24th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics

Fukuoka, JAPAN, 8-13 July 2002

Wash Waves Generated by

Ships Moving on Fairways of Varying Topography
Tao Jiang1, Rupert Henn2 & Som Deo Sharma2
(1VBD - European Development Centre for Inland and Coastal Navigation, 2Institute of Ship
Technology and Transport Systems, Mercator University, Duisburg, Germany)

ABSTRACT Due to the great interest in wake-wash ef-

fects, a considerable amount of research effort has
Using the computer program BEShiWa, based on been devoted to the wash problem during the last few
extended Boussinesq’s equations for the far-field years. In model experimental studies the focus has
flow and slender-body theory for the near-ship flow, been on designing low-wash ships and acquiring
the wash waves generated by ships were investigated reliable data for validation, see, e.g., Zibell and Grol-
taking account of varying topographies. It appears lius (1999), Macfarlane and Renilson (1999), and
that for the time being the shallow-water approxima- Koushan et al.(2001). Also full-scale measurements
tion based on Boussinesq-type equations is a useful have been taken, aiming at deriving recommendations
method for combining all effects associated with the for safe ship operation as well as finding possibilities
nonlinear and unsteady nature on the one hand and of ship monitoring in sensitive operational areas, see,
the large-domain feature on the other hand of wash e.g., Feldtmann and Garner (1999), and Bolt (2001).
problems. A good agreement between computations In numerical simulations the focus has been on de-
and measurements was achieved for waves far from veloping efficient methods. For a ship moving on
the ship in a rectangular channel as well as for 2D water of uniform depth the linear theory can be ap-
wave propagation over an uneven bottom. Further- plied usefully in the subcritical and the supercritical
more, it was found that the propagation of wash speed range, see, e.g., Doctors et al.(2001). For these
waves depends significantly on bottom topography, steady cases a steady nonlinear free-surface panel
ship speed, and motion history. method can also be used, see, e.g., Raven (2000). The
wave generation by a ship moving in a channel at a
INTRODUCTION transcritical speed, on the other hand, can be well
Recently, increased attention is being paid to wash predicted using Kadomtsev-Petviashvili (KP) type
waves by ferry operators, naval architects, marine and equations, see, e.g., Chen and Sharma (1995), where
environmental consultants, and port and waterway the near-ship flow is approximated by an extended
authorities. Such wash waves can affect the safe slender-body theory. This KP approximation has been
operation of other floating bodies near the shoreline extended by Chen and Uliczka (1999) for ships mov-
or the bank and endanger human life on beaches. ing in natural waterways with transversally varying
Moreover, they can cause environmental damage, for water depth. But a basic restriction of the KP equa-
instance, bank erosion. tion is that it is not valid for truly unsteady cases,
Strong wash waves can be generated by a caused, for instance, by varying topography along the
fast ship at high speeds or by a large ship at moderate ship’s track. A more general shallow-water approxi-
speeds, operating on a near-shore fairway or on an mation are equations of Boussinesq type, which are
inland waterway. The resulting wash-wave system is valid for almost arbitrarily unsteady cases. In Jiang
basically nonlinear due to the wave characteristics in (1998) a set of modified Boussinesq’s equations,
shallow water and usually unsteady due to the non- which are valid not only for long waves but also for
uniform seabed or inland waterway topography. waves of moderate length, was applied to compute
Moreover, the major part of the wash wave system ship waves in shallow water, using slender-body
consists of divergent waves which can travel over a theory to approximate the near-ship flow. In Yang et
long distance without loss of energy until close to the al.(2001) Boussinesq’s equations based on a suitable
shore. reference level were used for computing ship waves

1
in shallow water but the near-ship flow was repre- handed earthbound coordinate system Oxyz is used.
sented by a mean transverse velocity from slender- The origin O lies on the undisturbed water-plane. The
body theory instead of using the near-field velocity at x-axis points in the direction of ship's forward mo-
the reference level. A hybrid approach, comprising tion; the z-axis, vertically upwards.
the coupling of a steady nonlinear panel method for
the near-ship flow to a Boussinesq solver for the far- Field Equations
field wave propagation, has been introduced by Ra- Considering water as incompressible and inviscid, the
ven (2000). However, it is useful only for steady wave generation by ships in shallow water can be
problems. approximated by the well-established shallow-water
It should be noted here that due to the non- wave theory, see Jiang (2001) for a review. Assuming
linear and unsteady nature as well as the large- that the water depth is small in comparison to the
domain feature of the wash problems, they can be wave length and that the wave amplitude is small in
neither solved well by the linear wave theory nor comparison to the water depth, the wave field can be
approximated efficiently by a nonlinear singularity- well described by shallow-water equations of Boussi-
method, even less by a finite-volume method due to nesq type. In the present study, Boussinesq’s equa-
the huge computational domain required. To cover all tions based on the mean horizontal depth-averaged
effects mentioned above an efficient method for the velocity for an uneven bottom, without additional
time being seems to be a shallow-water approxima- terms for correcting the dispersion relation, are ap-
tion based on Boussinesq-type equations, in which plied:
the 3D governing equations for the inviscid fluid are
first treated analytically in the vertical direction and ζ t + (ζ x + hx )u + (ζ + h )(u x + v y ) + (ζ y + h y )v = 0
the resulting 2D equations then solved numerically in
the horizontal plane. In an extensive study by Jiang h
(2001) a computer program BEShiWa, standing for ut + uu x + vu y + gζ x − ( hxx ut + 2hx utx + hutxx
Boussinesq’s Equations for Ship Waves, has been 2
developed with the following features: h2
+ hxy vt + h y vtx + hx vty + hvtxy ) + (u xxt + v xyt ) = 0
– extension of the shallow-water equations of Bous- 6
sinesq type to longer and shorter waves over an
uneven bottom, h
vt + uv x + vv y + gζ y − ( hxy ut + hx uty + h y utx + hutxy
– inclusion of the near-ship flow into the shallow- 2
water equations either through the law of conser- h2
vation of mass or through a free-surface pressure + h yy vt + 2h y vty + hvtyy ) + (utxy + vtyy ) = 0
6
distribution equal to the hydrostatic pressure on
the hull bottom or through a unified shallow-water
theory, These were first derived by Peregrine (1967).
– implementation of suitable boundary conditions, Herein, h(x,y) is the water depth, ζ(x,y,t) the
and wave elevation, u(x,y,t) and v(x,y,t) the depth-
– application of numerically efficient and robust averaged velocity components in the x and y direc-
methods. tions, respectively, t the time, and g the acceleration
due to gravity. For this set of nonlinear partial differ-
In the present study, we focus on the wash- ential equations there exists no analytical solution.
wave systems generated by a Panmax containership Therefore, it has to be solved numerically.
and a fast inland passenger-ferry. Special attention is
paid to the interaction between ship waves and bot- Boundary Conditions
tom topography, aiming to find practical criteria for On the truncation boundaries of the computational
safe ship operation (speed and distance to shoreline) domain sufficiently far from the ship the Sommerfeld
as well as for fairway maintenance (dredging depth radiation condition
and frequency) with regard to the wash effects. qt + σqx = 0 or qt + σq y = 0
is applied, where q stands for each of the variables ζ,
BRIEF MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION AND
u and v, and σ ensures the local outgoing characteris-
NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION
tic of the governing equations on the boundary in
Coordinate System question, for instance, σ = gh ahead of the ship
For describing the flow generated by a ship sailing in
and σ = − gh behind the ship.
shallow water over a general topography, a right-

2
 On vertical channel sidewalls, if any, the Numerical Solution Technique
condition of no-flux or, equivalently, perfect reflec- To solve this initial-boundary value problem gov-
tion holds. erned by Boussinesq’s equations, an implicit Crank-
Nicolson scheme is implemented as usual. But it
Initial Conditions encounters some difficulties arising from the nonlin-
In compliance with the unsteady nature of the flow, ear terms and the linear high-order terms. The devel-
the ship is assumed to start from rest and accelerate oped solution technique comprises:
uniformly to a final velocity like in a model towing – Crank-Nicolson scheme of high-order accuracy
tank. As may be expected, the final wave system is for the time and space discretization,
found to be influenced by the acceleration rate, espe- – approximation of the state values of the nonlinear
cially in case of trackwise varying topography. This terms by means of Taylor series expansion,
is because the waves caused by the accelerating ship – SOR iterative solution of the resulting sparse
with a rather arbitrarily assumed starting point can be equation system,
reflected by the bottom topography and then interact
with the waves generated by the ship at steady speed.
– overrelaxation to accelerate the convergence, and
– local and global filtering to suppress numerical
Approximation of the Near-Ship Flow oscillations and instabilities.
The main interest in the present study lies in the wave
propagation far from the ship. So a slender-body RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
theory is applied to approximate the near-ship flow.
Starting from the general formulation of the depth- Example Ships
averaged mean transversal velocity for a slender body Two example ships are investigated in the present
in Jiang (2001), and additionally taking account of study. One is an inland passenger ferry that operates
the asymmetric effect caused by nonuniform channel on the river Rhine and in a sheltered region of vary-
topography, the boundary condition on the longitudi- ing water-depth; this aims at finding suitable criteria
nal ship-centerline (the mathematical dividing line for fast-ship operations. The other is a Panmax con-
between the near-field and the far-field) relevant to tainer ship; this is intended to predict the wash-waves
the far-field flow reads typical of large ships operating on a near-shore fair-
1 way or near a harbor. The main dimensions of both
v y →0± = m [(V − u0 )ζ 0 Bx + hBu0 x ships are listed in Table 1.
2( h + ζ 0 )
+ VS x − (u0 S ) x ] + v0
Table 1: Main dimensions of investigated ships
with the port-starboard mean values of the longitudi- Inland Passenger Ferry Panmax Container Vessel
u y →0 + + u y →0 − LWL 39.3 m 280 m
nal velocity component u0 = , of B 8.8 m 32.2 m
2 T 1.2 m 11 m
the transversal velocity component
1 x bow Representative Waves in a Large Shallow-Water
v0 = ∫ (u
2C ( x ) xstern y →0
+ −u
y →0−
)dx , and of the Region
ζ +ζ To demonstrate the capability of the computer pro-
y →0 + y →0 − gram BEShiWa to predict ship waves over a huge
wave elevation ζ 0 = . The hull
2 computational domain, Figure 1 shows three repre-
sectional area is denoted by S(x), and the beam by sentative wave systems generated by the subject
B(x). The sectional blockage coefficient C(x) can be inland passenger-ferry moving in an unbounded shal-
calculated by a 2D boundary element method in ad- low-water region of uniform depth. The computa-
vance, see, e.g., Taylor (1973). xbow and xstern are the tional domain was of 17.5 ship lengths long and 7.5
longitudinal positions of the bow and stern, respec- ship lengths wide, taking advantage of transverse
tively. Moreover, the Kutta condition is implemented symmetry. The grid size was 1m × 1m, yielding a
at the stern through total of 210,000 grid points. The CPU time required
u y →0+ = u y →0− for a typical run was about 23.5 hours for 4,500 time
steps.
Physically, it means that the longitudinal velocities At a subcritical speed, Fnh = 0.7 in graph (a),
on the two sides of the hull have to be identical at the the wave system is steady and close to a Kelvin-
ship stern to ensure that there is no pressure jump. Havelock wave pattern with pronounced transverse
waves. At critical speed, Fnh = 1.0 in graph (b), the

3
wave system is characterized by significant divergent system governed by Boussinesq’s equations, there is
waves. Long-time simulations showed that no asymp- no guaranty that the asymptotic solution would be
totic steady state could be reached at transcritical steady and independent of the initial conditions. At a
speeds. For the same speed in a (finite-width) chan- supercritical speed, Fnh = 1.5 in graph (c), the final
nel, so-called solitons, which are perfect transverse wave system comprises only divergent waves, no
waves propagating ahead of the ship, were generated initial transverse waves generated during the accel-
in accordance with observations in model tanks and eration phase could keep up with the ship. The as-
full-scale, see, e.g., Jiang (2001). Similar unsteady ymptotic wave system is again steady relative to the
response to steady excitation has been observed in ship.
other nonlinear problems. In fact, for a nonlinear

a) Fnh = 0.7

b) Fnh = 1.0

4
c) Fnh = 1.5

Figure 1: Representative wave systems generated by the subject inland passenger-ferry in shallow water

Validation of Waves at a Large Distance from the channel section in graph (a), a trapezoidal channel
Ship section in graph (b), and a polygonal section consist-
To validate the computational results from BEShiWa, ing of a deepened fairway in a shallow channel in
especially at a large distance from the ship, Figure 2 graph (c), all three of the same depth at the centerline
compares the computed wave records (dashed lines) and the same width overall. In all cases the ferry runs
with those measured (solid lines) in the Duisburg along the channel centerline. It is seen that unlike the
Shallow-Water Towing Tank (VBD) for the inland rectangular channel (a) perfect solitary waves could
ferry model. At the design speed of Fnh = 0.873 the be generated neither in the trapezoidal channel (b)
following observations can be made: (i) The agree- nor in the deepened fairway (c), although a perfect-
ment is quite satisfactory near the ship (y = 6 m) and reflection condition was implemented on the side-
pretty good ahead of the ship. (ii) The consistently walls in all cases. An important observation is that
improving agreement (in both amplitude and phase) the highest waves occur either near the sidewall in the
with increasing proximity to the channel sidewall trapezoidal channel (b) or in the shallow region be-
demonstrates the usefulness of the present solution side the deepened fairway (c). These high waves
method for predicting far-field wash-waves. (iii) The could affect the safe operation of other floating bod-
relatively large discrepancy in the ship’s wake may ies near the bank or possibly cause bank-erosion.
have been caused by the running submergence of the
transom stern which was not explicitly accounted for Effects of Initial Ship Acceleration
in the present computer program. Luckily, transverse Since wave elevation and wave energy both propa-
waves on the ship’s track are not relevant to the wash gate in shallow water at the same velocity, an initial
problem. (iv) Multiple upstream solitons ahead of the disturbance would also travel at the same speed. This
ship are not visible. However, other computations leads to an interaction of waves generated in the
have shown that shape and speed of the wave ahead initial acceleration phase with those later generated
of the ship do depend on the initial acceleration pat- by the ship at its asymptotic speed. Due to the possi-
tern. ble scattering of initial waves by the longitudinal
bottom-topography, the resulting wave pattern could
Influence of Channel Section Shape on Wash Waves depend on the ship acceleration or deceleration. To
Figure 3 shows wave patterns generated by the inland examine this effect, two simulations were performed
passenger-ferry moving at critical speed (referred to for the subject container ship moving on a near-shore
the water depth along the channel centerline). Three fairway. The contour plot of the investigated fairway
different channel section shapes are presented to is given in Figure 5. The wave patterns generated are
display the influence of transversally varying bottom shown in Figure 6 (a) and (b) for the case of slow and
topography on wash waves, namely, a rectangular fast acceleration, respectively. As expected, the larger

5
the acceleration, the higher the initial waves observed lated wave probes (locations marked in Figure 5).
ahead of the main wave system generated by the Moreover, an interaction of waves generated in the
steady ship motion. Within the main wave system, acceleration phase with those later generated by ship
the initial acceleration influences strongly the so- at constant speed can be noticed in the transition
called primary wave but only weakly the trailing between the deepened and shallow regions, see graph
waves. This phenomenon can be clearly observed in 7(a), where the higher harmonic waves are missing
Figure 7 showing wave records taken by four simu- totally in the slow-acceleration case.

1
[m] y=6m
0.5

-0.5

-1
-200 -150 -100 -50 Stern 0 Bow 50 100 150 [m] 200

1
[m] y = 15 m
0.5

-0.5

-1
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 [m] 200

1
[m] y = 25 m
0.5

-0.5

-1
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 [m] 200

1
[m] y = 35 m
0.5

-0.5

-1
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 [m] 200

1
[m] y = 45 m
0.5

-0.5

-1
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 [m] 200

Figure 2: Comparison of wave records (replotted as profiles in shipbound coordinates) of the subject ferry at
Fnh = 0.873 as measured in the VBD (–––) and calculated by the computer program BEShiWa (– – –)

6
a) Contour plot of the wave pattern in a rectangular channel with uniform water-depth h = 5 m

b) Contour plot of the wave pattern in a trapezoidal channel with maximum water-depth h = 5 m

c) contour plot of the wave pattern in a channel with a deepened fairway (h = 5 m) and shallow banks (h = 3 m)

Figure 3: Influence of transversally varying bottom topography on the wave pattern generated by the subject inland
passenger-ferry moving at constant speed VS = 7 m/s (corresponding to local Fnh = 1 on the channel centerline)

z
5m
1m

25 m

50 m

z
3m
5m

25 m
30 m
50 m

Figure 4: Channel section shapes for cases (b) and (c)

7
Figure 5: Contour plot of the bottom topography (locations of the four wave probes (a)–(d) marked)

a) Slow acceleration

b) High acceleration

Figure 6: Contour plots of wave patterns generated by the subject containership at a speed V=8.35 m/s in a near-
shore fairway (Note: Here the direction of motion is from right to left)

8
 0.4
wave probe (a)
0.3

0.2

0.1
ζ [m]

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t [s]

0.3
wave probe (b)
0.2

0.1

0
ζ [m]

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t [s]

0.3
wave probe (c)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
ζ [m]

0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t [s]

0.5
wave probe (d)
0.4

0.3

0.2
ζ [m]

0.1

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
t [s]

Figure 7: Wave records showing the influence of initial ship acceleration (––– fast, ----slow acceleration)

9
Interaction of Wave Generation and Propagation of period 2.02 s and amplitude 0.02 m propagate over
with Bottom Topography the upward slope of the bar, the nonlinear effect in-
As discussed by Feldtmann and Garner (1999), a creases and, hence, higher harmonics are generated,
suitable artificial ramp in a wash-sensitive region see records of wave probes located at x = 26.04 m
could reduce the wash. The main idea is to minimize and 28.04 m. These higher harmonics become
the passing time from a supercritical speed in a shal- quickly free over the downward slope, see records of
low region to a subcritical speed in a deeper region or wave probes located at x = 30.44 m and 37.04 m.
vice versa so that the large wave generation in the There is remarkable agreement between calculation
transcritical speed range may be avoided or at least and measurement as long as the higher harmonics do
reduced. Figure 9 demonstrates the wave generation not get free. Thereafter, a strong interaction between
and propagation over a fairway with a ramp such as the primary waves and the free waves makes the
shown in Figure 8. The ferry speed was assumed to latter equally important. Since the free wave has
be constant at 8 m/s. Before the subject ferry arrives approximately half the wave length of the primary
at the ramp it moves at a supercritical speed. So the one, the dispersion relation of the classical set of
wave pattern has pronounced divergent waves ac- Boussinesq’s equations needs to be corrected, as
companied by transverse waves caused by the initial discussed by Dingemans (1997). Similar results were
acceleration, see graph (a). As soon as the ferry obtained for primary harmonic waves of period
crosses over the ramp a strong interaction of the su- 2.525 s and amplitude 0.029 m, see Figure 11.
percritical wave-pattern occurs with the ramp, and the
wave pattern changes its form as seen in graph (b). CONCLUSION
This interaction continues until the ferry has moved For predicting the wash waves generated by ships a
far beyond the ramp, see graphs (c) to (d). Finally, method based on Boussinesq-type equations for the
there is a wave pattern typical of the subcritical speed far-field flow and on slender-body theory for the
in the deeper region, and the wake waves over the near-ship flow yields satisfactory results. It covers all
ramp almost disappear from the calculation domain relevant effects associated with the nonlinear and
due to the no-reflection condition implemented on the unsteady nature as well as with the large-domain
open truncation-boundaries to each side, see graph feature of the wash problems. Any neglect of these
(e). effects would lead to a poorer approximation.
Since the propagation of wash waves sig-
Validation of Wave Propagation over Uneven nificantly depends on bottom topography, ship speed
Bottom and motion history, any measures for reducing wash
To validate the computation of the wave propagation waves deduced from computational predictions need
over an uneven bottom, a measurement performed at to be validated by experiments. At the same time,
Delft Hydraulics (Dingemans, 1994) with a 2D bar- however, this strong dependence opens up possibili-
type bottom topography as shown in Figure 12 was ties of formulating suitable criteria for safe ship op-
numerically simulated. A wavemaker generates a eration (speed and distance to shoreline or river bank)
harmonic wave train propagating from left to right in as well as for effective fairway management (con-
a wave channel. Figure 10 compares the calculated struction and maintenance).
wave records with those measured by wave probes at
6 different locations. As the harmonic primary waves

Figure 8: Schematic of the subject ramp (all dimensions in m)

10
(a) wave pattern generated by the subject ferry in the shallow region before the ferry moves over the ramp

(b) interaction of the supercritical wave-pattern with the ramp as the ferry crosses over the ramp

(c) wave pattern as the ferry leaves the ramp behind

(d) evolution of the wave pattern while the ferry moves beyond the ramp

(e) wave pattern of the ferry at subcritical speed in the deeper region

Figure 9: Evolution of the wave pattern generated by the subject inland passenger-ferry moving at a constant speed
of 8 m/s over a fairway with a ramp as shown in Figure 8.

11
 x = 9.44 m
0,03

0,02

0,01
[m]

0,00

-0,01

-0,02

-0,03
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

x = 24.04m
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
[m]

0,00
-0,01
-0,02
-0,03
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
x = 26.04 m
0,06

0,04

0,02
[m]

0,00

-0,02

-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
x = 28.04m
0,06

0,04

0,02
[m]

0,00

-0,02

-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

x = 30.44 m
0,06

0,04

0,02
[m]

0,00

-0,02

-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
x = 37.04m
0.04

0.02
[m]

0.00

-0.02

-0.04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 t [s] 50

Figure 10: Records of wave elevation at 6 different wave-probe locations for an initially harmonic wave of period
2.02 s and amplitude 0.02m propagating over an uneven bottom (see Figure 12) as measured by Dingemans (–––)
and calculated using BEShiWa (- - -)

12
 x = 9.44 m
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
[m]

0,00
-0,01
-0,02
-0,03
-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x = 24.04 m
0,10
0,08
0,06
0,04
[m]

0,02
0,00
-0,02
-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

x = 26.04 m
0,12
0,10
0,08
0,06
[m]

0,04
0,02
0,00
-0,02
-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

x = 28.04 m
0,10
0,08
0,06
0,04
[m]

0,02
0,00
-0,02
-0,04
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

x = 30.44 m
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
[m]

0,00
-0,02
-0,04
-0,06
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
x = 37.04m
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
[m]

0,00
-0,02
-0,04
-0,06
-0,08
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 t [s] 40

Figure 11: Records of wave elevation at 6 different wave-probe locations for an initially harmonic wave of period
2.525 s and amplitude 0.029 m propagating over an uneven bottom (see Figure 12) as measured by Dingemans (–––)
and calculated using BEShiWa (- - -)

13
 0

-0.2

-0.4
z [m]

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00
x [m]

Figure 12: The two-dimensional bar-type bottom topography investigated by Dingemans

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