EXPERIMENTS IN MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Smt. S. R. PATEL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Dabhi, unjha- 384 170

Department of CIVIL engineering

Subject : MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

Subject code: 110010
 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

INDEX

No. Experiment Page No. Date Sign

1 Law of polygon of forces

2 Wheel and differential axle

3 Single purchase crab winch

4 Brinell hardness test

5 Rockwell hardness test

6 Izod impact test

Equilibrium of parallel force system - simply

7
supported beam

8 Coefficient of static friction

9 Compression test on timber and metal

10 Tension test on mild steel

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

LAW OF POLYGON OF FORCES

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To find the magnitude and direction of unknown forces by using law of polygon of forces
acting on a particle in equilibrium.

APPARATUS

Universal force table with four pulleys Fig. 1.1, piece of string, standard weights.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Pulleys are assumed to be frictionless.

2. Self weight of thread is neglected.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The state of equilibrium of particle refers to the state of uniform velocity or of rest. A particle
is set to be in equilibrium under the action of forces if the vectorial summation of the forces is
zero.

This experiment pertains to the study of the system of coplanar and concurrent forces acting
on a particle with the help of universal force table.

Technical terms:

Coplanar forces - forces acting in a plane.

Concurrent forces - force meeting at a point.
Resultant - A force capable of producing same effect as that of given
force system.
Equilibrium of forces - When resultant of a force system acting on a particle is
zero, the particle is set to be in equilibrium under the action of
forces.

Analytical method

Let P1, P2, P3, P4 are four forces acting simultaneously on a particle “O” (fig. 1.2 A) at an
inclination of θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 with positive X-axis measured in clockwise direction. The particle
is said to be in equilibrium if their vectorial summation is zero i.e. ∑F=0. In terms of
components along Cartesian X and Y directions, it is further expressed as ∑Fx=0 and ∑Fy=0.

Where, ∑Fx = P1 Cos θ1 + P2 Cos θ2 + P3 Cos θ3 + P4 Cos θ4 … 1

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∑Fy = P1 Sin θ1 + P2 Sin θ2 + P3 Sin θ3 + P4 Sin θ4 … 2

Considering magnitude of two of the forces unknown, their value is obtained by solving
equation 1 and 2 simultaneously.

Graphical Method

Law of polygon is used to find magnitude and or direction of unknown forces graphically, it
states that “When a system of forces are in equilibrium, the polygon drawn by considering
them in order, in direction and magnitude, results in close polygon”. Thus, to find the
unknown forces, following procedure is adopted.

A space diagram is drawn and Bow’s notations are assigned Fig. 1.2 A. A, B, C and D are
Bow’s notation and AB represents force P1. A point in space is selected and lines parallel to
the forces are extended from their respective points (say c & a, If P3 and P4 are unknown) and
whenever they meet, defines the magnitude of each force to the selected scale. Their
inclination w.r.t. X – axis is measured from the force polygon itself.

PROCEDURE

 Level force table with the help of spirit level and adjusting foot screws.
 Apply weights and /or adjust pulleys such that the center of knot coincides with central
pivot.
 Note the angle made by strings through which weights are hanging.
 Find the unknown forces by solving problem, first analytically and graphically.
 Find their absolute percentage of error in the values unknown forces obtained graphically
and experimentally w.r.t. then analytical results.

PRECAUTIONS

 Threads should be free of knots.

 Rotations of pulley should be smooth.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. MAGNITUDE OF FORCES ANGLE W.R.T. X AXIS

No. P1 (N) P2 (N) P3 (N) P4 (N) θ1 ° θ2 ° θ3 ° θ4 °
1

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

CALCULATIONS

Sr. FORCE ANGLE VALUE OF P (N) θ°

No. (N) (deg)
1 ANALYTICAL
2 GRAPHICAL
3
4 EXPERIMENTAL

GRAPHICALLY EXPERIMENTALLY
% AGE ERROR
MAGNITUDE MAGNITUDE
FOR
[P (ANA) – P (GRA)]/ P (ANA) [P (ANA) – P (EXP)]/ P (ANA)
FORCE P

CONCLUSIONS

QUIZ

1. What is meant by polygon?

2. Define [i] Point of concurrency [ii] Bow’s notation [iii] Free body diagram.

3. Distinguish between closed polygon and open polygon.

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

4. What is the function served by the pulleys used in the experiment?

5. Draw a free body diagram for the weight hanging with thread.

6. What arte the equations used for solving a problem of coplanar- concurrent- forces?

7. What is meant by resultant of forces?

8. Draw the polygon of forces for following cases:

(a) Four forces (pull type) of 5 kN each, acting on a particle in the North, East,
West and South directions.
(b) Three forces (push type) of 2 kN, 3kN and 4 kN acting at an angle of 120° with
one another.

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

WHEEL AND DIFFERENTIAL AXLE

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio, Idle Effort, Frictional effort, Ideal
load, Frictional load and Efficiency of a given Wheel and Differential axle.

APPARATUS

Wheel and differential axle, standard weights, vernier-caliper and meter rule.

CONSTRUCTION

This simple machine mainly consists of two parts as shown in Fig, 5.1
(a) Load axle (b) Effort axle
The load-axle assembly consists of two axles of different parameter; let their diameter be d1
and d2. The larger diameter wheel is used as an effort wheel of diameter D such that when
effort is applied to rotate the assembly, the string gets wound over the larger diameter axle
(d1) and gets unwound from the smaller axle (d2).

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

In Wheel and differential axle, a very high velocity ratio is achieved by varying size of
diameters of differential axle. Some of the technical terms related to this experiment are as
follow:

1. Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)

It is the ratio of load (W) lifted by the machine to the effort (P) applied to the machine.

2. Velocity Ratio (V.R.)

It is ratio of distance moved by the effort (Y) to the distance moved by the load (X). This
value is constant for a given machine.

V.R. = Distance moved by effort (Y) /Distance moved by load (X)

V.R. = πD / {(πd1-d2)/2}

V.R. = 2D/ (d1-d2)

3. Ideal Effort (Pi)

Maximum effort required to lift a given load by the machine assuming it to be ideal.
Pi = W/V.R.

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4. Frictional Effort (Pf)

Effort lost in overcoming frictional force developed between the surfaces of the machine.

Output = Input - Losses

W.X. = (P – Pf) Y
Or, P – Pf = W / (Y/X)
Or, Pf = P - Pi

5. Ideal Load (Wi)

Loads that can be lifted using a given effort by the machine assuming it to be the ideal.

Wi = P. (V.R.)

6. Frictional Load (Wf)

It is the apparent increase in load due to friction.
Output + Losses = Input
(W + Wf) X = P.Y
(W + Wf) = P.Y/X
= P.(V.R.)
Frictional Load, Wf = P.(V.R.)-W
= Wi - W
7. Ideal machines
The machine in which there are no losses and gives output equal to the input supplied. The
efficiency of such machine is 100%. These are also called as frictionless machines.
Or M.A. = V.R.
And,
η = (Output / Input) = W.X / P.Y = (W/P)/(Y/X) = M.A./V.R.= 1 =100 %
Mechanical advantage of an actual machine is always less than that of an ideal machine
but velocity ratio of any machine depends on the geometrical features and it is the same as
an ideal machine since there is no loss of motion of output or input side.

8. Frictional Losses
The actual efficiency of the machine is less than unity because losses are mainly due to
friction.

9. Efficiency (η)
It is the ratio of output obtained from the machine to be input supplied to the machine. In
other words, it is defined as the ratio of the mechanical Advantage t Velocity Ratio.
And,
η = (Output / Input) = W.X / P.Y = (W/P)/(Y/X) = (M.A./V.R. ) x 100
10. Maximum efficiency (ηmax)
It is the maximum theoretical efficiency which can be achieved when machine is
subjected to load of infinite magnitude

ηmax = 1/(m. VR), Where m is the slope of P v/s W graph.

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11. Reversibility of machine

A machine is said to be reversible, if its efficiency is greater than 50 % and irreversible if
its efficiency is less than or equal to 50 %.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the initial postion of the load (say X1) and effort pan (say Y1) from a
reference level.
2. Apply effort on effort pan so that it moves downward and note the final position of
the load (X2) and effort pan (Y2) with the same reference level.
3. Calculate the distance moved by the effort (Y) and (X) by subtracting reading of
step 1 (X1, Y1) and 1 (X2, Y2), which is the difference of final and initial position
of the load pan and effort pan. Find the V.R. of the machine. It should be taken as
average of velocity ratios, so obtained.
4. Measure diameters D, d1 and d2 and final theoretical value of velocity ratio so as
to check the V.R. obtained in step 3.
5. Apply incremental loads on the load pan and find out minimum effort on the effort
pan required to raise the load with slow uniform motion without any jerk.
6. Plot the graphs a) Actual effort v/s load
b) Ideal effort v/s load
c) Frictional effort v/s load
d) M.A. (show max efficiency also) /s load
e) Efficiency (show max efficiency also) v/s load

(Sample graphs are shown in figure 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4)

7. Work out the law of machine P = mW + C from the graph of load v/s actual effort.
Where,
P = Acual effort.
W = Load applied.
C = Initial fricton, (constant)
m = Slope of P versus W graph

OBSERVATION

1. Diameter of the effort wheel (D) =

2. Diameter of the bigger axle (d1) =
3. Diameter of the smaller axle (d2) =
4. Velocity ratio of the machine = 2D/(d1 - d2) =

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sr. Total Effort Velocity
Total Load(N)
No. (N) Ratio
1
2

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3
4
5

CALCULATIONS
Frictional Frictional Efficiency
Ideal Effort Effort Ideal Load Load n=(M.A/V.
Sr.
M.A =W/P Pi=W/(VR) (P)=P- (W1)=P.(VR) (W1)=P.(VR)- R0-W
No.
(N) W/(VR) (N) W (N)
(N) (N)
1
2
3
4
5

Maximum M.A=1/m=

Maximum Efficiency= (1/m V.R).100=

CONCLUSIONS

QUIZ
1. Explain the condition for self locking of a machine.

2. How does the effort vary with the load for an ideal machine

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3. Assuming the law of the machine is linear device equations for the maximum mechanical
advantage and efficiency of the machine

4. Mention the lifting machine suited ,in your opinion for the following jobs
a) lifting a drum of water from a well
b) lifting a heavy consignment from a ship
c) lifting a body of a truck for the purpose of changing a wheel

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

SINGLE PURCHASE WINCH CRAB

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the mechanical advantage, Velocity Ratio, ideal effort, Friction effort, ideal
load, friction load and efficiency of a given single purchase winch crab.

APPRATUS

Single winch crab, caliper, weights and meter rule etc.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The single winch crab is a mechanical device to achieve velocity ratio to achieve velocity
ratio for lifting machine using gears. (Draw fig of this machine and write the working
phenomenon).

PROCEDURE
Note the total load applied and the corresponding effort required to raise the load with
uniform slow motion.
Take five Reading with uniform load and corresponding efforts required.
Plot the graphs with i) actual efforts ii) ideal effort iii) Frictional effort and iv) efficiency on
Y-axis and efficiency on X-axis.

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

Work out the low of machine P = mW + C. Where P, is actual effort required to raise load
W,(m & c are the constants of a given machine) Where m is the slope of the graph and C is
the initial required to start the machine.
Work out the low of the machine P = mW+C, Where P, is actual effort required to raise
Load W,” m” and C are the constants of a given machine

OBESERVATIONS:
Sr. No. Particulars Dimension

1 Diameter of the Wheel (D) :___________________cm.

2 Diameter of the axle (d) :___________________cm.
3 No. of teeth on spur wheel (TS) :___________________
4 No. of teeth on pinion wheel (TP) :___________________
5 Velocity ratio VR=(D.TS)/(d.TP) :___________________

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Total Total Mech. Ideal Frictional Ideal load Frictional Efficiency
No. Load Effort Adv. Effort Effort P.VR load W/P.VR.100
W P W/P W/VR P-(W/VR) P.VR-W
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATION:
(1) Give sample calculation for all quantities for any reading of observation table.
(2) For low of machine, P =mW+C from the graph of actual effort, determine the value of
m & c.
(3) Maximum mechanical advantage (MA) = 1/m= ________________
(4) Maximum Efficiency =1(m.VR)= ____________________

CONCULSION:
(1) Nature of graphs.

(2) Which graph passes from origin and why ?

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

(3) Reversibility of this machine.

(4) Law of machine P=mW+C (Write value of m and c)

QUIZ

(1) What is velocity ratio equation for double purchase crab?

(2) Velocity ratio is dependent on which parameters of machine?

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the Brinell hardness number of given metal specimen by Brinell hardness test.

EQUIPMENT
Brinell hardness testing machine

APPARATUS
Microscope

MATERIALS
Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Copper, Cast Iron.

RELATED I.S.CODES
I.S 3034-1965: Method for brinell hardness test for copper & copper alloys.

SALIENT FEATURES

Hardness is basically an important property of the metals and is defined as the resistance
given by the metal specimen to indentation scratching or abrasion on its surface. Brinell
hardness is a method of finding hardness of given specimen by indentation and was
introduced by J.A Brinell in 1900. This method uses a steel ball (or indenter) of standard
known diameter (D) on which a standard load (F) is applied gradually. The hardness tester is
shown in figure 1.1

The hardness number is then calculated from the depth of the indentation (of Diameter d)
produced by the load applied. Thus it is an indirect method of finding hardness. Brinell
hardness is defined as the ratio of the load applied to the spherical area of the indentation
formed on the specimen surface and is equivalent to kgf/mm2
Figure 1.2 shows the indentation on the metal surface.

BHN=Test load (kgf)/surface area of indentation (sq.mm)

_________

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

Where,

F= force applied in kgf

D= diameter of ball in mm. (generally 1, 2, 2.5,5 & 10mm)
D= diameter of indentation in mm.

The distance between the centre of any indentation and the edge of the test piece shall be at
least 2.5 times the mean diameter of the indentation in case of steel ,cast iron, copper &
copper alloys and at least three times the mean of the dentition the case light metals, lead, tin
and their alloys.

The distance between the centers of the two adjacent indentations shall be at least four times
the mean diameter of the indentation in the case of steel, cast iron copper & copper alloys. and
at least six times the mean diameter of the indentation in case of light metals,lead,tin & their
alloys.

LIMITATIONS:
1. Specimens with lesser thickness blades. If tested by this method. Would not give
accurate results as the usual indentation might be greater then the thickness of the
specimen and lesser thickness inhibits the generation. As general rule. The thickness
of the specimen shall be at least eight times the depth of the indentation.
2. It is recommended that the steel ball med enter should be used for materials with a
brinell hardness not exceeding 350. For higher hardness up to 630 indenter of carbide
metal should be used.

APPLICATIONS:

This property of the metal has a very large application in the industry right from a small
needle to gigantic aircrafts. The quality of the metal to be used for a specific purpose is
controlled by this test e.g. the drill shall have hardness greater than the material to be worked
on. Similarly strength of jobs like forging. Alloying or casehardening is determined with this
test.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Metal Ball Diameter Test Load (P) Diameter of
(D) in mm in kgf Inventor (d) in
mm
1 M.S
2 C.I
3 Brass
4 Copper
5 Aluminum

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Load to be applied in kgf is chosen as follows according to the provisions of Indian standards
I.S. limit for Brinell hardness test on steel is HB 450 and balls of diameter 2.5 mm, 2 mm & 1
mm should not be used for conducting hardness test on cast metal.

LOAD (kgf) MATERIAL REMARKS

30D2 Steel
30D2 Grey C.I
30D2 Grey C.I el For HB less than 140
5D2 10D2 150D2 Grey C.I 5D2 for HB less than 55
30D2 Copper & its Alloys For HB less than 40
30D2 Copper & its Alloy For HB 35 to 200
30D2 Copper & its Alloy For HB greater than 190

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the specimen as per Is code specifications and steps mentioned in the subhead
precautions.
2. Select the appropriate ball indenter and the corresponding load to be applied on the
specimen selected.
3. Place the specimen on the anvil and bring the indenter in the contact with the surface
of the specimen.
4. Apply the load at a gradual rate up to the test load F is attained. The time from the
initial application of force until the full test load reached shall not be less that two
seconds nor greater than eight seconds. The test load shall be maintained for ten to
fifteen seconds for steel , 30 +2 seconds for light metals and their alloys and 15 to 20
seconds for grey cast iron.
5. Unload the specimen by releasing the lever.
6. Measure the diameter of the indentation at right angles with the help of the
microscope. The average of these readings gives the diameter of the indentation.
7. Calculate the BHN of the given specimen by the formula given in the theory.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The surface of the test specimen shall be smooth and even ,free form oxide
scale, foreign matter and, in particular, completely free form lubricants.
2. Preparation of the test specimen shall be carried out in such a say that any
alteration of the surface due to heat or cold working is minimized. Ambient
temperature for carrying out the test is 100 C to 350 C

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CALCULATIONS:
SR.NO. METAL BHN REMARKS
1 M.S
2 C.I
3 Brass
4 Copper
5 Aluminum

CONCLUSION:

QUIZ
1. Define Hardness and state types of hardness test.
2.

3. How would the results be affected, if

a) the indentation is made nearer to the edge of the specimen.
b) the indentation is made close to the previous indentation.

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3. What will be the effect in hardness number, if

a) rate of loading is rapid
b) load is removed immediately.

4. If material is harder than BHN 630,what happens if Brinell Hardness Test is

Conducted on the material?

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the hardness number of given metal specimen by Rockwell hardness test.

EQUIPMENT
Rockwell hardness testing machine with direct reading dial

APPARATUS
Microscope

MATERIALS
Mild Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Copper, Cast Iron.

RELATED I.S.CODES
I.S 1586-1988: Method for Rockwell hardness test (B & C scales for steel)

SALIENT FEATURES

Hardness is basically an important property of the metals and is defined as the resistance
given by the metal specimen to indentation scratching or abrasion on its surface.

Tjis experiment pertains to indentation hardness under a given static load. Standard values of
indenting forces is applied on the specimen and the impression formed on the surface of the
specimen is measured. Depending upon the impression, the Rockewell hardness number is
assigned. The prefix HR with dial reading is used to designate the Rockwell number. The line
diagram of the machine is shown in fig. below.

Rockwell hardness number is directly read from dial having B & C sca;es and used to test the
hardness of the steel. B scale is meant for materials of medium hardness where as C scale is
used for the material harder than 100. This scale C should not be used for range below HRC
20.
This test differes from brinell test in the sence that the penetration and the loads are smaller,
and hence the resulting indentation shallower, so it is applicable to the testing of materials
having hardness beyond the scope of Brinell test. Rockwell hardness number is inversely
proportional to the depth of the indentation. Fig.1 below shows the indentairon caused by
steel ball and Fig.2 shows the indentation caused by diamond cone on metal surfaces.
A minor load of 10 kg is applied first for proper fixing of the specimen, which causes initial
indentation that sets the indentor and hold the specimen in position. This is followed by the
application of major load, which leaves an indentation on the surface of the specimen. The
depth of indentation is derived from the dimension of the indentation.

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Rockwell B number (HRB) = 130 - [depth of penetration h (mm)/ 0.002]

Rockwell C number (HRC) = 100 – [ depth of penetration h (mm) / 0.002]

Following table give the tabulated details of the load to be applied and the scale to be referred
for particular materials.
Typical
Major Load in
Scale Indenter Type Dial Application of
Kg
scales
Cooper alloys,
Hardness steel
Aluminum
B ball of diameter 100 Red
alloys, Soft
1.5875 mm
steel. Etc.
Diamond cone,
angle at tip (120± Steel, Hard C.I,
0.5)º (Tip of Deep case
C 150 Black
diamond cone is hardened steel.
rounded to radius etc.
of 0.2mm)

PROCEDURE

 Place the specimen on the anvil.

 Apply minor load of 10 kg gradually so as to ensure proper holding of the load to the
specimen.
 Select proper value of load with the help of the load selector.
 Adjust the pointer at “set” position and set the dial to zero-position.
 Apply major load by operating handle without any interference.
 Bring the lever back to its catch position to take off the load from the position.
 Read the position of the pointer on the pointer on the appropriate dial, Which gives
Rockwell hardness number.
 Measure the diameter of the impression with the help of microscope and determine the
depth of the indentation using simple geometry. Using this diameter and formula, find
Rockwell Hardness number.

PRECAUTIONS

The minimum distance between two indentations should be at least 2d and the diatance of the
indentation from the edge of specimen should be at least 3d, where d is the distance of the
indentation.

APPLICATIONS

On the basis of hardness, material are graded for their commercial use. The quality of material
and products is maintained or controlled by hardness test. Also, the strength of this job like

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forming, alloying, case hardening etc. is determined with the help of this test. Some
correlation of hardness with other parameters like tensile strength is established which is
useful in estimating the tensile strength of the material.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Dia. of
Indenter Major Dial
Sr. No. Specimen Indentation
Type Load (kgf) Colour
(mm)
1 M.S.
2 C.I.
3 Copper
4 Aluminum
5 Brass

CALCULATIONS
Harness
Sr. No. Specimen Number. Remarks
From Dial
1 M.S.
2 C.I.
3 Copper
4 Aluminum
5 Brass

CONCLUSION

HOME-ASSIGNMENT:
Students are required to find some examples where hardness governs the design of machine
components.

QUIZ
1. Why the minor load is applied before test load?

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2. Distinguish this test from the other tests for measuring hardness, based on the principle of
indentation.

3. What is meant by Calibration of machine?

4. If Rockwell hardness Test is done on too thin a specimen, how would the observed
hardness be affected?

5. Is there any relation between the hardness obtained by different method? If yes, give the
I.S. Code Number Formulae.

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 Experiments in Mechanics of Solids: Semester I & II

IZOD IMPACT TEST

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To study the behavior of metals under impact loads.

EQUIPMENT
Izod Impact Testing machine with direct reading dial

MATERIALS
Mild Steel, Brass, Aluminum, Cast Iron.

RELATED I.S.CODES
I.S 1598-1997: Method for Izod Impact test on metal.

SALIENT FEATURES
Components of many structures or machines have to resist dynamic loads, which are either
impact loads or rapid fluctuating loads are applied suddenly and this test provides information
about the behavior of materials under such loads. The predominant consideration in impact
resistance is the capacity of material to absorb energy, which depends on toughness of
material (energy required to rupture a material). In this test, toughness is not measured
through strain or deflection measurement but this is ascertained by measuring energy to
rupture a specimen. Fig below shows the line diagram of the machine.

In such tests, the load may be applied in flexure, tension, compression or torsion and impact
may be delivered through dropping weight, swinging pendulum of rotating flywheel. In this
test, the specified cantilevering length of the specimen is rojecting out from vise with notch at
the base as shown in Fig. below and swinging pendulum strikes on the edges of the specimen
giving a flexural type of loading.

Indian standards lay down the following major requirements for the impact testing machines.

Requirements Izod Impact Test

Distance between the base of notch and
22 ± 0.5 mm
point of specimen hit by hammer
Angle at tip of hammer 75º
Speed of Hammer 3 to 4 m/s
Accuracy of graduation of scale ± 0.14 kg-m

Change in Temperature has a marked effect on the impact resistance of notched bars. Fig.
below illustrates in a much generalized form of the nature of the variation of the energy top
produce rupture in the impact test over a considerable range of temperature.

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Specimens used in this test are notched type, which causes high- localized stress
concentration, artificially reduces ductility and tends to induce a brittle type of fracture.

SPECIMEN

Specimen with at suitable position is used for carrying out the impact test on the impact. For
steel specimen. Requirement is as follows:
Shape of the
Type Type of Notch Reference
Specimen
Cantilever beam
Square or Round V notch at base Fig below
fixed at notch

PROCEDURE

1. Check the specimen, its dimensions and ascertain that the IS requirements are satisfied.
2. Fix the specimen tightly in the vise and ascertain that the longitudinal axis of the specimen
lies in the plane of swinging of the hammer.
3. Plane of symmetry of notch should coincide with the top surface of the grips. The
hammer.
4. Set the pointer to read the energy of the blow of the pendulum.
5. Release the pendulum and allow it to strike the test specimen.
6. Read the indicator and obtain impact value of the specimen by deducting the energy losses
from the reading.
7. Study the type of fracture and correlated it with fracture of specimen of different material.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 without specimen, the indicator reading shows the energy losses due to
friction. Note down the value.
9. The impact values of material is obtained by subtracting reading obtained in step 8 from
step 6.

LIMITATION

To determine the impact resistance, temperature should be 32º to 38º because it has a very
marked effect on impact resistance of notched bar.

PRECAUTIONS

It is not advisable to stand near or in fronmt of machine when the pendulum is to be released.
Notch should be exactly in the line of action of the pendulum.
When specimen is being fitted, care should be taken that pendulum does not released.
APPLICATIONS

As mentioned in the therotical background. This test is basically designed to checked the
suitability of material subjected to dynamic loads e. g. wave or hammer falling on mail. The
ductile material like steel has more impact value and therefore has wide acceptability in
structural and other mechanical applications.

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OBSERVATION TABLE
Gross
Sr. Energy Loss Impact Value Mode of
Specimen Energy (kg-
No. (kg-m) (kg-m) Failure
m)
1 M.S.
2 C.I.
3 Copper
4 Aluminum
5 Brass

CONCLUSION

HOME ASSIGNMENT

Student should observe the system, which are subjected to impact loads and try to list them
with brief description of each.

QUIZ
1. Why are impact flexure specimens notched?

2. Discuss the effect of following factors upon the results of impact test.
(a) Characterstics of the notch (b) Velocity of the hammer (c) Types of testing
machine (d) Temprature of the specimen

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3. What physical property of a material is determined by means of impact test?

4. Tick the mode of applying load in this test. (Flexure/Compression/Tension/Torsion)

5. Tick the specimen type used in this test. (Flexure/Compression/Tension/Torsion)

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EQUILIBRIUM OF PARALLEL FORCE SYSTEM - SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To verify the conditions of equilibrium of a system of coplanar-parallel forces with the help of
a simply supported beam and an overhang beam apparatus.

APPRATUS

Simply supported and overhang beam set, standard weights and a metre rule.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Beam is a structural member having cross-sectional dimensions very smaller than its length
and is subjected to transverse loads (load acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam). Fig. 2.1 shows simply supported beam and fig. 2.2 shows an overhang beam. In
equilibrium condition, when a system of coplanar and non-concurrent forces acts on a beam,
following statistical conditions should be satisfied for the system.

∑H = 0, i.e. Algebraic sum of forces along X axis must be zero.

∑V = 0, i.e. Algebraic sum of forces along Y axis must be zero.

∑M = 0, i.e. Algebraic sum of moments of forces along any point must be zero.

∑H and ∑V takes into account the action of the forces on the beam and ∑M takes into
account the action of the forces due to their eccentricity from the point about which moment
is to be taken.

PROCEDURE

1. Place the beam in its position on a selected value of the span.

2. Note down the initial reading shown by the spring balance at the reaction points. These
reactions are due to self-weight of the beam.
3. Suspended several weights from the beam and note the magnitude of the loads and their
distance from the self support.
4. Observe the final readings shown by the spring balances at the reaction points.
5. Calculate the experimental value of the reaction by deducting initial reading from the final
reading.
6. Calculate the percentage error in equilibrium of forces and moments (refer Table I and II
of calculation)

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7. Find the value of unknown Load ‘P’ considering the system to be in equilibrium (refer
Table III of calculation)
8. Repeat the steps 1 to 7 for an overhang beam.

OBSERVATION

Span of the beam = ________________ mm

Sr. Load on beam (gms) Total Distance from Span
No. Load support A (cm)
(W)
W1(gms) W2(gms) X1(cm) X2(cm)
1
2
3
4
5

Support readings Calculate readings (W) Total Reaction (R) Difference

Ra (gms) Rb(gms) Ra(gms) Rb(gms) Obser. Calculated (W-R)
Ra +Rb Ra +Rb (gms)

CONCLUSION

QUIZ

1. What type of force system does this experiment represent?

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2. What is the difference between the force system of this experiment and of the previous
experiment?

3. How can the percentage error obtained in the experiment be reduced?

4. Refer the figure of overhanging beam, if X2 = 1.5 L and W1=W2, what should be the value
of x1, so that RL=0.

5. How should the load be placed on the simply supported beam theoretically so that RL
becomes Zero?

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COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the coefficient of static friction between given two surfaces with the help ofan
inclined plane.

APPARATUS

An adjustable inclined wooden plane with pulley at one end (Fig. 4.1 A and 4.2 A), wooden
block, inextensible string and standard weights

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

When a body moves or tends to move or another body, a force opposing the motion develops
at the contact surfaces; This force which oppose the movement is called friction or frictional
force. If the contact surfaces are perfectly smooth, there is no friction. In mechanics, friction
is both desirable or un desirable where it causes loss of cover and/or wear, it is undesirable.
On the other hand, friction is essential for various holding and fastening devices, brakes, belt
drives, driving an automobile etc. Following are technical terms related to the theory of
friction.

Coefficient of Friction (s)

Ratio maximum frictional force (F) developed to the normal reaction (N) developed between
two bodies in contact.
s = F/N

Angle of Friction ()

Angle made by resultant of the normal reaction (N) and frictional force (F) developed at the
surface to the normal when the body is in impending condition is called angle of friction. The
tangent of this angle is equal to coefficient of friction.

 = tan = F/N

Angle of Repose ()

The maximum angle of an inclination with horizontal at which a point mass resting on it rest
on it is just on verge of sliding is called the angle of repose.

Law of Dry Friction

 If friction is neglected, the reaction developed is always normal to surface in contact.

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 Friction always acts in direction opposite to motion or tendency to move. It is tangent

to the surface in contact.
 In the case of static friction, the value of friction force may vary from zero to its
limiting value. The body impends after this value.
 The maximum available static friction is equal to s N.
 When the motion occurs, the kinetic friction always acts in the direction opposite to
the motion and is given by k N, where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction and k <
s (Fig. 4.3)

PROCEDURE

 Set the working plan at zero inclination to horizontal.

 Place the given block and known weight from the working surface.
 Connect the block to effort pan by a string passing over a frictionless pulley.
 Apply effort in small increments such that the block impends. Note down the
corresponding value of effort. Calculate the coefficient of friction between the
surfaces.
 Find the angle of repose by keeping the block on the surface and gradually tilting the
incline such that the block starts slipping down corresponding angle with the
horizontal is angle of repose.
 Set the incline at an angle greater than angle of repose and take a reading for motion
impending upwards as well as downwards.
 Set the incline at an angle smaller than angle of repose and take a reading for motion
impending upwards.
 Calculate the average coefficient of static friction.

OBSERVATION TABLE
SURFACES ANGLE OF COEFFCIENT
Sr. LOAD (N) EFFORT (N)
IN INCLINATIOIN OF FRICTION
No. (W) (P)
CONTACT (deg) (s)
1 Zero

ANGLE OF REPOSE () =

MOTION UP THE PLANE (θ > )
2 θ=
MOTION DOWN THE PLANE (θ > )
3 θ=
MOTION UP THE PLANE (θ > )
4 θ=

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Reading 1 (Fig. 4.1 B) s = P/W =

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Reading 2 (Fig. 4.2 B) s =(P Sec θ / W) – Tanθ =

Reading 3 s = Tanθ - (P Sec θ / W) =

Reading 4 s =(P Sec θ / W) – Tanθ =

CONCLUSION

QUIZ
2. Distinguished between static and kinematic friction.

3. Weather the kinematic friction is more than static friction? Comment.

4. If the area of contact is increased twice, will the friction force is double?

5. The coefficient of friction between two surfaces is constant of proportionality

between the applied tangential force and the normal reaction at the instant of
_________.
(Application of force, Body at rest, Impending motion)

6. The force of action acts in the _____________direction of that motion and in

___________ direction to the surface of friction. (Normal, Tangential, Same,
Opposite).

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7. What is the effect of following on coefficient of friction and angle of friction?

(a) Weight of body, Shape, Area.
(b) Angle of inclination of the applied force, smoothness or roughness of contact
surface.

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COMPRESSION TEST ON TIMBER AND METAL

DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To determine the compression strength of various materials such as Mild Steel (M.S) cast Iron
(C.I), Timber and study their behavior when subjected compressive load up to fracture.

MATERIALS
Mild steel, Cast Iron, Timber

APPARATUS
Universal Testing Machine with the arrangement of extensometer to test Specimen in tension
and compression, venire calipers.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Specimen for compression test usually fails by buckling they are slender. So to avoid buckling
failure the length of the specimen should be about the same order with the minimum
dimension in cross section.
For ductile material like M.S. or copper the Specimen bulges laterally under compressive load
and takes a barrel shape. Finally occurs by appearance of cracks on the circumferential
surface with spread invert.
Brittle material such a C.I usually fails by Shearing plan inclined 50 to 70 with longitudinal
axis. But sometime a normal failure plane is not fully developed within the length of the
specimen and in such case apparent strength is appreciably increased and crushing may
occurs. When there is a combination of high compression strength and unrestrained lateral
expansion at the ends the specimen fails by separation in to columnar fragment known as
columnar fracture.
Wood is not an isotropic materials means it has different strength in different direction. It is a
composed of series of parallel tubes along the grain. For load normal to the grain the load that
causes lateral collapse of tubes is the significant load.

SPECIMEN

For uniform stressing of compression metal specimen, a circular section is to be preferred

over other shapes. Slenderness ratio of 2 is generally adopted to avoid buckling of specimen.
In this test specimen with slenderness ratio 2 to 5 is adopted to understand effect of
slenderness of specimen when subjected to compression force.
I case of timber specimen size should be mentioned (50.50.200) mm for parallel to grains and
(50.50.200) mm for perpendicular to grains.

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PROCEDURE

1. Measure all dimension given specimens carefully with help to venire calipers.
2. Put the specimen of the mild steel in the machine and apply the load gradually on to it.
Stop the loading when first crack observed on the specimen or it break.
3. Repeat the step (1) for cast iron and for timber (parallel to grain and perpendicular to
grain)
4. Find out the stress on each specimen

LIMITATIONS

1. Difficulty of applying truly axial load.

2. Friction between the heads of testing machine or bearing plates and the surface of the
specimen due to the lateral expansion. This may alter considerably the result with
compare to those obtained in absence of such lateral resistant.
3. To obtain a proper degree of stability of the piece, the cross section area should be
large compare to its lengthy It is possible in two ways.
a. Proving large area for the same length, but this may require large amount for
Loading and large machine capacity.

b. Proving smaller specimen length for the same c/s area, but this creates difficulty
In measuring strain accurately.

FIGURES

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OBSERVATION TABLE (For compression Test on Timber):

CASE
Cross sectional
Load applied parallel to grain Load applied perpendicular grain
area (mm )
Load at failure
(N)

OBSERVATION TABLE BEFORF FAILURE (For compression Test on Metals):

Sr.
Type of specimen Diameter Height Aspect Ratio
No.
Mild Steel 1
1
2
2 Cast Iron

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OBSERVATION TABLE AFTER FAILURE (For compression Test on Metals):

Mean
Sr. Height after
Type of Specimen Diameter
No. Test
(mm)
Mild Steel 1 TOP MIDDLE BOTTOM
1
2
2 Cast Iron

CALCULATION:

CONCLUSION:

QUIZ

1 What Failure plane in brittle are not exactly 45?

2 What do you mean by Slenderness ratio?

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3 How do you will differentiate M.S and Cast Iron specimen?

4 What the Function of compress meter?

5 In which failure position strength of timber is higher? Parallel to grain and perpendicular
to gains? Why?

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TENSION TEST
DATE:

OBJECTIVE

To study stress- strain curve & its characteristics with the help of tensile test on ductile and
brittle materials.

MATERIALS
Ductile material mild-steel, brittle -Cast iron.

APPRATUS
Universal Testing Machine with the arrangement of specimen in tension, venire calipers and
extensometer.

RELATED I.S. CODES

I.S.: 1608-1995: Mechanical Testing of Metals-Tensile Testing.
I.S.: 1816-1979: Method of Tensile test for light weight metals & alloys.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND:
Tensile test is required for test in which a standard specimen is subjected to gradually
increasing static (i.e. not changing a time) uni axial load until failure occurs. Deformation is
measured over the gauge length.
Gauge length is the prescribed part of the cylindrical on prismatic portion of the test piece on
which elongation is measured any moment during the test.

SCOPE:
Tension test are generally conducted on rolled or forged ferrous and ferrous materials and
alloys, which are required to resist tensile forces. The static tension as also compression test
is the simplest and most common of all the mechanical tests. These tests help us in evaluation
of fundamental properties for use in design like;

1. Elastic or Plastic behavior.

2. Limits of proportionality and elasticity.
3. Yield stress and proof stress.
4. Modulus of elasticity.
5. Ultimate strength and breaking stress.
6. Toughness.
7. Percentage elongation.
8. Percentage reduction in area.
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9. Ductile and brittle characteristics based on type of fracture surface.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check weather the specimen fulfills I.S. requirements.
2. See that the specimen is symmetrical with respect to its longitudinal axis throughout
the length.
3. Mark the Gauge length at 5.65 A=5.d
4. Measure diameter and its length before applying the load.
5. Fix extensometer on the specimen and fix the specimen in universal testing machine.
6. Apply tensile load.
7. Measure elongation with the help of extensometer up to yield point. Note down the
ultimate load & braking load.
8. Measure the reduced diameter & increased length & note down the type of fracture.
9. See whether the fracture lies within gauge length or out side. If it is out side comment
on validity test.
10. Plot a graph of load V/s deformation and stress and V/s strain. Determine the stress
characteristics and form fracture comment on the type of material.

LIMITATION
These tests are not sufficient to provide information about the performance of material under
all loading conduction like impact load and fatigue load.
Note:
After yield load, extensometer should be removed to avoid damage to the same.

OBSERVATION
1. Original diameter of cross section (mm) d :________________________
2. Original gauge length (mm) L :________________________
3. Final gauge length (mm) Lf :________________________
4. Diameter after fracture df :________________________
5. Load at yield point (kN) Py :________________________
6. Ultimate load (kN) pu :________________________
7. Breaking load (kN) Pu :________________________
8. Type of fracture :________________________
9. Original area (A) :_________________________
10. Final area (Af) :_________________________

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OBSERVATION TABLE

Load (kN) Extension (mm) Load (kN) Extension (mm)

CALCULATIONS
Sr.No. Parameter Calculation Answer
1 Yield stress
2 Ultimate stress
3 Breaking stress
4 Actual breaking stress
5 Percentage elongation in the gauge length
6 Percentage reeducation in area

Form Graph:
1. Stress= _____________
2. Strain= ____________
3. Modulus of elasticity E = Stress/Strain: __________________

CONCLUSION:

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QUIZ
1 What do you mean by yield point?

2 What do you mean by Yield of proportionality?

3 Draw a shape of stress-strain curve for ductile materials.

4 What is the function of extensometer?

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