Chapter 5 Modern Algebra

5.1 Binary Operations

Definition: A binary operation * on a set S is a function from S X S to S. If (a, b) S X

S then we write a * b to indicate the image of the element (a, b) under the function *.

The following lemma explains in more detail exactly what this definition means.

Lemma A binary operation * on a set S is a rule for combining two elements of S to

produce a third element of S. This rule must satisfy the following conditions:
(a) a S and b S =) a * b S [S is closed under *.]
(b) For all a, b, c, d in S
a = c and b = d =) a * b = c * d [Substitution is permissible.]
(c) For all a, b, c, d in S
a = b =) a * c = b * c.
(d) For all a, b, c, d in S
c = d =) a * c = a * d.

Proof: Recall that a function f from set A to set B is a rule which assigns to each element
x A an element, usually denoted by f(x), in the set B. Moreover, this rule must satisfy
the condition
x = y =) f(x) = f(y) (1.1)

On the other hand, the Cartesian product S X S consists of the set of all ordered pairs (a,
b) where a, b S. Equality of ordered pairs is defined by the rule
a = c and b = d (a, b) = (c, d) (1.2)
Now in this case we assume that * is a function from the set S X S to the set S and instead
of writing *(a, b) we write a * b. Now, if a, b S then (a, b) S X S. So the rule *
assigns to (a, b) the element a * b S. This establishes (a). Now implication (1.1)
becomes
(a, b) = (c, d) =) a * b = c * d (1.3)
From (1.2) and (1.3) we obtain
a = c and b = d =) a * b = c * d (1.4)
This establishes (b).
To prove (c) we assume that a = b. By reflexivity of equality, we have for all c S that c
= c. Thus we have a = b and c = c and it follows from part (b) that a * c = b * c, as
desired. The proof of (d) is similar.

Binary operations are usually denoted by symbols such as

78
+, *, o, X, , , , , , , …
operation on
Just as one often uses f for generic functions, we use * to indicate a generic binary
operation. Moreover if *: S X S-> is a given binary operation on a set S, we write a * b
instead of *(a, b). This is called infix notation. In practice, we abbreviate even more, just
as we use ab instead of a . b or a X b in high school algebra, we will often use ab instead
of a * b for a generic binary operation.
.
Example 1 Ordinary addition on N , Z, Q and R.
Example 1.2 Ordinary multiplication on N, Z, Q and R.
Example 1.3 Ordinary subtraction on Z, Q and R. Note that subtraction
is not a binary operation on N since, for example, 1

Definition: Assume that * is a binary operation on the set S.

1. We say that * is associative if
x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z for all x, y, z S
2. We say that an element e in S is an identity with respect to * if
x * e = x and e * x = x for all x in S:
3. Let e S be an identity with respect to *. Given x S we say that an element y S is
an inverse of x if both
x * y = e and y * x = e
4. We say that * is commutative if
x * y = y * x for all x, y S
5. We say that an element a of S is idempotent with respect to * if
a*a=a
6. We say that an element z of S is a zero with respect to * if
z * x = z and x * z = z for all x S

5.2 Semi Groups

5.3 Groups

Definition 2.1: A group is an ordered pair (G, *) where G is a set and * is a binary
operation on G satisfying the following properties

1. x * (y * z) = (x * y) * z for all x, y, z in G.

79
2. There is an element e G satisfying e * x = x and x * e = x for all x in G.
3. For each element x in G there is an element y in G satisfying x * y = e and y * x = e.

Thus, to describe a group one must specify two things:

1. a set, and
2. a binary operation on the set.
Then, one must verify that the binary operation is associative, that there is an identity in
the set, and that every element in the set has an inverse.
Convention If it is clear what the binary operation is, then the group (G, *) may be
referred to by its underlying set G alone.

Examples of Groups:

1. (Z, +) is a group with identity 0. The inverse of x Z is -x

2. (Q, +) is a group with identity 0. The inverse of x Q is –x
3. (R, +) is a group with identity 0. The inverse of x R is –x
4. The set of all non zero real numbers under the operation of ordinary
multiplication is a group. An inverse of a 0 is 1/a

Definition: A group (G, *) is said to be Abelian if x * y = y * x for all x and y in G. A

group is said to be non-Abelian if it is not Abelian.

Examples
1. The set of all integers Z with the operation of ordinary addition is an Abelian
group. If x Z then the inverse of a is –x.
2. Let G be the set of all nonzero real numbers and let
a * b = ab/2
Show that (G,*) is an Abelian group.

Solution: We first verify that * is abinary operation. If a and b are elements of G, then
ab/2 is a nonzero real number and hence is in G. We next verify associativity. Since
(a * b ) * c = (ab/2) * c = (ab)c/4
and since
a * (b * c) = a * (bc/2) = a(bc)/4 = (ab)c/4
and the operation * is associative.
The number 2 is the identity in G, for if a G, then
a * 2 = (a)(2)/2 = a = (2)(a)/2 = 2 * a
Finally, if a G then a’= 4/a is an inverse of a, since
a * a’ = a * 4/a = (a(4/a))/2 = 2 = (4/a)(a)/2 = 4/a * a = a’ * a
Since a * b = b * a, for all a and b in G, we conclude that G is an Abelian.

Theorem 2.1 If (G, *) is a group then:

(a) The identity of G is unique.
(b) The inverse of each element in G is unique.

Proof: Proof of (a) is left as an exercise for you.

80
 (b) let a’ and a” be inverses of a. Then
a’(aa”) = a’e = a’
and (a’a)a” = ea” = a”
Hence, by associativity, a’ = a”

Definition 2.3 Let (G, *) be a group. Let a be any element of G. We define a-1 to be the
inverse of a in the group G.

The above definition is used when we think of the group's operation as being a type of
multiplication or product. If instead the operation is denoted by +, we have instead the
following definition.

Definition 2.4 Let (G, +) be a group. Let a be any element of G. We define –a to be the
inverse of a in the group G.

Theorem: Let (G, * ) be a group with identity e. The the following hold for all the lement
a, b, c, d in G.
1. If a * c = a * b then c = b. [Left cancellation law for groups.]
2. If c * a = b * a, then c = b. [Right cancellation law for groups.]
3. Given a and b in G there is a unique element x in G such that a * x = b.
4. Given a and b in G there is a unique element x in G such that x * a = b.
5. If a * b = e then a = b = a for just one a, then b = e.
7. If b * a = a for just one a, then b = e.
8. If a * a = a, then a = e. [The only idempotent in a group is the identity.]
9. (a-1)-1 = a
10. (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1

Subgroups

From now on, unless otherwise stated, G will denote a group whose binary operation is
denoted by a . b or simply ab for a, b G. The identity of G will be denoted by e and the
inverse of a G will be denoted by a-1. Sometimes, however, we may need to discuss
groups whose operations are thought of as addition. In such cases we write a + b instead
of ab. Also in this case, the identity is denoted by 0 and the inverse of a G is denoted
by –a. Definitions and results given using multiplicative notation can always be translated
to additive notation if necessary.

Definition 4.1 Let G be a group. A subgroup of G is a subset H of G which satisfies the

following three conditions:
1. e H
2. If a, b H, then ab H.
3. If a H, then a-1 H
For convenience we sometimes write H<= G to mean that H is a subgroup of G.

81
Example: Let G be a group. Then G and H={e} are subgroups of G, called the trival
subgroups of G.

Example: G is a subgroup of G and e is a subgroup of G. These are called improper

subgroups of G.
Definition: Let a be an element a group G. Define
{a} = {ai: a Z}
We call {a} the subgroup of G generated by a.

Definition: A group G is cyclic if an element of G which generates G.

Theorem: If G is cyclic and H is a subgroup of G, then H is cyclic.

Proof: Suppose G = {a i : i Z} is a cyclic group and H is a subgroup of G. If H = e,

then H is cyclic, so suppose H e. Now there is a smallest positive integer m with am
H. If t is an integer with at H, then by the Euclidean algorithm, m divides t, and thus a
m generates H. Note that in the case G has finite order n, i.e., G = {a0 , a1 , . . . , an-1 } then
an = e H and thus the positive integer m divides n. In either case we have the clear
picture of the subgroup of G.

Cosets: Suppose H is a subgroup of a group G. It will be shown below that H partitions G

into right cosets. It also partitions G into left cosets, and in general these partitions are
distinct.
Theorem If H is a subgroup of a multiplicative group G, then a # b defined by a # b i# a
b1
# H is an equivalence relation. If a # G, cl(a) = {b # G : a # b} =
{h a : h # H} = Ha. Note that a b
= {b # G : a # b} = {h + a :
h # H} = H + a. Note that (a
right cosets. If the relation is
defined by a # b i# b
1
a # H i# a
show they form a partition of G. You might find this easier.
Theorem Suppose H is a subgroup of a multiplicative group G. If a # G, define
the right coset containing a to be Ha = {h a : h # H}. Then the following hold.
1) Ha = H i# a # H.
2) If b # Ha, then Hb = Ha, i.e., if h # H, then H(h a) = (Hh)a = Ha.
3) If Hc # Ha #= #, then Hc = Ha.
4) The right cosets form a partition of G, i.e., each a in G belongs to one and
only one right coset.
5) Elements a and b belong to the same right coset i# a b
a multiplicative group G.

82
Chapter 2 Groups 25
1) Any two right cosets have the same number of elements. That is, if a, b # G,
f : Ha # Hb defined by f(h a) = h b is a bijection. Also any two left cosets
have the same number of elements. Since H is a right and left coset, any
two cosets have the same number of elements.
2) G has the same number of right cosets as left cosets. The function F defined
by F (Ha) = a 1 H is a bijection from the collection of right cosets to the left
cosets. The number of right (or left) cosets is called the index of H in G.
3) If G is finite, o(H) (index of H) = o(G) and so o(H) | o(G). In other words,
o(G)/o(H) = the number of right cosets = the number of left cosets.
4) If G is finite, and a # G, then o(a) | o(G). (Proof: The order of a is the order
of the subgroup generated by a, and by 3) this divides the order of G.)
5) If G has prime order, then G is cyclic, and any element (except e) is a generator.
(Proof: Suppose o(G) = p and a # G, a #= e. Then o(a) | p and thus o(a) = p.)
6) If o(G) = n and a # G, then a n = e. (Proof: a o(a) = e and n = o(a) (o(G)/o(a)) .)
Exercises
i) Suppose G is a cyclic group of order 4, G = {e, a, a 2 , a 3
} with a 4 = e. Find the
order of each element of G. Find all the subgroups of G.
ii) Suppose G is the additive group Z and H = 3Z. Find the cosets of H.
iii) Think of a circle as the interval [0, 1] with end points identified. Suppose G = R
under addition and H = Z. Show that the collection of all the cosets of H
can be thought of as a circle.
iv) Let G = R 2 under addition, and H be the subgroup defined by
H = {(a, 2a) : a # R}. Find the cosets of H. (See the last exercise on p 5.)
Normal Subgroups
We would like to make a group out of the collection of cosets of a subgroup H. In

83
26 Groups Chapter 2
general, there is no natural way to do that. However, it is easy to do in case H is a
normal subgroup, which is described below.
Theorem If H is a subgroup of a group G, then the following are equivalent.
1) If a # G, then aHa 1 = H
2) If a # G, then aHa
We have (aHa
, so
bH = aH because a coset is an equivalence class. Thus aH = Ha.
Finally, suppose 3) is true and show 1). Multiply aH = Ha on the right by a
normal subgroup of G. (This concept goes back to Evariste Galois in 1831.)
Note For any group G, G and e are normal subgroups. If G is an abelian group,
then every subgroup of G is normal.
Exercise Show that if H is a subgroup of G with index 2, then H is normal.
Exercise Show the intersection of a collection of normal subgroups of G is a
normal subgroup of G. Show the union of a monotonic collection of normal subgroups
of G is a normal subgroup of G.
Exercise Let A # R 2 be the square with vertices (
product. Show that with multiplication defined as composition, G is a multiplicative
group. Show that G has four rotations, two reflections about the axes, and two
reflections about the diagonals, for a total of eight elements. Show the collection of
rotations is a cyclic subgroup of order four which is a normal subgroup of G. Show
that the reflection about the x-axis together with the identity form a cyclic subgroup
of order two which is not a normal subgroup of G. Find the four right cosets of this
subgroup. Finally, find the four left cosets of this subgroup.

84
Chapter 2 Groups 27
Quotient Groups Suppose N is a normal subgroup of G, and C and D are
cosets. We wish to define a coset E which is the product of C and D. If c # C and
d # D, define E to be the coset containing c d, i.e., E = N(c d). The coset E does
not depend upon the choice of c and d. This is made precise in the next theorem,
which is quite easy.
Theorem Suppose G is a multiplicative group, N is a normal subgroup, and
G/N is the collection of all cosets. Then (Na) (Nb) = N(a b) is a well de-
fined multiplication (binary operation) on G/N , and with this multiplication, G/N
is a group. Its identity is N and (Na) 1 = (Na
N(Na)b = N(a b). Once multiplication is well defined,
the group axioms are immediate.
Exercise Write out the above theorem for G an additive group. In the additive
abelian group R/Z, determine those elements of finite order.
Example Suppose G = Z under +, n > 1, and N = nZ. Z n , the group of
integers mod n is defined by Z n = Z/nZ. If a is an integer, the coset a + nZ is
denoted by [a]. Note that [a] + [b] = [a + b],
Note that [a] = [r] where r is the remainder of a divided
by n, and thus the distinct elements of Z n are [0], [1], ..., [n
If n > 1 and a is any integer, then [a] is a generator of Z n i# (a, n) = 1.
Proof The element [a] is a generator i# the subgroup generated by [a] contains
[1] i# # an integer k such that [a]k = [1] i# # integers k and l such that ak + nl = 1.
Exercise Show that a positive integer is divisible by 3 i# the sum of its digits is
divisible by 3. Note that [10] = [1] in Z 3 . (See the fifth exercise on page 18.)
Homomorphisms
Homomorphisms are functions between groups that commute with the group op-
erations. It follows that they honor identities and inverses. In this section we list

85
28 Groups Chapter 2
the basic properties. Properties 11), 12), and 13) show the connections between coset
groups and homomorphisms, and should be considered as the cornerstones of abstract
algebra. As always, the student should rewrite the material in additive notation.
Definition If G and
G are multiplicative groups, a function f : G #
G is a
homomorphism if, for all a, b # G, f(a b) = f(a) f(b). On the left side, the group
operation is in G, while on the right side it is in
G. The kernel of f is defined by
ker(f) = f 1 (e) = {a # G : f(a) =
e}. In other words, the kernel is the set of
solutions to the equation f(x) =
e. (If
G is an additive group, ker(f) = f
defined by f(t) = 2t is a homomorphism of additive groups, while the
function defined by f(t) = t +2 is not a homomorphism. The function h : Z # R
t is a homomorphism from an additive group to a multiplicative
group.
We now catalog the basic properties of homomorphisms. These will be helpful
later on in the study of ring homomorphisms and module homomorphisms.
Theorem Suppose G and
G are groups and f : G #
G is a homomorphism.
1) f(e) =
e.
2) f(a

G. In particular, image(f) is
a subgroup of
G.
5) If
H is a subgroup of
G, f
f
has a

86
Chapter 2 Groups 29
solution, then the set of all solutions is a coset of N= ker(f ). This is a key fact
which is used routinely in topics such as systems of equations and linear
di#erential equations.
8) The composition of homomorphisms is a homomorphism, i.e., if h :
G#
=
G is
a homomorphism, then h # f : G # =
G is a homomorphism.
9) If f : G #
G is a bijection, then the function f
isomorphism, and we write G #
G. In the case
G=
G, f is also called an automorphism.
10) Isomorphisms preserve all algebraic properties. For example, if f is an
isomorphism and H # G is a subset, then H is a subgroup of G
i# f(H) is a subgroup of
G, H is normal in G i# f(H) is normal in
G, G is
cyclic i#
G is cyclic, etc. Of course, this is somewhat of a cop-out, because an
algebraic property is one that, by definition, is preserved under isomorphisms.
11) Suppose H is a normal subgroup of G. Then # : G # G/H defined by
#(a) = Ha is a surjective homomorphism with kernel H. Furthermore, if
f:G#
G is a surjective homomorphism with kernel H, then G/H #
G
(see below).
12) Suppose H is a normal subgroup of G. If H # ker(f ), then
f : G/H #
G
defined by
f(Ha) = f(a) is a well-defined homomorphism making
the following diagram commute.
G
G
G/H
f
#
#
#
#
#

87
#
# ##
#

f
Thus defining a homomorphism on a quotient group is the same as defining a
homomorphism on the numerator which sends the denominator to e. The
image of
f is the image of f and the kernel of
f is ker(f)/H. Thus if H = ker(f ),

f is injective, and thus G/H # image(f ).

13) Given any group homomorphism f , domain(f)/ker(f) # image(f). This is
the fundamental connection between quotient groups and homomorphisms.

88
30 Groups Chapter 2
14) Suppose K is a group. Then K is an infinite cycle group i# K is isomorphic to
the integers under addition, i.e., K # Z. K is a cyclic group of order n i#
K#Zn.
Proof of 14) Suppose
G = K is generated by some element a. Then f : Z # K
defined by f(m) = a m is a homomorphism from an additive group to a multiplicative
group. If o(a) is infinite, f is an isomorphism. If o(a) = n, ker(f) = nZ and

f : Z n # K is an isomorphism.
Exercise If a is an element of a group G, there is always a homomorphism from Z
to G which sends 1 to a. When is there a homomorphism from Z n to G which sends [1]
to a? What are the homomorphisms from Z 2 to Z 6 ? What are the homomorphisms
from Z 4 to Z 8 ?
Exercise Suppose G is a group and g is an element of G, g #= e.
1) Under what conditions on g is there a homomorphism f : Z 7 # G with
f ([1]) = g ?
2) Under what conditions on g is there a homomorphism f : Z 15 # G with
f ([1]) = g ?
3) Under what conditions on G is there an injective homomorphism f : Z 15 # G ?
4) Under what conditions on G is there a surjective homomorphism f : Z 15 # G ?
Exercise We know every finite group of prime order is cyclic and thus abelian.
Show that every group of order four is abelian.
Exercise Let G = {h : [0, 1] # R : h has an infinite number of derivatives}.
Then G is a group under addition. Define f : G # G by f(h) = dh
dt = h # . Show f
is a homomorphism and find its kernel and image. Let g : [0, 1] # R be defined by
g(t) = t 3
+
6t 2 h. Then f is a group homomorphism and the di#erential equation h ## +5h # +6t 2 h
=
g has a solution i# g lies in the image of f . Now suppose this equation has a solution
and S # G is the set of all solutions. For which subgroup H of G is S an H-coset?

89
Chapter 2 Groups 31
Exercise Suppose G is a multiplicative group and a # G. Define f : G # G to
be conjugation by a, i.e., f(g) = a 1
g a. Show that f is a homomorphism. Also
show f is an automorphism and find its inverse.
Permutations
Suppose X is a (non-void) set. A bijection f : X # X is called a permutation
on X, and the collection of all these permutations is denoted by S = S(X). In this
setting, variables are written on the left, i.e., f = (x)f . Therefore the composition
f #g means ``f followed by g''. S(X) forms a multiplicative group under composition.
Exercise Show that if there is a bijection between X and Y , there is an iso-
morphism between S(X) and S(Y ). Thus if each of X and Y has n elements,
S(X) # S(Y ), and these groups are called the symmetric groups on n elements.
They are all denoted by the one symbol S n .
Exercise Show that o(S n ) = n!. Let X = {1, 2, ..., n}, S n = S(X), and H =
{f # S n : (n)f = n}. Show H is a subgroup of S n which is isomorphic to S n
group with n
elements and S n is the group of all permutations on the set G. Then G is isomorphic
to a subgroup of S n .
Proof Let h : G # S n be the function which sends a to the bijection h a : G # G
defined by (g)h a = g a. The proof follows from the following observations.
1) For each given a, h a is a bijection from G to G.
2) h is a homomorphism, i.e., h ab = h a # h b .
3) h is injective and thus G is isomorphic to image(h) # S n .
The Symmetric Groups Now let n # 2 and let S n be the group of all permu-
tations on {1, 2, ..., n}. The following definition shows that each element of S n may

90
32 Groups Chapter 2
be represented by a matrix.
Definition Suppose 1 < k # n, {a 1 , a 2 , ..., a k } is a collection of distinct inte-
gers with 1 # a i # n, and {b 1 , b 2 , ..., b k } is the same collection in some di#erent
order.
Then the matrix # a 1 a 2 ... a k
b 1 b 2 ... b k
# represents f # S n defined by (a i )f = b i for 1 # i # k,
and (a)f = a for all other a. The composition of two permutations is computed by
applying the matrix on the left first and the matrix on the right second.
There is a special type of permutation called a cycle. For these we have a special
notation.
Definition # a 1 a 2 ...a k
..., c # ) are disjoint
provided a i #= c j for all 1 # i # k and 1 # j # #.
Listed here are eight basic properties of permutations. They are all easy except
4), which takes a little work. Properties 9) and 10) are listed solely for reference.
Theorem
1) Disjoint cycles commute. (This is obvious.)
2) Every nonidentity permutation can be written uniquely (except for order) as
the product of disjoint cycles. (This is easy.)
3) Every permutation can be written (non-uniquely) as the product of transposi-
tions. (Proof: I = (1, 2)(1, 2) and (a 1 , ..., a k ) = (a 1 , a 2 )(a 1 , a 3 ) (a 1 , a k ). )
4) The parity of the number of these transpositions is unique. This means that if
f is the product of p transpositions and also of q transpositions, then p is
even i# q is even. In this case, f is said to be an even permutation. In the other
case, f is an odd permutation.
5) A k-cycle is even (odd) i# k is odd (even). For example (1, 2, 3) = (1, 2)(1, 3) is
an even permutation.
6) Suppose f, g # S n . If one of f and g is even and the other is odd, then g # f is

91
Chapter 2 Groups 33
odd. If f and g are both even or both odd, then g # f is even. (Obvious.)
7) The map h : S n # Z 2 defined by h(even)= [0] and h(odd)= [1] is a
homomorphism from a multiplicative group to an additive group. Its kernel (the
subgroup of even permutations) is denoted by A n and is called the alternating
group. Thus A n is a normal subgroup of index 2, and S n /A n # Z 2 .
8) If a, b, c and d are distinct integers in {1, 2, . . . , n}, then (a, b)(b, c) = (a, c, b)
and (a, b)(c, d) = (a, c, d)(a, c, b). Since I = (1, 2, 3) 3 , it follows that for
n # 3, every even permutation is the product of 3-cycles.
The following parts are not included in this course. They are presented here merely
for reference.
9) For any n #= 4, A n is simple, i.e., has no proper normal subgroups.
10) S n can be generated by two elements. In fact, {(1, 2), (1, 2, ..., n)} generates S n .
(Of course there are subgroups of S n which cannot be generated by two
elements).
Proof of 4) It su#ces to prove if the product of t transpositions is the identity I
on {1, 2, . . . , n}, then t is even. Suppose this is false and I is written as t transposi-
tions, where t is the smallest odd integer this is possible. Since t is odd, it is at least 3.
Suppose for convenience the first transposition is (a, n). We will rewrite I as a prod-
uct of transpositions # 1 # 2 # t where (n)# i = (n) for 1 # i < t and (n)# t #= n, which
will be a contradiction. This can be done by inductively ``pushing n to the right''
using the equations below. If a, b, and c are distinct integers in {1, 2, . . . , n
a, n). Note that (a, n)(a, n) cannot occur here because it would
result in a shorter odd product. (Now you may solve the tile puzzle on page viii.)
Exercise
1) Write # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6543172
# as the product of disjoint cycles.
Write (1,5,6,7)(2,3,4)(3,7,1) as the product of disjoint cycles.
Write (3,7,1)(1,5,6,7)(2,3,4) as the product of disjoint cycles.
Which of these permutations are odd and which are even?

92
34 Groups Chapter 2
2) Suppose (a 1 , . . . , a k ) and (c 1 , . . . , c # ) are disjoint cycles. What is the order of
their product?
3) Suppose # # S n . Show that #
4, 5)# .
4) Show that H = {# # S 6 : (6)# = 6} is a subgroup of S 6 and find its right
cosets and its left cosets.
5) Let A # R 2 be the square with vertices (
that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of S 8 . Show that G is isomorphic
to a subgroup of S 4 .
6) If G is a multiplicative group, define a new multiplication on the set G by
a # b = b a. In other words, the new multiplication is the old multiplication
in the opposite order. This defines a new group denoted by G op , the opposite
group. Show that it has the same identity and the same inverses as G, and
that f : G # G op defined by f(a) = a
ariable written on the left.
Show that an element of S op
n is a permutation on {1, 2, . . . , n} with the variable
written on the right. (Of course, either S n or S op
n may be called the symmetric
group, depending on personal preference or context.)
Product of Groups
The product of groups is usually presented for multiplicative groups. It is pre-
sented here for additive groups because this is the form that occurs in later chapters.
As an exercise, this section should be rewritten using multiplicative notation. The
two theorems below are transparent and easy, but quite useful. For simplicity we
first consider the product of two groups, although the case of infinite products is only
slightly more di#cult. For background, read first the two theorems on page 11.
Theorem Suppose G 1 and G 2 are additive groups. Define an addition on G 1 G 2
by (a 1 , a 2 ) + (b 1 , b 2 ) = (a 1 + b 1 , a 2 + b 2 ). This operation makes G 1 G 2 into a
group.
Its ``zero'' is (0
1,0
2 ) and
Chapter 2 Groups 35
and # 2 : G 1 G 2 # G 2 are group homomorphisms. Suppose G is an additive group.
We know there is a bijection from {functions f : G # G 1 G 2 } to {ordered pairs of
functions (f 1 , f 2 ) where f 1 : G # G 1 and f 2 : G # G 2 }. Under this bijection, f is a
group homomorphism i# each of f 1 and f 2 is a group homomorphism.
Proof It is transparent that the product of groups is a group, so let's prove
the last part. Suppose G, G 1 , and G 2 are groups and f = (f 1 , f 2 ) is a function
from G to G 1 G 2 . Now f(a + b) = (f 1 (a + b), f 2 (a + b)) and f(a) + f(b) =
(f 1 (a), f 2 (a)) + (f 1 (b), f 2 (b)) = (f 1 (a) + f 1 (b), f 2 (a) + f 2 (b)). An examination of
these
two equations shows that f is a group homomorphism i# each of f 1 and f 2 is a group

93
homomorphism.
Exercise Suppose G 1 and G 2 are groups. Show that G 1 G 2 and G 2 G 1 are
isomorphic.
Exercise If o(a 1 ) = m and o(a 2 ) = n, find the order of (a 1 , a 2 ) in G 1 G 2 .
Exercise Show that if G is any group of order 4, G is isomorphic to Z 4 or Z 2 Z 2 .
Show Z 4 is not isomorphic to Z 2 Z 2 . Show Z 12 is isomorphic to Z 4 Z 3 . Finally,
show that Zmn is isomorphic to Zm Z n i# (m, n) = 1.
Exercise Suppose G 1 and G 2 are groups and i 1 : G 1 # G 1 G 2 is defined by
i 1 (g 1 ) = (g 1 , 0
‫ ו‬2 ). Show i 1 is an injective group homomorphism and its image is a
normal subgroup of G 1 G 2 . Usually G 1 is identified with its image under i 1 , so G 1
may be considered to be a normal subgroup of G 1 G 2 . Let # 2 : G 1 G 2 # G 2
be the projection map defined in the Background chapter. Show # 2 is a surjective
homomorphism with kernel G 1 . Therefore (G 1 G 2 )/G 1 # G 2 as you would expect.
Exercise Let R be the reals under addition. Show that the addition in the
product RR is just the usual addition in analytic geometry.
Exercise Suppose n > 2. Is S n isomorphic to A n G where G is a multiplicative
group of order 2 ?
One nice thing about the product of groups is that it works fine for any finite
number, or even any infinite number. The next theorem is stated in full generality.

94
36 Groups Chapter 2
Theorem Suppose T is an index set, and for any t # T , G t is an additive
group. Define an addition on #
t#T
G t = # G t by {a t } + {b t } = {a t + b t }. This op-
eration makes the product into a group. Its ``zero'' is {0 t } and
f t } t#T where f t : G # G t }, f is a group homomorphism
i# each f t is a group homomorphism. Finally, the scalar multiplication on # G t
by integers is given coordinatewise, i.e., {a t }n = {a t n}.
Proof The addition on # G t is coordinatewise.
Exercise Suppose s is an element of T and # s : # G t # G s is the projection map
defined in the Background chapter. Show # s is a surjective homomorphism and find
its kernel.
Exercise Suppose s is an element of T and i s : G s # # G t is defined by i s (a) =
{a t } where a t = 0

if t #= s and a s = a. Show i s is an injective homomorphism

and its image is a normal subgroup of # G t . Thus each G s may be considered to be
a normal subgroup of # G t .
Exercise Let f : Z # Z 30 Z 100 be the homomorphism defined by f(m) =
([4m], [3m]). Find the kernel of f. Find the order of ([4], [3]) in Z 30 Z 100 .
Exercise Let f : Z # Z 90 Z 70 Z 42 be the group homomorphism defined by
f(m) = ([m], [m], [m]). Find the kernel of f and show that f is not surjective. Let
g : Z # Z 45 Z 35 Z 21 be defined by g(m) = ([m], [m], [m]). Find the kernel of
g and determine if g is surjective. Note that the gcd of {45, 35, 21} is 1. Now let
h : Z # Z 8 Z 9 Z 35 be defined by h(m) = ([m], [m], [m]). Find the kernel of h
and show that h is surjective. Finally suppose each of b, c, and d is greater than 1
and f : Z # Z b Z c Z d is defined by f(m) = ([m], [m], [m]). Find necessary and
su#cient conditions for f to be surjective (see the first exercise on page 18).
Exercise Suppose T is a non-void set, G is an additive group, and G T is the
collection of all functions f : T # G with addition defined by (f +g)(t) = f(t)+g(t).
Show G T is a group. For each t # T , let G t = G. Note that G T is just another way
of writing #
t#T
G t . Also note that if T = [0, 1] and G = R, the addition defined on
G T is just the usual addition of functions used in calculus. (For the ring and module
versions, see exercises on pages 44 and 69.)

95