.
Area
A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 80 89
Area
B 78 78 83 81 78 81 81 82 76 76
Area
C 79 73 79 75 77 78 80 78 83 84
Area
D 77 69 75 70 74 83 80 75 76 75

Solution

Reject H0 if the computed F value > critical

F value.
𝑑𝑓𝑡𝑟=3; 𝑑𝑓𝑒=36; level of confidence = 0.05
9.0024>2.87
Reject H0.

How to solve ANOVA

1. Compute for the mean of
each category
2. Compute for the grand mean:
Mean of a+b+c+d/4
3. Compute for Xc
4. Compute for the Treatment
of the Sum of the Squares
 5. Compute for the Error for the nutrients, which undergo cycling
Sum of the Squares between the aerobic zone (upper
6. Compute for the Total Sum of layer) and the anaerobic zone
the Squares (lower layer).
7. Make the Data Summary
Table  Gradients (light gradient,
temperature gradient, nutrient, O2
Exercise 2: Winogradsky Column and H2S concentration gradients)
result in a complex interaction of
 Microbial communities are found microbes with their environment
in pond mud, and these organisms and with one another resulting in a
are capable of producing metabolic series of community successions
by-products that are required for and, ultimately, stratification of
the survival of other organisms microbial populations in the water
within the environment. By using column.
the Winogradsky column, these
Key to potential observations:
products can be studied, and the
interdependent relationship of a) Aerobic colors
the microorganisms can be  Green – eukaryal algae or
observed. This column can act as cyanobacteria
a replica of the microbial  Red/brown – cyanobacteria or
environment. thiobacilli
 The Winogradsky column is a  Red/purple – purple non-sulfur
miniature, self-contained Bacteria
ecosystem which models  White – sulfur oxidizing Bacteria
ecological conditions in varying b) Anaerobic colors
ways.  Red/purple – purple sulfur
 It was invented by the Russian Bacteria
bacteriologist Sergei N.  Green – green sulfur Bacteria
Winogradsky in 1880.  Black – sulfate reducers
 The column is composed of a c) Gas
transparent cylindrical container  In the water column is probably
which is filled with a few O2 from oxygenic
photosynthesis
substrates (ex. Soil/mud) and
 In the aerobic zone is probably
marine or freshwater.
CO2 from respiration
 The column is usually covered to
 In the anaerobic zone is
prevent evaporation.
probably CH4 from
 Illumination (sunlight) is methanogenesis
provided to promote the growth  Tracks in the upper layers of the
of microscopic organisms (ex. sediment are formed by “worms”
phototrophs). This composition  Small specks swimming in the
will provide the information water column are crustaceans,
needed to study sulfur, nitrogen, e.g. Daphnia & Cyclops
carbon, phosphorus, and other
Interpretation of the Results:  In the column that had newspaper,
some areas of brown, orange,
 Over time there is more oxygen at
red or purple may be evident
the top of a column than at the
near the middle— these colorings
bottom, and this means that
could be groups of purple non-
microbes that can tolerate or
sulfur bacteria, which need a
produce oxygen will be found at
carbon source to thrive. In
the top.
addition, worms, snails, shrimp or
 Microbes that cannot tolerate other small organisms in the
free oxygen (called anaerobic water, but probably not many (if
bacteria) will be further down. any) in the bottle with the egg
 Similarly, microbes that need yolk, because hydrogen sulfide is
light to make energy (via toxic to most organisms.
photosynthesis or a similar
process) will need to live where
they can get light in the column.
 Some green coloring should
appear in the columns receiving
light on the illuminated sides.
This is mostly due to
cyanobacteria and algae, which
needs light.
 The column in the dark should
remain dark brown. In the
column that had egg yolk, areas of
darker green, purple, and/or black
coloring may have developed over
time near the bottom— these
colorings could be groups of
certain anaerobic bacteria:
green sulfur bacteria, purple
sulfur bacteria, and sulfate-
reducing bacteria, respectively.
 Sulfate-reducing bacteria actually
eat sulfur and make hydrogen
sulfide gas, which is eaten by the
green and purple sulfur bacteria.
Exercise 3: Global Positioning System  The GPS receiver specifies the
geographic position (longitude and
 The Global Positioning System latitude) within 100 meters from
(GPS) is the best example. The GPS the device. It gets its information
was first designed in 1960 under from three of the four satellites.
of the United States (U.S.) Air The receiver may also have a
Force for military purposes. The screen that shows a map, and
first satellites were launched into pinpoints the position on the map.
space in 1978 but the system was The accuracy of the information
declared fully operational on April that the receiver transmits is
1995. It consists of 24 active dependent on the distance of the
satellites (21 GPS and 3 spare unit from the ground stations and
satellites) that circle the globe the satellites. Usually, readings are
once every 12 hours in order to within 10 to 16 feet of the actual
provide worldwide position, time location.
and velocity information.

 The GPS is used to locate positions

anywhere on earth with the use of
the location coordinates. The
information it calculated is
transmitted via the ground
stations on earth along with the
satellites. It is composed of three
segments such as the space,
ground and user segment.

 The space segment currently

consists of 28 satellites that orbit
the earth on 6 different orbital
planes, and orbit at the height of
20,180 km above the earth’s
surface. The ground or control
segment observe the satellite
movement, compute orbital data,
monitor satellite data, and further
relay information such as satellite
health, clock hours or orbital data
of the satellites. Lastly, the user
segment, known as the receiver,
with four satellites determines the
position, transit time and velocity
(Zogg, 2001).
Exercise 4. Terrestial Sampling Techniques A.1 Simpson’s Index
ni = number of individuals (per
Methods Used: species)
1. Quadrat Pi: number of individualsTOTAL
2. Line Transect number of individuals (all species)
3. Point-Quarter Simpson’s Index (D): Sum of all Pi2
values
Indexes Used: Simpson’s Index of Diversity: 1-D
1. Simpson Simpson’s reciprocal index: 1/D
2. Shannon-Wiener
3. Jaccard A.2 Shannon-Wiener Index
ni = number of individuals (per
The Simpson index is used to measure the species)
species siversity. The main index (D) Pi: number of individualsTOTAL
indicates total diversity. The (d), which is 1-D number of individuals (all species)
is the index of diversity which indicates the Ln(pi)
dominance of the species. The Shannon- Pi x ln (Pi)
Wiener index of diversity indicates the H (max) = ln (number of species)
diversity of pseudo-species per quadrat or
sample set. This takes into account the A. 3 Jaccard Index
number of species present or absent. Lastly, K1: Sum of all species in Quadrat 1
K2: Sum of all species in Quadrat 2
the Jaccard index is known as the similarity
K12: Sum of the Square of all
coefficient. This index indicates the similarity
species in Quadrat 1
and diversity between two sample sets or
K22: Sum of the Square of all
quadrats. This uses the absence and presence
species in Quadrat 2
of a pseudo-species.
K1K2: Combination of all species in
Quadrat 1 and 2

Jaccard Index = K1K2/ K1+K2+

K1K2

1.c. Jaccard Index for Quadrat 1.

K1 1+1+1+2+1+1+2+5 = 14

K2 2+1+4+2+2=11
2
K1 1+1+1+4+1+1+25=38
2
K2 4+1+16+4+4=29
K1UK2 (1x1)+(2x4)+(1x2)+(2x2)=15
Jaccard 0.375
Index
15/14+11+15

A. 4. Formula and sample solution

for Average Density
 A.8. Formula and sample solution for
Density

Density
Average Density for Yellow Halls
𝐴𝑖
0+2+1+2+1 d
= 1.2 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
5

A.5. Formula and sample solution for Density for Yellow Halls
Standard Error

25
=
250 𝑥 15.63

SE for Yellow Halls

0.8
= 0.2
√25

A.6 Formula and sample used for

Standard Deviation

A.7. Formula and sample solution for

Spatial Dispersion
SD2
Spatial dispersion =
x̅

Spatial Dispersion for Yellow Halls

0.7
1.2