HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE

500 BC
ROMANS
1000
IN 21st
YEARS
CENTUR
EARLIER
Y
IN CHINA

1970S NEW IN
BEGINING HISTORY OF MIDDLE
OG AQUA AGES
CULTURE AQUACULTU EUROPE

RE
1860s
TROUTS IN 13th
U.S,INDIA, N CENTUAR
EW Y TO 1960S
ZEALAND ARTIFICIAL MUSSEL
JAPAN BREEDING FARMING
IN
GERMANY
UNTIL 19th
CENTURY

1
  Around 500 BCE, the Romans farmed oysters and fish in Mediterranean lagoons,
whereas freshwater aquaculture developed empirically some 1000 years earlier in China.
 The earliest evidence of fish farming dates back to before 1000 BCE in China. The Zhou
dynasty (1112-221 BCE), then the politician Fan Li, around 500 BCE, were the first to
describe carp, a symbol of good luck and fortune, as being farmed for food.
 In the Middle Ages, throughout feudal Europe, the monastic orders and the aristocracy
were the main users of freshwater fish vivaria, since they had a monopoly over the land,
forests and water courses. Mussel farming was invented in the 13th century and the
technique remained largely unchanged until the 1960s.
 Artificial breeding was discovered in Germany during the Enlightenment, but it was not
until the 19th century, an era of rapid industrialisation, that anyone paid much attention to
it. In a hundred years, industry changed the European landscape.
 In the late 1950s, the invention of artificial granulated food revolutionised fish farming,
which until then had relied on products from agriculture and livestock farming (raw
meat, for example), to feed the fish.
 During the 1970s, marine species aquaculture enjoyed a revival, thanks to new, lighter,
more hard-wearing and less expensive building materials (fibre glass, plastic tubes) and
the use of floating cages rather than expensive glass and cast iron saltwater ponds.
However, these new facilities turned out to be commercially non-viable and the
optimisation and stabilisation of marine fish production was a major concern in the
following decade. The start of the 21st century saw aquaculture take on great importance
worldwide. According to a report on fishing and aquaculture by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in 2016, “In terms of global production
volume, that of farmed fish and aquatic plants combined surpassed that of capture
fisheries in 2013”.

AQUACULTURE AND ITS TYPES

 WHAT IS AQUACULTURE?
Aquaculture is the process of rearing, breading and harvesting of aquatic species, both animals
and plants, in controlled aquatic environments like the oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds and streams.
It serves different purposes including; food production, restoration of threatened and endangered
species populations, wild stock population enhancement, building of aquariums, and fish cultures
and habitat restoration.

2
  TYPES OF AQUACULTURE

1. Mariculture
Mariculture is aquaculture that involves the use of sea water. It can either be done next to an
ocean, with a sectioned off part of the ocean or in ponds separate from the ocean, but containing
sea water all the same. The organisms bred here range from molluscs to sea food options like
prawn and other shellfish, and even seaweed.
Growing plants like seaweed are also part of mariculture. These sea plant and animal species find
many uses in manufacturing industries such as in cosmetic and jewellery where collagen from
seaweed is used to make facial creams. Pearls are picked from mollusc and made into fashion
items.
2. Fish farming
Fish farming is the most common type of aquaculture. It involves the selective breeding of fish,
either in fresh water or sea water, with the purpose of producing a food source for consumption.
Fish farming is highly exploited as it allows for the production of cheap source of protein.
Furthermore, fish farming is easier to do than other kinds of farming as fish are not care
intensive, only requiring food and proper water conditions as well temperatures. The process is
also less land intensive as the size of ponds required to grow some fish species such as tilapia is
much smaller than the space required to grow the same amount of protein from beef cattle.
3. Algaculture
Algaculture is a type of aquaculture involving the cultivation of algae. Algae are microbial
organisms that share animal and plant characteristics in that they are motile sometimes like other
microbes but they also contain chloroplasts that make them green and allow them to
photosynthesise just like green plants. However, for economic feasiblity, they have to be grown
and harvested in large numbers. Algae are finding many applications in today’s markets. Exxon
mobile has been making strides in developing them as a new source of energy.

4. Intergrated multitrophic aquaculture

IMTA is an advanced system of aquaculture where different trophic levels are mixed into the
system to provide different nutritional needs for each other. Notably, it is an efficient system
because it tries to emulate the ecological system that exists in the natural habitat.
The IMTA makes use of these intertrophic transfer of resources to ensure maximum resource
utilization by using the waste of larger organisms as food sources for the smaller ones. The
practice ensures the nutrients are recycled, meaning the process is less wasteful and produces
more products.

3
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
COMMERCIAL FISH FARMING AND
TRADITIONAL FISH FARMING
COMMERCIAL FARMING

FISHING RODS, NETS, AR

METHODS ARE ROWS METHOD

TRADITIONAL FARMING
EFFICIENT HAVE GREAT
FISH FARMS LOSSES
MARKETING IMPORTANT
FOR FOOD

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AQUACULTURE, MARICULTURE AND

CAPTURED FISHERIES

4
 OBJECTIVES OF AQUA CULTURE

HIGH
PRODUCRIVITY

CONTINOUS PRODUCTION
PRIMARY
SUPPLY OF BAIT FISH

FEEDIND
LANDLOCK
COUNTRIES

RECYCLING

EARNING PRODUCTION
OTHE OF
FOREIGN ORNAMENTAL
EXCHANGE RS FISHES

DISCOVERY
OF NEW
SPECIES

5
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1 WATER 1. Temperature: 20- 30
degree centigrade
2. Salinity %
2 SOIL Soil quality influences both
productivity and water quality
3 FEED Feed depends upon type of fish
4 FERTILIZERS Addition of some in organic
fertilizers to pond culture
increase the activity
5 REMOVAL OF waste produce by fishes
WASTE

FRESH
WATER
BRACKISH
WATER WATER
MARINE
WATER

CHARAZTERIZA INTENSIVE
TION OF
SYSTEM EXTENSIVE
AQUACULTURE
SEMI-
INTENSIVE
MONOCULTUR
E
SPECIES
6 POLYCULTU
RE
 BRACKISH WATER
Brackish water is water that is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as sea water. It may result
from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur as in brackish fossil
aquifers.

 FRESH WATER
Fresh water (or freshwater) is any naturally occurring water except seawater and brackish water.

CHARACTERIZATION OF AQUACULTURE ON BASIS

OF SYSTEMS
INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE SEMI INTENSIVE
In intensive farming, the fish In the most extensive fish In semi-intensive fish
are kept at too high a stocking farming, the fish feed entirely farming, the fish still obtain
density to obtain significant from the food web within the significant nutrition from the
amounts of feed from their pond, which may be enhanced food web within their pond,
environment. Instead the fish by the addition of fertilizer or but they are also given
are dependent on the feed manure. Ponds (natural or supplementary feed. This
provided and water must be artificial) and lagoons are means the fish can grow faster
replenished at a high rate to fertilised to promote the and/or to a larger size or at a
maintain oxygen levels and presence of phytoplankton greater stocking density. The
remove waste. The levels of (microscopic plants), feed may be of vegetable
feed inputs and management zooplankton (mostly small origin or may include fish,
of the water affect the crustaceans) and aquatic fish oil and/or fishmeal.
stocking density of the fish vegetation which form the
that can be supported. base of the aquatic food
pyramid. This encourages the
development of marketable
animals at a higher yield than
that of the natural ecosystem.

7
CHARACTERIZATION OF AQUACULTURE ON BASIS
OF SPECIES
Monoculture Polyculture

This is the culture of single species of fish in a Polyculture is the practice of culturing more
pond or tank. The culture of Clarias only or than one species of aquatic organism in the
Oreochromis niloticus or Heterotis or same pond.
Gymnarchus are typical examples of
monoculture. The motivating principle is that fish
production in ponds may be maximised by
The advantage of this method of culture is that raising a combination of species having
it enables the farmer to make the feed that will different food habits. The mixture of fish
meet the requirement of a specific fish, gives better utilisation of available natural
especially in the intensive culture system. Fish food produced in a pond. Polyculture began in
of different ages can be stocked thereby China more than 1000 years ago. The practice
enhancing selective harvesting. has spread throughout Southeast Asia, and
into other parts of the world.

Ponds that have been enriched through

chemical fertilisation, manuring or feeding
practices contain abundant natural fish food
organisms living at different depths and
locations in the water column. Most fish feed
predominantly on selected groups of these
organisms. Polyculture should combine fish
having different feeding habits in proportions
that efficiently utilise these natural foods. As a
result, higher yields are obtained. Efficient
polyculture systems in tropical climates may
produce up to 8000 kg of fish/ ha/year.

8
 METHODS OF AQUACULTURE

• STATIC FRESH WATER

CULTURE IN PONDS
PONDS • BRACKISH WATER PONDS
• RUNNING WATER PONDS

• EARLIEST METHOD OF INLAND

FISHING
CULTURE IN • LONG NARROW CHANNELS
RACEWAYS • CAN USE FOR FRESH WATER AS WELL
AS SALT WATER

• CAGES ARE GENERALLY USE FOR

CULTURE IN MARINE WATER AQUA CULTURE
• ENCLOSURES ARE PLACED ALONG
CAGES AND COASTAL LINE S WITH CONTINOUS
ENCLOSURES SUPPLY OF WATER FROM SEA

70% 63%
60%
50%
40%
30%
19%
20% 14%
10% 3% 1%
0%
PONDS RACE WAYS CAGES PENS OTHERS

9
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
AQUACULTURE

SOURCE OF
FOOD FOR
PEOPLE AND
MARINE
REDUCE SPECIES CONSER
SEA VATION
FOOD OF
TRADE BIODIVE
DEFICIT RSITY

INCREAS
ADVANTA OCCUPY
E JOBS
MORE
IN GES LAND
MARKET

ALTERN INCREAS
ATIVE ED
FUEL EFFICIE
SOURCE NCY
ENVIRO
NMENTA
L
BENEFIT
S:
10
 1. SOURCE OF FOOD FOR PEOPLE AND MARINE SPECIES
Proponents for aquaculture posit that this practice is an effective solution to meet the increasing
demand for seafood and other fish species. With aquaculture, consumers will be assured of
continuous food supply. Also, this also becomes the source of food establishments and
restaurants that serve seafood like prawns, clams and salmon, among others. Moreover, some
fish species are also cultured to be fed to carnivorous fish species.

2. SOURCE OF INCOME
Supporters of Aquaculture claim that this gives livelihood to fishermen and other people since it
opens job opportunities. Fish producers usually use fish tanks and cages that they put in the
middle of the ocean to culture the fish. There are also fish producers who breed in ponds and
cages in lakes. The process demands man power and thus, gives employment opportunities. For
producers, on the other hand, this serves as a source of income since seafood is highly demanded
commercially and delivered not only locally but also to other countries.

3. ALTERNATIVE FUEL SOURCE

Algae are slowly being developed into alternative fuel sources by having them produce fuels that
can replace the contemporary fossil fuels. Algae produce lipids that if harvested can be burn as
an alternative fuel source whose only by products would be water when burnt.

Such a breakthrough could ease the dependency of the world on drilled fossil fuels as well as
reduce the price of energy by having it grown instead of drilling petroleum. Moreover, algae fuel
is cleaner and farmable source of energy, which means it can revolutionize the energy sector and
create a more stable economy that avoids the boom-bust nature of oil and replaces it with a more
abundant fuel source.

4. INCREASE JOBS IN THE MARKET

Aquaculture increases the number of possible jobs in the market as it provides both new products
for a market and create job opportunities because of the labor required to maintain the pools and
harvest the organisms grown. The increase in jobs is mostly realized in third world countries as
aquaculture provides both a food source and an extra source of income to supplement those who
live in these regions.

11
Aquaculture also saves fishermen time as they do not have to spend their days at sea fishing. It
allows them free time to pursue other economic activities like engaging in alternative businesses.
This increase in entrepreneurship provides more hiring possibilities and more jobs

5. REDUCE SEA FOOD TRADE DEFICIT

The sea food trade in America is mainly based on trade from Asia and Europe, with most of it
being imported. The resultant balance places a trade deficit on the nation. Aquaculture would
provide a means for the reduction of this deficit at a lower opportunity cost as local production
would mean that the sea food would be fresher. It would also be cheaper due to reduce transport
costs.

6. SUSTAINABLE USE OF SEA RESOURCES

Aquaculture provides alternatives for fishing from the sea. Increase in demand for food sources
and increase in globalization has led to increase in fishing. Yet, this has led fishermen to become
selfish and overfish the desired or high-demand species. Through aquaculture, it provides both
an alternative and opportunity for wild stocks to replenish overtime.

7. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Aquacultures also protect biodiversity by reducing the fishing activities on wild stock in their
ecosystems. By providing alternatives to fishing, there is reduced attack on the wild populations
of the various species in the sea. Reduced action of fishing saves the diversity of the aquatic
ecosystem from extinction due to overfishing.

8. INCREASED EFFICIENCY, MORE RESOURCES FOR LESS

EFFORT
Fish convert feed into body protein more efficiently than cattle or chicken production. It is much
more efficient meaning that the fish companies make more food for less feed. Such an efficiency
means that less food and energy is used to produce food, meaning that the production process is
cheaper as well. It saves resources and even allows for more food to be produced leading to
secure reserves and less stress on the environment.

12
 PROPAGATI
ON OF
INVASIVE
SPECIES

CAPITAL UNTIMELY
FACTOR LOSS

DISADVANTA
GES

CONTAMIN
AFFECTS ATES
WILD FISH WATER
POPULATIO AND
N THREATHE
NS HEALTH

THREAT TO
COASTAL
ECO-
SYSTEMS

13
1. PROPAGATION OF INVASIVE SPECIES
Critics of aquaculture say that despite the good intentions of culturing fish for consumption and
increase the population of fish, it can also lead to the increase population of invasive species that
are harmful to the other marine species because they take away the food supply for fishes in the
wild. The Janitor fish, for one, is considered a threat to other freshwater species since they breed
faster and compete with other fishes for food
2. THREAT TO COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS
Opponents of the practice of aquaculture argue that this method does not help in recycling wastes
but instead cause it. An example is the culturing of salmon which is done in pristine coastal
waters. This results to the pollution of the bodies of water because the discharged waste of
salmon is disposed to the aquatic environment. For marine aquaculture, on the other hand, results
to wastes sinking in the bottom of the sea that can harm the homes of species living there.

3. CONTAMINATES WATER AND THREATENS HEALTH

People who are not in favor of aquaculture and eating fish harvested from this method say that
since fish farms can be built basically in any body of water, the chances for water contamination
are higher since waste products from the fish can stay in the water which is sometimes used for
drinking by people in poor communities. Some of these wastes can enter water systems and can
contaminate drinking water in the homes. As for health issues, critics say that some fish
producers use antibiotics and artificial supplements to hasten the growth of fish. Also, fish food
can also be contaminated with pesticides and chemicals that are in the feeds. This can affect
people who will buy from commercially cultured fish products.

4. AFFECTS WILD FISH POPULATION

Another drawback of the practice of aquaculture is the need for wild fish to be fed to culture fish
like salmon. Opponents say that it takes more than just an ample amount of wild fish to feed one
salmon for commercial consumption. This can result to diminished supply of wild fish that can
affect the population as well as the continuity of marine life.

5. IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Skeptics about aquaculture are concerned of the changes in the habitat that need to be made to
build fish cages and tanks. There have been areas with mangrove forests in parts of Asia like
China and Vietnam that have been disturbed to give way to these fish farms and other types of
industries. With the destruction of mangroves, there will be no buffers to the effects of natural
disasters. If this happens, destruction of properties and loss of lives can happen during cyclones
and hurricanes.

14
CHALLENGES FACED BY FISHERIES
SECTORS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS:-

• LACK OF
COORDINATION
AMONG
INSTITUTIONS.
• SHORTAGE OF
CHALLENGES NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL
RESEARCH PROJECTS
• CLIMATIC CHANGE

• AQUACULTURE
PRODUCTION
• INSTITUTIONAL
COOPERATION
SOLUTIONS • EVALUATION AND
MONITORING
• PROPER POLICY AND
LEGAL FRAMEWORK

15
 GLOBAL STATUS OF AQUACULTURE
 Global fish production peaked at about 171 million tonnes in 2016, with aquaculture
representing 53 percent if non-food uses (including reduction to fishmeal and fish oil) are
excluded.
 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture reports that 90.9 million tonnes of fish
was captured in the wild in 2016 a slight decrease of 2 million tonnes from the year
before.

 Asia has accounted for about 89 percent of world aquaculture production for over two
decades. Over the same period, Africa and the Americas have lifted their respective
shares in world total production, while those of Europe and Oceania have dropped
slightly.
 China has gradually weakened its share in global production from 65 percent in 1995 to
less than 62 percent in 2016.

16
 AQUACULTURE IN PAKISTAN

GENERAL OVERVIEW
Freshwater Freshwater fish
carp farming is culture in
the major earthen
seven warm ponds, both
aquaculture
water species small and large
activity in
Mostly carp and two cold reservoirs as
three of the
culture is water species well as
country's four
practiced in are cultivated community
provinces ponds was
inland waters on a
(Punjab, Sindh initiated in late
commercial
and North 1960s by the
scale.
West Frontier provincial
Province fisheries
[NWFP]). departments.
17
 PRODUCTION IN PAKISTAN THROUGH
AQUACULTURE AND CAPTURED
FISHERIES
There has been a decreasing trend in inland fish production during the period between 2001 and
2003 resulting from severe drought and degradation of natural resources through pollution.
Production from the inland capture fisheries has been affected most, inland aquaculture has,
however, witnessed a relatively rapid increase.

The graph below shows total aquaculture production in Pakistan according to FAO statistics:

18
 CHALLENGES FACED BY PAKISTAN

1 • WATER SHORTAGE

2 • FEEDING FACILITIES

3 • FISH SEEDS

4 • MARKETING ISSUES

5 • TECHNICAL TRAINING

6 • MORTALITY RATE

 WATER SHORTAGE
 Fresh water fisheries is mainly dependent on irrigation water. Extensive as well semi-
extensive fish farms have suffered a lot due to water shortage. Extensive farms are
natural fish ponds getting water from agricultural farms during paddy seasons. They are
located in big natural ponds alongside agriculture lands. No input either in the form of
seeds or feeds is used by farmers except letting the irrigation water pour into the pond
during rice cultivation season mainly in June and July each year. Whereas semi-extensive
farms take some input in the form of fish seeds, feeds and medicines etc.
 While fish ponds are facing water shortage, the situation of natural lakes and big ponds
(dhoras) is worse. Fish pond may get water from alternative sources such as tube-wells
and small bico machines. However this source of water is either unfeasible or too
expensive. In most areas the groundwater is brackish and salty. In other areas farmers are
not financially sound to afford installation of tub-wells.

19
 FEEDING FACILITIES
 Ironically, there are no proper fish feeds available in most areas of Sindh unlike
poultry/chicken feeds. The farmers either do not use any feed or use other
unauthenticated feeds for fish. They use chicken feed, animal dung, rice husk, and dry
bread etc. They also use fertilisers like DAP. The dietetic and nutritional effectiveness of
these feeds remain yet to be proved.
 In some areas, however, fish feed is available but it is too expensive and beyond the
purchasing power of the common fish farmer. Due to this lack of feeding facility, fish
does not grow up as per required standard. Its health is affected which results in either
death of seedlings or poor heath of those which survive. Ultimately its weight after one
year is below standard which means inferior product and lower market rate.

 FISH SEEDS
 The major fish species cultured in Sindh are Mori (Morakho/Morakhi), Rohu (Kuriro or
Danbhro), Gulfam, Thaila, Silver, Carp and Grass Carp. Despite the fact that 81 per cent
of fish farms are located in Sindh, there are only five government hatcheries for the
production of fish seed.
 These hatcheries are not enough to meet the requirements of the farmers. Further, the
quality of seed provided by them is also not up to the mark. Therefore, the farmers turn to
local, private nurseries and hatcheries. However, most of these nurseries also provide
uncertified seeds. The seed is unhealthy, impure and expensive
 These nurseries do not deliver the seed at fish farm. The farmer has to purchase and pack
it back to the pond. There is no scientific system for the safe carriage of the seed from
nursery to the pond.

 MARKETING ISSUES
 Marketing issues Fish markets are very common in Sindh and are under the control of
local administrations. Most of the fish markets do not have cold storage facility and
proper hygienic conditions and lack adequate communication links.

 TECHNICAL TRAINING
 Discussions with fish farmers about technicalities and expertise required for fish farms
and fish revealed that farmers are not trained in fish farming. They show their ignorance
on issues of how to know about the health of the growing seed, their weight and
differences between the types of seeds.
 The fish farmers lack training and technical expertise. The government is playing no role
in training fish farmer and providing them technical assistance.

20
 MORTALITY RATE
 Mortality rate refers to the per cent of the fish that expires; runs away from the pond
into water channels or into agriculture field; or is fished out by thieves. This rate is
alarmingly high. It ranges from 30 to 50 per cent in some areas of Sindh. The major
reasons for this high mortality are unhealthy seeds; lack of proper feed; lack of
medical facilities for fish; untrained farmers and theft of fish from ponds.

CONCLUSION

“GIVE A MAN A FISH AND YOU FEED HIM FOR

A DAY
TEACH THE MAN HOW TO GROW THAT FISH
AND YOU FEED HIM FOR LIFE”

21