What is design of structures?

Unknown cross-sectional details are to

be determined
Span lengths and basic dimensions are
taken from architectural drawings
Expected loads are determined using
handbooks and codes according to
occupancy of the structure

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 1

 Continued from previous slide

Types of construction materials to be used

and their properties are decided
Sound knowledge of the principles of
statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials
and structural analysis is required for good
design
Construction practices, availability of
materials, labor and machinery, etc. are
also to be considered
Experience and intuitive feeling for the
structural behavior are also important
02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 2
 Capacity Analysis of
Structures
Carried out to check already made design or
construction
Material properties, spans and cross-sectional
details are known
Load carrying capacity of members or
structure is evaluated
Capacity is compared with the applied loads
If applied load is lesser than capacity of
member, design is safe

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 3

 Basic Design Equation
Used for design and capacity analysis in
all types of design and analysis methods
maximum internal
Load effects factor of resistance offered
x =
safety by material of
structure
Load effects may be axial force, shear
force, bending moment and torque

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 4

 Continued from previous slide

Corresponding to each applied load action,

there is a resistive force such as resisting axial
force, resisting shear and resisting moment
In design, applied actions and material
resistances are equated to each other with
some FOS
A bending moment of Pl/4 may never be
obtained in a simply supported beam subjected
to a central point load if the member is not
sufficiently strong

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 5

 Factor of Safety

Value is always greater than one

Brings the structure from state of collapse
to a usable service state to avoid
excessive deformations, cracking, and
buckling, etc.
Covers uncertainties in loads within limits
Covers uncertainties in material strengths
up to certain extent

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 6

 Continued from previous slide

Covers, in part, poor workmanship

Covers unexpected behavior in theory due to
simplifying assumptions or limited knowledge
Reduces the effect of natural disasters
Fabrication and erection stresses are taken
care of
Presence of residual stresses and local stress
concentrations are safely considered

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 7

 Comparison of FOS
FOS in ASD is about 1.67

FOS for LL in original LRFD is 1.7/0.9 or 1.889

FOS for DL in original LRFD is 1.4/0.9 or 1.556

FOS for LL in latest LRFD is 1.6/0.9 or 1.778

FOS for DL in latest LRFD is 1.2/0.9 or 1.333

Average FOS in latest LRFD is 1.63

(2 live:1dead ratio)

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 8

 Limit State
Stage in loading after which the structure
cannot fulfill its intended function
Limit state may be related with strength or
serviceability considerations
Actual collapse is not necessary
Strength limit states corresponds to
maximum strengths, such as ultimate
ductile flexural strength, ultimate shear
strength, buckling failure, fatigue, plastic
mechanism, overturning and sliding, etc.
02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 9
 Continued from previous slide

Serviceability limit states are concerned

with occupancy such as excessive
deflections, undesirable vibrations,
permanent deformations, excessive
cracking and behavior in fire, etc.

Structure should not cross any strength

or serviceability limit for a perfect design

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 10

 Strength and Ductility
In general, structures are designed for
strength against loads.
Strength of a material means what
maximum stresses may be developed
Ductility means how much deformations
are produced before final collapse

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 11

 Continued from previous slide

Sometimes, the design is more based on

ductility than strength such as for
earthquake loading
For heaviest earthquakes, only ductility is
provided for safety of life and perhaps not
for complete safety of structure
Time available before final collapse due to
ductility is called warning before failure,
persons may escape

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 12

 Types of Design
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Strength Design, Load and Resistance

Factor Design (LRFD), or Limit State
Design

Plastic Design

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 13

Allowable Stress Design
Factor of safety is taken on RS of basic
design equation, called safety factor, and
denoted by Ω.
material
External load resistances
=
effects safety
factor

Ra ≤ Rn / Ω

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 14

Advantages of ASD
Elastic analysis for loads and elastic material
behavior become compatible for design
Senior engineers are used to this method
Old famous books are according to this method
Was the only method of design in past
Is included as alternate method of design in
AISC-05 Specifications.

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 15

Disadvantages of ASD
Latest research and literature is very much
limited
Same factor of safety is used for different
loads
The failure mode is not directly predicted
With some overloading, the material
stresses increase but do not go to collapse
(How to observe failure mode?)
02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 16
 Continued from previous slide

The ductility and warning before failure

cannot be studied precisely

Results cannot be compared with

experimental tests up to collapse

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 17

 Strength Design or LRFD
or Limit State Design
Major part of FOS is applied on load
actions called overload factor
Minor part of FOS is taken on RS of
design equation, becomes reciprocal of
FOS, called resistance factor or capacity
reduction factor (φ)

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 18

 Continued from previous slide
Resistance factor (φ) is lesser than or equal to
1.0 and is applied on material strength

The design equation is checked for each

strength and serviceability limit states one-by-
one

The design equation becomes:

Ru ≤ φRn

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 19

Advantages of Using LRFD

Behavior at collapse including ductility,

warning before failure and strain-hardening,
etc. may be considered directly
Every type of load may be given a different
FOS depending upon its probability of
overload, number of severe occurrences
and changes in point of application

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 20

Continued from previous slide

More safe structures result due to better

awareness of structural behaviour near
collapse
Results can be compared with experiments
up to collapse and with structural failures in
the past
Latest research and literature is available in
this method
Even if using ASD, this method provides a
second alternative to check the designs
02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 21
 Continued from previous slide

Economical in case dead loads are

larger, such as in concrete structures

More safety than ASD if live loads are

greater in magnitude

Plastic design may be incorporated with

very few changes

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 22

 Continued from previous slide

The convenient elastic analysis for loads

is generally used in this method
The design procedure is similar to ASD
with only slight modifications
Using LRFD, steel and concrete design
become consistent with each other

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 23

 Disadvantages of LRFD
Elastic behavior considered for load
analysis and ultimate plastic behavior
for material strengths are not
compatible, however, percentage
difference is less
Engineers experienced in ASD have to
become familiar with this technique

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 24

 Continued from previous slide

Old books and design aids become

ineffective
Validity of previous designs is still to be
checked according to ASD

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 25

 Plastic Design
Same as LRFD with the difference that
plastic analysis is used for load analysis
Best available method
Incompatibility in load analysis and
material behavior is removed
Very lengthy even for computer
application due to plastic analysis

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 26

 Current Situation
Regarding Design Codes
For concrete design, engineers have almost
shifted to strength design or LRFD

ACI has discontinued ASD as an alternate

method of design

For steel design, engineers are gradually

shifting to Strength Design or LRFD, may take
some time due to late start

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 27

 Continued from previous slide

AISC has only issued the combined

LRFD/ASD specifications in 2005 after AISC-
ASD 1988
Most recent AISC-LRFD specifications were
issued in 1994 and 1999
AISC has included ASD only as an alternate
method in specifications of 2005
AASHTO has shifted its bridge and other
designs to LRFD

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 28

 Continued from previous slide

The last AASHTO-ASD specifications will

only be used for evaluating previous
designs
Most American states have opted not to
use ASD for bridge design beyond 2005 or
at the most 2007
British specifications for concrete design
are also according to this method,
however, they refer to it as limit state
design

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 29

 Continued from previous slide

American universities are only teaching

Strength Design/LRFD to new engineers

Universities of Pakistan are also

teaching this method for concrete design

For steel design, some Universities of

Pakistan have switched to this method

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 30

 Continued from previous slide

It is expected that, in future, only one

method will be used for practical design,
that is, Strength Design or LRFD
For research work and high-importance
structures, plastic design is the best
method

02/09/2007 Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi 31