Objective

The objective of this lab is to study the steady-state frequency response characteristics,

including resonance frequency, of passive RC- and LC-filters and to compare the experimental

response with a computer simulation response.

Introduction

In this experiment, an electrical filter is used to transmit sinusoidal signals within a

specified frequency range, or band called the passband, and to reject signals of other frequencies,

called the stopband. Electrical filters can be active filters that contain both passive elements,

such as R, L and C, and dependent sources, such as operational amplifiers. However, this lab

deals with passive filters that are only composed of the passive elements R, L and C. Lowpass

filters (LPFs) and Highpass filters (HPFs) are filters that have a passband in the low-frequency

region and in the high frequency region, respectively. A Bandpass filter (BPF) is an electrical

passive filter in which the output is maximum for a range of frequencies, whereas a Band-Stop,

or Band-reject, filter (BRF) blocks a certain range of frequencies. An example of BRF is the

Notch filter, which has an extremely narrow stopband.

 Ideal filters are characterized by a sharply-defined “cut-off” frequency � , shown by the
�

dotted lines in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Ideal versus practical frequency-response curves of filters

However, in practical filters, the rise or fall of the amplitude response is gradual, as shown by the

curved lines in Figure 1, and the cut-off frequency is defined to be that frequency at which the

response is 1/√2 of the maximum response. Also, the cut-off frequencies are not strictly

applicable to filters composed only of reactive elements (ie. L and C only). In those cases, the

magnitude response will display a positive or a negative peak at certain frequencies known as

resonant frequencies, which usually define the frequency-range of the filter.

The phase response of a filter is equally important in filters where time delays are of

significance, for example. Simple filter circuits containing passive elements L, C and R rarely

yield characteristics close to the ideal. Only more complex passive circuits or active filters can
approximately realize the sharp cut-off characteristic of an ideal filter. In general, higher-order

filters can produce sharper cut-off characteristics, where the order of a filter is the order of its

system characteristic equation.

In certain circuits, resonance can be observed, which is when the output magnitude

(voltage or current) can reach a peak value at some specific frequency or frequencies, called

resonant frequencies. Resonance occurs when there is a cancellation between an inductive

reactance � = �L and a capacitive reactance � = −1/�C in a circuit or subcircuit. This implies

� �

that the imaginary part of an impedance is zero (Im Z =0), which is also equivalent to saying that

phase-angle of the impedance (or admittance) is zero or that the impedance becomes purely

resistive. A circuit may exhibit more than one resonance, depending on the number and types of

storage elements present. A resonance condition is characterized by a peak (a maximum or a

minimum) in the magnitude frequency response curve. This can be achieved either by adjusting

the element values, or the frequency, or even both. The sharpness of the resonance peak may be

measured by noting the amplitude fall (or rise) on both sides of the resonant frequency � rad/sec
�

or � = � /2� Hz. For BPF and BRF characteristics, the Quality Factor Q is defined as the ratio
� �

� /∆� where ∆� = (�2 − �1), which is called the bandwidth. For second-order systems, the
�

quality factor Q is inversely related to the Damping Ratio � = �/� of the circuit (Q = 1/2�).
�

Thus, Q is an indication of the ratio of energy stored with respect to the energy dissipated in the

circuit.

The following passive electrical circuits will be examined in this experiment.

1. LC-Type Low Pass and High Pass Filters

These filters utilize resonance between L and C. The nominal cutoff frequency is taken to

be the natural resonant frequency � = �/√(�C), a magnitude peak occurring at this

�
 frequency. Also, a LPF can be converted into a HPF, or vice versa, by interchanging the

positions of the storage elements.

Figure 2. Simple LC-type LPF and HPF Circuits

Two slightly more complex filter circuits are shown in the following figure. In these

circuits, multiple resonances can occur due to series- and parallel-resonance.

Figure 3. Complex LC-type LPF and HPF Circuits

2. RC-Type Low Pass and High Pass Filters

These filters do not exhibit resonance, because only one type of storage element is

present, so reactance cancellations cannot occur. These filters have a cutoff frequency
 which is the reciprocal of the time constant � ≈ 1/� , where � = �C.
�

Figure 4. Simple RC-type Single-section and Twin-section LPF Circuits

The twin-section filter has a sharper cut-off curve than the single-section type, but it will

have a larger attenuation of the signal being filtered. Interchanging the positions of the

storage and dissipative elements can change the LPF circuits from Figure 4 into HPF

circuits.

3. Band Pass and Band Reject (or Band Stop) LCR Filters

LCR circuits that yield bandpass and band reject characteristics demonstrate parallel-

resonance and series-resonance in their LC branches. The passband or stopband will be

 centred around the natural frequency of the series- or parallel-resonance � = �/√(�C) .
�

Figure 5. Band Pass and Band Reject (or Band Stop) LCR Circuits

4. A Double-Resonance Circuit

This circuit is a type of LC-type circuit that exhibits two resonance frequencies.
 Figure 6. LC-type Double-Resonance Circuit

Circuit analysis yields the transfer function �(�) = � /� = � �C/[� (�C) +3� �C+1],
out in
2 4 2 2

where the sinusoidal frequency response is obtained by substituting � = 𝑗�.

For this experiment, a plastic case is used on which R, C and L elements are mounted in

duplicate, their terminals being connected to standard banana-jacks, coloured yellow for R,

Green for C and Red for L.

Figure 7. RCL Box

Procedure

1. Measure and record the precise values of the resistor and capacitor elements mounted to

the RCL Box using the Multi-meter. Let L=240 uF.

2. Wire the desired circuit, so that the sinusoidal input voltage is obtained from the Function

Generator and the input/output signal amplitudes are measured by the DPO. The figure

below shows an example of a setup that is wired as the single-section RC filter.

Figure 8. Single-Section RC Filter Setup

3. Set the Function Generator to yield sinusoidal signals in the 1 to 20 kHz range, where an

input amplitude of around 3 Volts with Peak-to-Peak should be sufficient. Turn off the

DC Offset.

3. Set the DPO input coupling to AC. Select a suitable sensitivity and timebase or use the

AUTOSET button. Select the MEASURE function to display the Peak-to-Peak of both

channels. Read the frequency from the Function Generator.

 3. Vary the frequency of the Function Generator and record the input/output data on the data

tables provided. Repeat this step for each of the following circuits:

1. The LC LPF & HPF from Figure 2

2. The single-section & twin-section RC LPFs from Figure 4

3. A BPF (or BRF) circuit from Figure 5

4. The double-resonance circuit from Figure 6.

Results

1 Graph 1: LC LPF and HPF Response Curves

.

2
.

3
.

4
.

5 For the Single Circuit

.
For the Twin Circuit:
Conclusion & Discussion