Anatomical Principles of

Endoscopic Sinus Surgery:

A Step by Step Approach
Anatomical Principles of
Endoscopic Sinus Surgery:
A Step by Step Approach

Renuka Bradoo
MS DORL
Professor and Head
Department of ENT
and
Head and Neck Surgery
Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College
and General Hospital
Sion, Mumbai

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Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

© 2005, Renuka Bradoo
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher.

This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by author is original.
Every effort is made to ensure accuracy of material, but the publisher, printer and author will
not be held responsible for any inadvertent error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal matters
are to be settled under Delhi jurisdiction only.

First Edition : 2005

ISBN 81-8061-346-1

Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit

Printed at Gopsons Papers Ltd., A-14, Sector 60, Noida
 Dedicated
to

Anil
For being both my anchor and the wind in my sails

Anjali and Anant Savant

My parents
For translating my dreams into reality

Mohini and Mohanlal Bradoo

My in-laws
For their unstinting support always

And
Rishi and Hriday
Who make it all worthwhile
 Foreword

Endoscopic Sinus Surgery (ESS) has progressed immensely in the last 2 decades. The interest in the
subject and the desire to acquire proficiency in the surgical technique has led to enthusiastic attendance
at numerous ‘workshops’ being conducted in India and abroad. The introduction of motorized
instruments, laser, image guided surgery etc., and the evolving concepts of the ‘right way’ to do the
surgery are steps to making this procedure as ‘functional’ as possible. The basic need of the aspiring
surgeon however, is still an accurate knowledge of the anatomy of the region, a 3 dimensional
concept, which will allow him to approach and clear disease from the narrow recesses of the nose
and the paranasal sinuses and restore function to near normal.
Dr Renuka Bradoo, who is currently the Professor and Head, Department of ENT and Head and
Neck Surgery at the Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College and General Hospital, Mumbai,
has been an outstanding teacher, a skilled surgeon and a brilliant speaker as evidenced by the
numerous lectures and workshops she has conducted in ESS.
She has been interested in the subject for many years. This book authored by her exemplifies her
methodical approach and the tremendous efforts she has put into make it as complete as possible.
The book has been well planned and carries several colored illustrations of very high quality. The
text in the various chapters is excellent in its clarity of presentation. I am confident that this book will
be of immense value to all aspiring and established sinus surgeons.

Dr MV Kirtane
Mumbai
 Preface
This book was not planned to be written. It grew out of my experience and took on an identity of its
own. Over the last few years, I have been guest faculty at various endoscopic sinus surgery workshops
throughout the country besides conducting workshops at my own institution. One of the lectures I
am often asked to take is the one on the anatomy of lateral nasal wall. Almost invariably, after the
lecture various colleagues would approach me to know where they could access the material I had
just discussed, on a regular basis. It was then, that I realized the need for a book dedicated exclusively
to anatomy of the nose and paranasal sinuses as viewed by an endoscopic surgeon. It also went hand
in hand with my absolute belief that to be a safe but effective endoscopic sinus surgeon one needs
to have a very strong foundation of anatomy. In fact, the entire skull should be mapped in 3-
dimensional form in the surgeon’s brain. It is with this in mind that I have written a separate chapter
on osteology.

Two chapters which complement each other include the anatomy of the Lateral Nasal Wall as
seen in sagittal section and the Endoscopic Anatomy as seen by the surgeon in a live patient. These
are illustrated in a stepwise manner. The chapter on Endoscopic Anatomy is accompanied by a
CD-ROM.

Another prerequisite of a clinically sound surgeon is that he should be able to read the fine
nuances of a CT scan of the paranasal sinuses. Anyone can say whether the sinuses are diseased or
normal. What is required is to have a detailed knowledge of both normal findings and anatomical
variations seen on the CT scan so that it can be used as a compass or road map during surgery. I have
therefore included two chapters, one on reading the normal CT scan and a separate one on deviations
from the normal.

The chapter on surgical anatomy is more of a summary of different facts that we already know
or should know, put together in one comprehensive capsule.

The first chapter, very suitably, deals with embryology of the nose and paranasal sinuses because
‘….he sees things best who sees them from the beginning’. It answers in many cases- the reason
why?

I have tried to illustrate the book extensively using cadaveric dissection specimens with
explanatory line diagrams alongside. There are also endoscopic pictures, CT scans and schematic
diagrams.

I hope this book proves to be useful to you and that you enjoy reading it as much as I have
enjoyed writing it.

Renuka Bradoo
 Acknowledgements
The book has my name on its cover, but I owe this effort to many people who have touched my life
in so many ways.

I would like to thank all my patients who have been my first and foremost teachers. Dr Gadre,
Dr Bhargava and Dr Morwani, my teachers in the formal sense, opened up the vistas of ENT for me.
I have learnt a great deal from Dr Kirtane, whom I think of as a guru. Dr Dale Rice first sparked off
my interest in endoscopic sinus surgery when I watched him operate on his visit to India. I never
cease to be amazed by the poetry of Dr Sethi’s surgery. Watching him has helped me to fine tune
many of my surgical techniques.

I have been fortunate in having an excellent faculty in my department—Dr Nerurkar, Dr Joshi

and Dr Kalel. They have held the fort whenever I have been away and made valuable suggestions.
I also take this opportunity to thank my residents and Dr Sujata Muranjan for the numerous times
that they have burnt the midnight oil with me. Dr Mishra helped me research the first chapter of
Embryology. My very special thanks to Dr Jayesh Shah, my student and now my colleague without
whose hard work and persistence this book would have remained just a dream and never have seen
the light of the day.

There are a myriad of technical inputs which go into making a book like this one. I would like to
thank M/s Chimco Biomedical and Infometry for helping me to shoot the endoscopic images,
Mr Khan and Mr Chandrakant Desai for photographing the cadaveric images and Mr Krishna Patil
and Ganesh for the artwork. Dr PP Rao helped me with digitizing the images. Mrs Lakshmi Nakhawa
was invaluable as always for her secretarial help and her down to earth common sense. The “other”
Lakshmi, Ms Lakshmi Perla typed the manuscript many times over.

I owe my thanks to various Heads of Departments—Dr Athaviya, Head, Department of Anatomy

and Dr Pathak, Head, Department of Forensic Medicine for providing me cadavers on which I could
conduct my dissections and research, Dr Merchant and Dr Joshi of the Department of Radiology for
letting me choose CT scans from their archives. I would also like to thank, Dr ME Yeolekar, Dean,
Lokmanya Tilak Municipal Medical College and General Hospital.

On a personal note, my family and friends have always been a tremendous support system
cushioning me in my setbacks and rejoicing in my triumphs.
 Contents

1. Embryology 3

2. Osteology 13

3. The Lateral Nasal Wall 31

4. Endoscopic Anatomy 59

5. Radiological Anatomy 73

6. Anatomical Variations 89

7. Surgical Anatomy 109

In Conclusion ... 115

Index 117
 Abbreviations
A Atrium
AEA Anterior ethmoid artery
AEC Anterior ethmoid cell
Ag Agger nasi
AO Accessory ostium
B Bulla ethmoidalis
CG Crista galli
EO Eustachian tube opening
FS Frontal sinus
FI Frontal infundibulum
FO Frontal ostium
FR Frontal recess
GL Ground lamella
HSI Hiatus semilunaris inferioris
HSS Hiatus semilunaris superioris
I Infundibulum
ICA Internal carotid artery
IT Inferior turbinate
LP Lamina papyracea
MO Maxillary ostium
MR Medial rectus
MS Maxillary sinus
MT Maxillary turbinate
NLD Nasolacrimal duct
ON Optic nerve
PEA Posterior ethmoid artery
PEC Posterior ethmoid cell
Pit Pituitary
PPF Pterygopalatine fossa
S Septum
SER Sphenoethmoidal recess
SL Sinus lateralis
SO Sphenoid ostium
SS Sphenoid sinus
ST Superior turbinate
U Uncinate process
V Vestibule
 Embryology

“He who sees things grow from the beginning,

will have the finest view of them”
—Aristotle (384-322 BC)
1 Embryology

The development of the nose and paranasal sinuses needs to be studied in

conjunction with the development of the face, in order to have a complete
understanding of the subject. Facial development takes place mainly between
the 4th and 8th weeks of intrauterine life, during which time a mass of
undifferentiated swellings at the head end of the fetus undergo growth and
remodelling to form a distinctly recognizable human profile. The face
develops from five facial swellings that surround the stomodeum or primitive
mouth by the end of the 4th week. The swellings consist of a central unpaired
process called the frontonasal process, a pair of maxillary and a pair of
mandibular processes. The maxillary and mandibular processes are both sub-
divisions of the first pharyngeal arch. The frontonasal process is the
downward proliferation of the ectoderm over the forebrain (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1: The 5-week embryo—formation of facial processes

4 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 1.2: The 6-week embryo

Fig. 1.3: The 7-week embryo—medial migration of maxillary process

During the 5th week, a pair of ectodermal thickenings appear on the

frontonasal process. These are called the nasal placodes. In the 6th week, the
ectoderm in the center of each nasal placode invaginates to form an oval
nasal pit. The raised rims of these nasal pits form the lateral and medial nasal
processes (Fig. 1.2). During the 6th and 7th weeks, the maxillary processes on
either side increase in size and grow medially. This medial migration of the
maxillary processes causes the medial nasal processes to move towards each
other. As the maxillary processes grow medially, they fuse first with the
lateral nasal process and then with the medial nasal process. This separates
the nasal pits from the stomodeum (Fig. 1.3).
The medial nasal processes fuse with each other to form the intermaxillary
process. The central tissues of the intermaxillary process get pushed upwards
to form the nasal prominence characteristic of human beings. The inter-
maxillary process forms the central bridge of the nose and the central portion
 Embryology 5

Fig. 1.4: Medial nasal processes fuse to form intermaxillary process.

Maxillary and mandibular process fuse to form cheek

of the upper lip called the philtrum (Fig. 1.4). At the end of the 6th week, the
nasal pits deepen and coalesce to form a single cavity behind the intermaxillary
process. This cavity is initially separated from the stomodeum lying below it
by a thin membrane called the oronasal membrane. This membrane ruptures
during the 7th week to form the primitive choana, which is the opening of the
primitive nasal cavity into the stomodeum or developing mouth (Figs 1.5A
and B).
The intermaxillary process grows backward to form the nasal septum.
The lateral nasal processes enlarge to form the nasal alae. They also grow
backwards to form the lateral nasal wall. This developing lateral nasal wall

Fig. 1.5A: A 6-week embryo—showing the primitive nasal cavity which is

separated from the oral cavity by the oronasal membrane
6 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 1.5B: A 7-week embryo—breakdown of oronasal membrane

Fig. 1.6: A 9-week embryo—formation of secondary

palate and definitive choana

shows multiple anteroposterior elevations, which are finally reduced to three

or occasionally four in number. These are the turbinates, which overhang
corresponding meatii (Fig. 1.6).
The maxillary processes fuse with the lateral nasal processes. The junction
of their fusion is marked by a groove called the nasolacrimal or naso-optic
groove. By the 7th week, this groove invaginates into the underlying
 Embryology 7

mesenchyme to form the nasolacrimal duct. The canalization of nasolacrimal

duct continues throughout pregnancy and may not be complete till after birth.
The floor of the nasal cavity, which is the hard palate, is formed during
the 8th and 9th week. The medial surfaces of the maxillary processes form
thin medial extensions called palatine shelves. These shelves first grow
downwards on either side of the developing tongue; but by the end of the
9th week, they rotate upwards into a horizontal position. They then fuse with
each other in the midline and with the primary palate anteriorly to form the
secondary palate. The secondary palate also fuses with the lower border of
the developing nasal septum. The nasal cavity is thus divided into two nasal
passages, which open into the pharynx behind the secondary palate through
openings called the definitive choanae (Figs 1.7A to C). The mandibular pro-
cesses grow medially and fuse in the midline to form the lower lip and jaw.
On day 24, the buccopharyngeal membrane in the depths of the stomodeum
ruptures to form a broad, slit-like embryonic mouth. The mouth is reduced
to its final width during the second month as fusion of the lateral portion of
the maxillary and mandibular processes create the cheeks.
At birth, the volume of the cranial vault is seven times the volume of the
facial skeleton. This ratio steadily decreases during infancy and childhood.
This is mainly as a result of the growth of four pairs of paranasal sinuses and
the development of the teeth.

Fig. 1.7A: The 8-week embryo—formation of palatine shelves

8 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 1.7B: The 9-week embryo—rotation of palatine shelves

Fig. 1.7C: Formation of definitive nasal and oral cavity

 Embryology 9

Table 1.1: Structures contributing to formation of the face (Fig. 1.8)

Processes Structures formed

Frontonasal Forehead, bridge of nose, medial and lateral nasal prominences

Maxillary Cheeks, lateral portion of upper lip
Medial nasal Philtrum of upper lip, crest and tip of nose, septum
Lateral nasal Alae of nose, lateral nasal wall
Mandibular Lower lip and jaw

Fig. 1.8

The sinuses develop from invaginations of the nasal cavity that extend into
the surrounding bones. The maxillary and ethmoid sinuses develop in utero
during the 3rd and 5th fetal months respectively. The maxillary sinus is in the
form of an elongated sac in the neonate. With the eruption of the deciduous
teeth, it enlarges to become three times longer anteroposteriorly and five times
greater in height and width. Thus, the floor of the maxillary sinus which is
above the floor of the nasal cavity at birth, lies below it in adults. The ethmoid
sinuses are small before the age of two years, then grow rapidly till 6 to 8 years
but do not complete their growth until puberty.
Around the second year of life, the most anterior ethmoid cells grow into
the frontal bone to form the frontal sinuses. The frontal sinuses are visible on
X-rays by the seventh year of life. Between the second and fifth years, the
most posterior ethmoid cells grow into the sphenoid bone to form the sphenoid
sinus. The frontal sinuses do not start developing until the second postnatal
year. Sphenoid sinuses do not usually develop until fifth year of life.
Growth of the paranasal sinuses not only changes the shape and the size of
the face in childhood but also adds resonance to the voice in adolescence.
 Osteology

“Don’t loose the wood for the trees,

..... get the whole picture first!”
2 Osteology

There are two ways to study any concept:

The swiss cheese technique in which one picks out the important salient features
first and gradually gets the idea of the whole concept. The second is the
building block technique where one breaks down the whole concept into its
component parts, studies each part separately and then puts it together again
to form the whole picture. We will use this building block technique to study
the complex anatomy of the lateral nasal wall.
The cadaveric head when cut in the immediate para-saggital plane reveals
the lateral nasal wall. On first impression, this area appears as a series of
elevations and depressions. The lateral nasal wall extends from the nasal
vestibule to the posterior choana, which is formed by the medial surface of the
medial pterygoid plate. The nasopharynx extends beyond the posterior choana
up to the pre-vertebral muscles. What strikes us immediately is that the nasal
airway extends up to approximately 50 percent of the distance of the entire
sagittal section of the head (Fig. 2.1).
The nasal mucosa is stripped off the underlying bones (Figs 2.2A and B).
We see that the lateral nasal wall is formed by eight separate bones, each of
which have processes that articulate intricately with each other (Fig. 2.3). There
are four large bones; the maxilla, the frontal, the ethmoid and the sphenoid,
and four small bones; the inferior turbinate, the lacrimal, the palatine and the
nasal bones. Of these, the frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid are single unpaired
bones in the midline of the skull. The others are paired bones. Hence, although
there are two sphenoid, two frontal and two ethmoid sinuses, there is only a
single sphenoid, frontal and ethmoid bone. We will now disarticulate all the
bones and study the relevant anatomy of each bone. Having done that we will
re-articulate them to study the lateral nasal wall as a whole.
14 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 2.1: Parasagittal section of the head

 Osteology 15

Figs 2.2A and B: Articulated bones that form part of the lateral nasal wall

Fig. 2.3: Disarticulated bones

16 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 2.4A and B: Maxilla

The Maxilla (Figs 2.4A and B)

The maxilla forms the base or the framework on which the lateral nasal wall
is built and so we will study it first. The lateral nasal wall is formed by the
 Osteology 17

Fig. 2.5: Red—descending process of the lacrimal bone. Green—uncinate process. Yellow—
maxillary process of the inferior turbinate. Blue—perpendicular plate of the palatine bone

medial surface of the maxilla. What is most obvious is a large opening into the
maxillary sinus. We know that in the live patient the maxillary sinus opening
is small and not easily seen. This is because the large opening in the maxillary
bone is closed off by processes of different bones, which narrow the opening.
These processes are:
• The descending process of the lacrimal bone anteriorly
• The uncinate process of the ethmoid bone anteroinferiorly
• The maxillary process of the inferior turbinate inferiorly
• The perpendicular plate of the palatine bone posteriorly (Fig. 2.5).
Certain areas are covered by only a double layer of mucosa of the nasal
cavity and the maxillary sinus. These are the anterior and posterior fontanelles.
Occasionally, these double layers of the mucosa may be dehiscent to produce
accessory ostia. The normal maxillary ostium is hidden deep behind the inter-
mediate portion of the uncinate process.
Anterior to the maxillary hiatus, the maxillary bone is drawn into a process,
which extends superiorly. Since the upper border of this process articulates
with the frontal bone and the anterior border articulates with the nasal bone,
this process is called the frontonasal process of the maxilla. The medial surface
of this process shows two crests. The upper one is the ethmoidal crest. The
18 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

most anterior part of the middle turbinate is attached to this ethmoidal crest.
The agger nasi cells also overlie this crest anterior to the attachment of the
middle turbinate. Pneumatization of this part of the frontonasal process along
with the adjacent lacrimal bone contributes to the formation of the agger nasi
cells. The lower crest is called the conchal crest and gives attachment to the
inferior turbinate. The smooth area below the conchal crest forms part of the
inferior meatus.
Immediately behind the frontonasal process is a groove. This groove is closed
by the lacrimal bone and the lacrimal process of the inferior turbinate to form
a canal for the nasolacrimal duct. The frontonasal process is a thick bone, whilst
the lacrimal bone is quite thin. Therefore, it is interesting to know that although
the lateral wall of the nasolacrimal duct is formed by thick bone, its medial
wall is formed by fairly thin bone, which can be easily damaged.
Posterior to the hiatus at the junction of the medial and the posterior wall
of the maxilla is a roughened area called the maxillary tuberosity. This area
has an oblique groove which when completed by the perpendicular plate of
the palatine bone forms the canal for the greater palatine vessels and nerve.
The endoscopic surgeon must also understand the anatomy of the roof of
the maxillary sinus and its posterior wall. The roof is formed by the orbital
surface of the maxilla and is marked by the infraorbital canal, which may
sometimes be dehiscent to expose its contents, namely, the infraorbital vessels
and nerve. The posterolateral wall of the maxillary sinus is smooth and
featureless and comprises of fairly thin bone. It separates the maxillary sinus
from the pterygopalatine fossa medially and the infratemporal fossa laterally.

The Frontal Bone (Figs 2.6A and B)

The contribution of the frontal bone to the lateral nasal wall is best understood
by looking at its basal view. In the centre of the bone is a hiatus, which is

Figs 2.6A and B: Frontal bone

 Osteology 19

filled, in the living person by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid. On either
side of this hiatus are a variable number of air cells. These are the anterior and
posterior ethmoid air cells. The roof of these air cells is the skull base or the
ethmoid fovea. Thus, the ethmoid fovea is at a higher level than the cribriform
plate. The lateral border of these air cells articulates with the lamina papyracea
of the ethmoid bone. It is at the junction of these suture lines between the
lamina and the frontal bone that there exist the anterior and posterior ethmoidal
foramina transmitting their respective arteries. Lateral to the lamina papyracea
is the orbit. Anteriorly and in the midline, the frontal bone is elongated to form
the nasal spine. This spine articulates with the nasal bones, which help in
forming the anteriormost portion of the lateral nasal wall.

The Ethmoid Bone (Figs 2.7A and B)

The ethmoid bone is a single delicate bone consisting of numerous air cells—
the ethmoidal sinuses. It consists of a horizontal plate, i.e. the cribriform plate
and a vertical plate in the midline, i.e. the perpendicular plate. The
perpendicular plate forms the posterior part of the septum.

Fig. 2.7A: Ethmoid bone (coronal view) Fig. 2.7B: Ethmoid bone (axial view)

The cribriform plate fits into the notch in the frontal bone and separates the
nose from the anterior cranial fossa, more specifically, the gyrus rectus and the
olfactory bulb. It is perforated by many foramina, which transmit the olfactory
nerves as well as the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries. On the upper
surface of the cribriform plate in the midline is a projection, which is called the
crista galli. The crista galli is occasionally pneumatized (Fig. 2.8). On closer
examination, the cribriform plate shows a horizontal medial lamella and an
oblique or vertical lateral lamella. This lateral lamella articulates with the frontal
bone. Thus, the skull base in this region—the ethmoid fovea—is formed
medially by the lateral lamella of the cribriform plate, which is very thin bone
and laterally by the frontal bone, which in contrast is a thicker bone. The frontal
20 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 2.8: The cribriform plate and ethmoid

fovea: (1) Horizontal lamella, (2) Lateral
lamella, (3) Orbital plate of frontal bone,
(4) Anterior ethmoidal artery

bone forming the ethmoid fovea is 0.5 mm in thickness while the lateral lamella
of the cribriform plate is 0.2 mm. The region where the anterior ethmoidal
artery pierces the dura medially is the thinnest area in the base skull and is
only 0.05 mm in thickness. The length of the lateral lamella and the depth of
the olfactory fossa are classified by Keros into 3 types:
• Type I — 1-3 mm
• Type II — 4-7 mm
• Type III — 8-17 mm
Lateral to the perpendicular plate on either side, are two masses of air cells—
the ethmoidal sinuses (Fig. 2.9). They are bounded medially by the middle

Fig. 2.9: The basal view of the arti-

culated frontal and ethmoid bones:
(1) perpendicular plate (white),
(2) middle turbinate (blue), (3)
uncinate process (green), (4) ethmoid
air cells (yellow) and lamina papy-
racea
 Osteology 21

and superior turbinate and laterally by the paper-thin lamina papyracea, which
separates the ethmoid from the orbit. Occasionally, there may be a supreme
turbinate above the superior turbinate. It is important to know that although
the inferior turbinate is a separate bone, the middle and superior turbinates
are parts of the ethmoid bone. The middle turbinate overhangs a space called
the middle meatus. Similarly, the space under the superior turbinate is the
superior meatus.
The middle turbinate is a thin sheet of bone, which curves in different planes
very similar to a dried leaf. Its most anterior attachment is in the sagittal plane
to the frontonasal process of the maxilla and cribriform plate. It then turns
laterally to be attached in the coronal plane to the lamina papyracea. This
attachment is called the basal or ground lamella. Its most posterior attachment
is in the horizontal plane along the lamina papyracea and the perpendicular
plate of the palatine bone up to the roof of the posterior choana.
A gently curved bony process lies almost free within the middle meatus
partially covering the maxillary sinus opening. This is the uncinate process. It
articulates anteriorly with the lacrimal bone and at its posterior end with the
inferior turbinate and perpendicular plate of palatine bone.
The ethmoid cells are divided into two groups: The anterior ethmoid cells,
which lie anterior to the ground lamella of the middle turbinate and open in
the middle meatus. The posterior ethmoid cells, which lie behind the ground
lamella and open into the superior meatus or sphenoethmoidal recess. The
ground lamella may be displaced anteriorly or posteriorly depending on the
relative extent of pneumatization of the anterior or posterior ethmoidal air
cells. The ethmoidal bulla is a large and fairly constant anterior ethmoid air
cell . The ethmoidal cells are incomplete superiorly and posteriorly. They are
completed superiorly by the frontal bone and posteriorly by the sphenoid bone.
(Figs 2.10A and B). The ethmoid cells tend to migrate into the surrounding
bones to develop variable patterns of pneumatization.

Fig. 2.10A: Frontal view of the articulated

frontal and ethmoid bones Fig. 2.10B: The articulated frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid bones
22 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

These paths of pneumatization include (see Figs 6.11A and B):

• Anterosuperiorly—into the frontal bone to form the frontal sinus.
• Superiorly—above the ethmoidal bulla over the orbit and behind the frontal
sinus to form the supraorbital cell.
• Inferolaterally—into the roof of the maxillary sinus as the Haller cell.
• Posteriorly—above the sphenoid sinus as the Onodi cell.
• Anteriorly—into the lacrimal bone and frontonasal process of the maxilla
as the agger nasi cells.
• Superiorly—into the frontal recess to form the different types of frontal
cells.
• Isolated cells may be present within the ethmoid infundibulum. These are
the infundibular cells (see Figs 3.12A and B).

The Sphenoid Bone (Figs 2.11A and B)

The sphenoid bone closes off the back of the nasal cavity and separates it from
the anterior and middle cranial fossa. It is in relation with important structures

Figs 2.11A and B: Sphenoid bone

 Osteology 23

like the optic nerve and the carotid artery, making a good understanding of its
anatomy very important to the operating surgeon.
Seen from the front, the sphenoid bone looks (with a little imagination!)
like a bat with outstretched wings. The central portion is the body of the
sphenoid, which is pneumatized by the two sphenoid sinuses. Anteriorly, in
the midline is a strong triangular process called the rostrum, which articulates
with the vomer.
Extending laterally from the central body on either side are a pair of
greater wings and lesser wings. The retort-shaped superior orbital fissure lies
between the greater and lesser wings. The lesser wing is attached to the body
by two roots between which lies the optic canal. This canal transmits the optic
nerve with its meninges and the ophthalmic artery. A stout process extends
downwards on either side at the junction of the greater wing and the body of
the sphenoid. This is the pterygoid process. It splits into the medial and lateral
pterygoid plates. The medial pterygoid plate forms the lateral wall of the
posterior choana. The lateral pterygoid plate is not in direct relation with the
nasal cavity. The anterior surface of the pterygoid process forms the posterior
wall of the pterygopalatine fossa. Two canals traverse the pterygoid process
and present as foramina on its anterior surface. The inferomedial foramen is
the funnel-shaped opening of the vidian canal for the vidian nerve. The supero-
lateral foramen is the foramen rotundum, which transmits the maxillary nerve.
It is important to note that the foramen rotundum lies just a few mms. below
the superior orbital fissure.
The sphenoid sinuses are variably pneumatized. They are very often
asymmetrical showing right- or left-sided “sphenoidal dominance”.
Depending on the pneumatization of the sphenoid bone, the sphenoid sinus
can be classified into the following types (see Fig. 6.24):
• Conchal—a small pit-like depression.
• Presellar—extending up to the anterior wall of the pituitary fossa.
• Sellar—extending up to the clivus. The pituitary forms a distinct bulge in
the roof of the sinus.
• Mixed.
The relations of the surrounding important structures are best understood
in the sellar type. Posterosuperiorly in the midline of the roof lies the pituitary
bulge. Laterally and superiorly, the optic canal can be visualized which at times
is dehiscent. Posteriorly and inferiorly, the internal carotid artery bulge produces
a prominence in the lateral wall. The sphenoid sinus may contain septae within
it. These septae usually attach to important structures on the lateral wall of
sphenoid sinus like the optic nerve or the internal carotid artery. A recess called
the carotico-optic recess exists between the optic nerve and the internal carotid
artery. This is especially deep when the anterior clinoid process is pneumatized,
and the optic nerve may be dehiscent in such a case.

The Inferior Turbinate (Figs 2.12A and B)

The inferior turbinate is a separate scroll-like bone. Unlike the middle and
superior turbinates, it runs a fairly straight course from anterior to posterior.
24 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 2.12A and B: (A) The right inferior turbinate (view on septal side): (1) lacrimal process (orange),
(2) ethmoid process (blue), (B) The right inferior turbinate (view on meatal side) showing the maxillary process (green)

Its inferior margin is free and overhangs the inferior meatus. Its superior margin
is attached to the maxilla anteriorly and the palatine bone posteriorly. Approxi-
mately, 1 cm behind its anterior end, its superior margin shows a peak or apex,
which can be recognized in the live patient. The nasolacrimal duct opens into
the inferior meatus at this peak.
The inferior turbinate has 3 processes:
1. Anteriorly, from its superior margin is the lacrimal process (it is this process,
which forms the peak, mentioned earlier). The lacrimal process articulates
with the descending process of the lacrimal bone and thus assists in forming
the canal for the nasolacrimal duct.
2. A little behind the lacrimal process is another process arising from near the
superior margin. This is the ethmoid process so called because it articulates
with the uncinate process of the ethmoid bone. Thus, to recapitulate, the
uncinate process is attached to the lacrimal bone at its anterior end and to
the inferior turbinate posteriorly.
3. A third process arises from the superior border but curves laterally to
attach to the maxilla. This is the maxillary process. It closes off part of the
maxillary hiatus and forms part of the lateral wall of the inferior meatus.

Lacrimal Bone (Figs 2.13A and B)

The lacrimal bone is the smallest and most fragile of the cranial bones. It
separates the orbit, more specifically the lacrimal fossa from the nasal cavity.
The lacrimal bone articulates; anteriorly with the frontonasal process of the
maxilla, posteriorly with the uncinate process, superiorly with the frontal bone
and inferiorly it is drawn into a process called the descending process of the
lacrimal bone. This, as we have discussed, articulates with the lacrimal process
of the inferior turbinate to complete the medial wall of the nasolacrimal canal.
The orbital surface of the lacrimal bone has a crest, which is the posterior
lacrimal crest (the anterior lacrimal crest is on the frontonasal process of the
 Osteology 25

Figs 2.13A and B: The right lacrimal bone: (A) orbital surface, (B) nasal surface

maxilla). Between the two crests is the lacrimal fossa containing the lacrimal
sac. The posterior lacrimal crest forms a hook inferiorly called the lacrimal
hamulus. This forms the upper opening of the nasolacrimal duct. The nasal
surface of the lacrimal bone is pneumatized by an anteriorly migrated
ethmoidal cell, i.e. the agger nasi cell.

Palatine Bone (Fig. 2.14)

1. The palatine bone is a fragile L-shaped bone, which forms the posterior
part of the lateral nasal wall and the floor of the nasal cavity. It consists of

Fig. 2.14: The right palatine bone: (1) orbital

process (orange), (2) sphenoidal process
(green), (3) pyramidal process (magenta),
(4) articulation with the inferior turbinate
(purple)
26 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

two plates: a perpendicular plate, which forms the posterior part of the
lateral nasal wall and the horizontal plate, which forms the posterior part
of the nasal floor.
2. The perpendicular plate has a smooth medial surface, which is covered by
nasal mucosa. This surface is divided into three sections by two crests
running across it. The lower crest is called the conchal crest. The upper
crest is called the ethmoidal crest. The conchal crest gives attachment to the
inferior turbinate. The ethmoidal crest gives attachment to the middle
turbinate. Thus, the area below the conchal crest forms part of the inferior
meatus. The area between the two crests forms the posterior part of the
middle meatus. Above the ethmoidal crest is a narrow groove, which forms
part of the superior meatus. The sphenopalatine foramen opens into the
nose just above the posterior attachment of the middle turbinate. It can,
however, be approached through the middle meatus by detaching the
middle turbinate from the ethmoidal crest.
3. The lateral surface of the perpendicular plate is smooth above and forms
the medial wall of the pterygopalatine fossa. Inferiorly, the lateral surface
is rough and articulates with the maxillary tuberosity. Between the two
bones lies a canal for the greater palatine vessels and nerves.
The palatine bone articulates with the surrounding bones in the following
manner:
Perpendicular plate
• The anterior border of the perpendicular plate has a prolongation called
the maxillary process. It articulates with the maxillary process of the
inferior turbinate to close the maxillary hiatus.
• Posteriorly with the medial pterygoid plates to form the lateral wall of
the posterior choana.
• Inferiorly it is continuous with the horizontal plate.
• Superiorly with the maxilla by its orbital process and the sphenoid by its
sphenoidal process.
Horizontal plate
• Anteriorly, it articulates with the horizontal process of the maxilla to
form the nasal floor.
• Posteriorly, it has a free border, which is the posterior end of the hard
palate.
4. The palatine bone has three processes: two of these are at the superior border
of the perpendicular plate. Of these, the anterior one is the orbital process,
so called because it forms a small portion of the orbital floor near the
posterior end of the inferior orbital fissure. The posterior process is the
sphenoidal process, so called because it articulates with the body of the
sphenoid. Between these two processes is a deep notch called the
sphenopalatine notch. This is completed superiorly by the body of the
sphenoid bone to form the sphenopalatine foramen. Thus, the spheno-
palatine foramen gets its name from the fact that it lies between the sphenoid
and the palatine bone. The third process is the pyramidal process, which
extends posterolaterally from the junction of the perpendicular and
horizontal plates. It articulates with the notch between the two pterygoid
plates. It does not take part with the formation of the nasal cavity.
 Osteology 27

Figs 2.15A and B: Nasal bones

Nasal Bones (Figs 2.15A and B)

The nasal bones are two small rectangular bones, which form the bridge of the
nose. They vary in size and form in different individuals. They have two surfaces
and four borders:
• The external surface is covered by the procerus and nasalis muscle.
• The internal surface is concave from side to side. It has a groove for the
anterior ethmoidal nerve.
• The superior border articulates with the frontal bone.
• The inferior border is related to the upper lateral cartilage.
• The lateral border articulates with the frontonasal process of the maxilla.
• The medial border widens into a vertical crest. It articulates with the opposite
nasal bone and forms a small part of the septum of the nose.
The Lateral Nasal Wall

Dead men tell no tales…….. but in our case they do!

3 The Lateral
Nasal Wall

Having studied the underlying osteology in the previous chapter, we will

now re-articulate all the bones to form an intact lateral nasal wall and cover
it with nasal mucosa. Thus due to the underlying bony processes and their
articulation, the lateral nasal wall in the live person shows a series of elevations
and depressions. We will study these in a sequential manner.
1. Anteriorly in the area of the nostril, the lateral nasal wall is lined by skin
and has hair; this is the vestibule (Figs 3.1A and B). Behind this is a plain
structureless area lined by nasal mucosa called the atrium. The atrium shows

Figs 3.1A and B: The lateral nasal wall

32 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

a bulge anterior to the middle turbinate formed by the underlying agger nasi
cell. Very often a ridge can be discerned extending from the agger nasi cell to
an apex on the superior border of the inferior turbinate. This ridge overlies
the nasolacrimal duct.
Behind the atrium are the three scrolls of the inferior, middle and superior
turbinates, overlying the respective meatii. Occasionally, there may be a
supreme turbinate. Above the superior turbinate is the sphenoethmoidal
recess, which gets its name from the fact that this area forms a niche between
the posterior ethmoid cells and the sphenoid sinus.
Certain other important features seen are:
• The inferior turbinate is fairly straight and structureless as compared to
the middle turbinate, which is convoluted showing many features and
anatomical variations.
• The posterior end of the middle turbinate ends at the level of the roof of
the posterior choana.
• The eustachian tube lies in the nasopharynx at the level of the inferior
turbinate 1 cm behind its posterior attachment. The fossa of Rosenmueller
forms a deep cleft behind the torus tubaris.
A close up view of the skull base in the anterior cranial fossa shows
(Fig. 3.2):
• The base skull sloping downwards from an anterior to posterior direction
at an angle of 15°.
• The olfactory nerves can be seen perforating the cribriform plate.
• The frontal sinus is seen between the two tables of the frontal bone.
Anteroinferior to the frontal sinus is the thickened frontal beak.
• The pituitary gland lies posterosuperior to the sphenoid sinus. The
relationship of the pituitary and optic nerves to the sphenoid sinus is best
seen in the well-pneumatized sellar type of sphenoid sinus. One can also
see that the anterior wall of the sphenoid is thicker inferiorly than
superiorly.

Fig. 3.2: A close up of the base of the skull in the anterior cranial fossa
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 33

Fig. 3.3: Attachments of middle turbinate (1) to cribriform plate and frontonasal process of
the maxilla, (2) to lamina papyracea, (3) to perpendicular plate of palatine

2. The middle turbinate is a convoluted structure bending in different planes

similar to a dried leaf. It can be divided into three parts, depending on its
attachment and its orientation in the three-dimensional space (Fig. 3.3).
• The anterior one-third is in the sagittal plane and is attached to the cribriform
plate at the junction of the medial and lateral lamellae. It also takes a small
anterior attachment to the frontonasal process of the maxilla.
• The middle one-third lies in the coronal plane and is attached to the lamina
papyracea. It separates the anterior ethmoidal cells from the posterior
ethmoidal cells. Since it stabilizes the middle turbinate, it is called the
ground lamella or the basal lamella.
• The posterior third lies in the horizontal plane and is attached to the lamina
papyracea and the perpendicular plate of the palatine bone extending upto
the roof of the posterior choana.
3. A window is cut in the middle turbinate to view the relationship of
structures within the middle meatus (Figs 3.4A and B). Most anteriorly is a
curved ridge called the uncinate process. Behind this is the well pneumatized
and most constant anterior ethmoidal cell, namely the ethmoidal bulla. These
structures are separated by a semilunar groove called the hiatus semilunaris.
The hiatus semilunaris is two-dimensional and leads into a three-dimensional
space called the infundibulum.
The uncinate process, the bulla and the intervening infundibulum form
the key area or the osteomeatal unit into which the frontal, the maxillary and
anterior ethmoidal sinuses drain.
34 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.4A and B: The osteomeatal unit

 The Lateral Nasal Wall 35

Coronal and axial sections through the osteomeatal unit show the
relationship between its components (Figs 3.5A and B).

Fig. 3.5A: Coronal section of the osteomeatal unit

Fig. 3.5B: Axial section of the osteomeatal unit

36 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.6 A and B: (1) Anterior attachment of middle turbinate to cribriform plate. (2) Middle
attachment (ground lamella) to lamina papyracea. (3) Posterior attachment to perpendicular
plate of palatine bone. An accessory ostium is seen in the hiatus semilunaris

4. The middle turbinate is trimmed. Its anterior, middle and posterior

attachments, which have been described earlier are now obvious. The structures
within the middle meatus are now seen more clearly (Figs 3.6A and B).
The uncinate process is sickle shaped. It has a vertical and a horizontal
limb with an intermediate transitional part.
The ethmoidal bulla is usually a well pneumatized, most constant, anterior
ethmoidal cell. Rarely (8%) the bulla may be rudimentary or absent. It is
separated posteriorly from the ground lamella of the middle turbinate by a
recess called the retrobullar recess (Fig. 3.7). Occasionally the bulla does not
extend upto the base of the skull and is separated from it by the suprabullar
recess. The retrobullar and suprabullar recesses together form a semilunar space
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 37

Fig. 3.7: The suprabullar and retrobullar recesses: (1) The hiatus
semilunaris inferoris, (2) the hiatus semilunaris superioris

above and behind the bulla called the sinus lateralis of Grunwald. This sinus
opens into the middle meatus by a semilunar cleft which is opposite in
orientation to the hiatus semilunaris and is called the hiatus semilunaris supe-
rioris. Thus the hiatus semilunaris inferioris leads into the infundibulum and
the hiatus semilunaris superioris leads into the sinus lateralis of Grunwald.
The roof of the sinus lateralis is formed by the ethmoid fovea and its floor
by the ethmoidal bulla. It is limited posteriorly by the ground lamella of the
middle turbinate and anteriorly it opens into the frontal recess. Laterally is the
lamina papyracea and medially is the middle turbinate. The hiatus semilunaris
superioris is absent when the bulla is attached either to the base skull superiorly
or to the ground lamella posteriorly.
5. The infundibulum leads directly or indirectly into the frontal recess (Figs
3.8A and B). The frontal recess has been the subject of many debates due to the
fact that it shows variations in anatomy and requires special skill to approach
it surgically.
• The frontal recess is bounded anteriorly by the agger nasi cell, which is
considered to be a part of the frontal recess. Therefore the anterior wall of
the frontal recess is formed by the anterior wall of the agger nasi cell.
• The posterior wall is formed by the bulla ethmoidalis. If there is a suprabullar
recess it will open into the posterior wall of the frontal recess.
• The lateral wall of the frontal recess is formed by the lamina papyracea.
• The medial wall is formed by the middle turbinate.
• Superiorly the frontal recess opens via the frontal ostium into the frontal
sinus. Seen from above the frontal sinus opening is funnel shaped and is
placed at the posterior and medial end of the floor of the frontal sinus. This
funnel shaped region is called the frontal infundibulum. Thus in sagittal
38 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.8A and B: (A) The frontal recess, (B) A close up view of
the frontal recess showing its boundaries and contents
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 39

Fig. 3.9: Schematic representation of the frontal recess

(note the hour-glass configuration)

cross-section the frontal infundibulum, frontal ostium and the frontal recess
together form the “hour-glass configuration” so often described (Fig. 3.9)
Thus, the frontal sinus lies far more anterior to the frontal recess when
seen endoscopically.
The upper end of the uncinate process lies within the frontal recess. It
shows great variation in anatomy. It can
— extend upto the base skull.
— attach to the middle turbinate.
— may turn forwards to be attached to the insertion of the middle turbinate.
— lie free in the middle meatus.
— may be pneumatized.
Most commonly (80%) it attaches to the lamina papyracea in the form of a
dome. This upper dome shaped attachment of the uncinate process within
the frontal recess has been graphically described by Stammberger as an
eggshell in an inverted egg-cup. The recess, which is enclosed within this dome,
is called the recessus terminalis (Figs 3.10A and B). In this case the frontal
sinus opens medial to the uncinate process.
The components and contents of the frontal recess are extremely variable:
• The agger nasi cell may be small or large, single or multiple and rarely
absent.
• The bulla may be small or large, extending upto base skull or stopping
short at the suprabullar recess.
• The upper end of the attachment of the uncinate process has many
variations, as already described.
40 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 3.10A and B: A blue probe inserted in the hiatus semilunaris cannot
enter the frontal sinus as it is obstructed by the recessus terminalis

• The anterior ethmoidal cells may migrate anterosuperiorly into the frontal
recess to produce different types of frontal cells viz
Type I A single cell above the agger nasi cell (Figs 3.11A and B).
Type II Two or more cells above the agger nasi cell.
Type III A large cell extending well into the frontal sinus mimicking the
frontal sinus itself (frontal bulla).
Type IV An isolated “loner cell” separately within the frontal sinus.
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 41

Figs 3.11A and B: The frontal recess showing a type I frontal cell
42 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.12A and B: The uncinate process is cut to reveal: (1) The infundibulum,
(2) the maxillary ostium, (3) the accessory ostium, and (4) the infundibular cells

6. The uncinate process is cut to expose the infundibulum (Figs 3.12A and B).
In the depths of the infundibulum, well hidden by the uncinate process lies the
opening of the maxillary sinus. The normal ostium of the maxillary sinus is
usually ovoid and tunnel like, having three-dimensions. Conversely the
accessory ostium is easily seen, usually circular and has only two dimensions.
The relations of the maxillary ostium are: Inferiorly is the inferior turbinate,
1 to 2 mm superiorly is the lamina papyracea and the orbit, posteriorly is the
posterior fontanelle, 0.5 cm anteriorly lies the nasolacrimal duct.
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 43

Fig. 3.12C: A close up view of normal and accessory maxillary ostia

The anterior fontanelle, an area of double layer of mucosa without any

underlying bone, is found anteroinferior to the uncinate process (Fig. 3.12C).
Similarly, the posterior fontanelle lies posterior and little above the posterior
attachment of the uncinate process. The mucosa in these fontanelles may be
dehiscent to produce accessory ostia.
7. The frontal recess, the maxillary sinus and the opening of the bulla into the
middle meatus are visualized (Figs 3.13A and B). The bulla may drain into the
middle meatus, the hiatus semilunaris inferioris or into the sinus lateralis when
present. The frontal sinus drains into the frontal recess either medial or lateral
to the uncinate process depending on the mode of attachment of the uncinate
process. It may also drain into the suprabullar recess when it is present. The
maxillary sinus shows no variation in drainage and always drains into the
infundibulum. The sphenoid sinus drains into the sphenoethmoidal recess.
8. The anterior and posterior ethmoid cells are now dissected taking care to
leave the anterior wall of the bulla and the ground lamella of the middle
turbinate intact (Figs 3.14A and B). It can now be clearly seen that the endoscopic
surgeon has to traverse four main barriers in the coronal plane as he proceeds
deeper into the operative field.
These from anterior to posterior are—the uncinate process, the anterior
wall of the bulla, the ground lamella and the anterior wall of the sphenoid. The
surgeon may also encounter the ground lamella of the superior and if present
the supreme turbinate if he dissects superolaterally.
44 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.13A and B: Drainage of: (1) maxillary sinus (black), (2) bulla (blue),
(3) frontal sinus (light brown), (4) sphenoid sinus (green)
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 45

Figs 3.14A and B: Anterior and posterior ethmoidal cells dissected to show the four lamellae
marked by arrows: (1) uncinate process (blue), (2) anterior wall of bulla (green), (3) ground
lamella (yellow), (4) anterior wall of sphenoid (black)
46 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

9. The sphenoid sinus ostium lies high on its anterior wall close to its roof. It
drains into the sphenoethmoidal recess. The superior turbinate in the spheno-
ethmoidal recess, may over lie the opening of the sphenoid ostium. The anterior
wall of the sphenoid sinus is thinner superiorly and thicker inferiorly where it
forms the roof of the posterior choana. The sphenoid ostium lies 1-1.5 cm above
the roof of the posterior choana and approximately 2-3 mm away from the
septum.
One of the most important anatomical relationships that the endoscopic
surgeon must understand is the relationship of the posterior ethmoid cells to
the sphenoid sinus. Consider the following facts: in a sagittal section, the
posterior ethmoidal cells can be seen extending for a short distance over the
sphenoid sinus. They also lie in the lateral nasal wall compared to the sphenoid,
which lies in the midline. The well-pneumatized sphenoid sinus extends
posteriorly upto the clivus. Thus, the sphenoid sinus lies posterior, inferior
and medial to the posterior ethmoid cells (Fig. 3.15A).
In 10 percent cases a posterior ethmoidal cell may extend posterolaterally
over the sphenoid sinus for a much longer distance (Figs 3.15B and C). This
cell is then called the Onodi cell. Thus the Onodi cell when present insinuates
itself between the optic nerve and the sphenoid sinus. The optic nerve therefore
produces a bulge in the Onodi cell instead of in the sphenoid sinus.

Fig. 3.15A: Relationship of the posterior ethmoid cells to the sphenoid sinus
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 47

Figs 3.15B and C: The Onodi cell showing its relation

to the sphenoid sinus and the optic nerve
48 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.16A and B: The relationship of the maxillary ostium to the lamina papyracea

10. The ethmoidal cells have been completely cleared to expose the lamina
papyracea, which appears yellowish due to the underlying orbital fat
(Figs 3.16A and B). The maxillary ostium has been widened to gain a view of
the interior of the sinus. It can be seen that the lamina papyracea and
consequently the orbit is just 2-3 mm above the level of the maxillary ostium.
The inferior turbinate has been trimmed. It overlies a smooth fairly
structureless inferior meatus. Although the inferior turbinate is fairly straight,
its attachment shows a peak or apex approximately 1 cm behind its anterior
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 49

Figs 3.17A and B: Relationship of the maxillary ostium to the nasolacrimal duct

end (Figs 3.17A, B; 3.18A to C). The nasolacrimal duct opens in the roof of the
inferior meatus at this apex. It is guarded by a valve called the Hasner’s valve.
The canal for the nasolacrimal duct has been dissected. It lies approximately
5 mm anterior to the normal maxillary ostium. The nasolacrimal duct is split
open to visualize the lacrimal sac, the duct and the Hasner’s valve.
50 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Figs 3.18A to C: The lacrimal apparatus and its close up

11. The lamina papyracea has been removed and the orbital periosteum has
been cut to expose the orbital fat. Anteriorly, a pad of fat separates the vital
structures of the orbit from the nose. However, posteriorly the medial rectus is
in close relation with the lamina papyracea (Figs 3.19A to C).
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 51

Figs 3.19 A to C: Orbital contents showing orbital fat anteriorly

and medial rectus posteriorly
52 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

12. The medial rectus has been cut at the annulus of Zinn and reflected
anteriorly. The intraconal compartment and the optic nerve can be seen
(Figs 3.20A and B).
13. The sphenoid sinus is opened widely by removing the intersphenoid
septum. There are two bulges in the lateral wall: Superiorly is the bulge of the
optic nerve, inferiorly and posteriorly is the internal carotid artery. The groove
between the two is the carotico-optic recess.

Figs 3.20A and B: Intraconal compartment of orbit—the medial rectus

has been reflected anteriorly
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 53

Fig. 3.20C: Close up view of Fig. 3.20A

An extensively pneumatized sphenoid sinus may show a lateral recess due

to pneumatization of the greater wing between the foramen rotundum and
the vidian canal. In such a case, two additional bulges can be seen: The maxillary
nerve inferolaterally and the vidian nerve inferomedially.

The lateral wall of the sphenoid sinus has been dissected to expose the siphon
of the internal carotid artery and the optic nerve. The relationships of the ICA,
the optic nerve and the pituitary gland to each other can be seen (Figs 3.20A
to D).

Fig. 3.20D: Relationship of the optic nerve, pituitary and the internal carotid
artery to each other
54 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Blood Supply of the Nose (Figs 3.21A and B)

Sr no. Artery Branch of Supplies

1. Anterior Ophthalmic artery Ethmoid and Frontal

ethmoid (ICA) sinuses, roof of the nose,
2. Posterior upper part of lateral wall
ethmoid and septum

3. Spheno- Maxillary artery Supplies the mucous

palatine (ECA) membrane, superior and middle
meatus, conchae and septum

4. Greater Maxillary artery • Posterior part of the

palatine (ECA) lateral nasal wall as it
decends in the greater
palatine canal
• Anterior inferior end of
septum as it re-enters
the nose through the
incisive canal

5. Superior Facial artery Region of the vestibule

labial (ECA) of the nose

6. Infraorbital Maxillary artery Mucous membrane of the

7. Posterior (ECA) maxillary sinus
superior alveolar
8. Anterior superior
alveolar

9. Pharyngeal Maxillary artery Sphenoid sinus

branch (ECA)

10. Twigs from — Sphenoid sinus

the internal
carotid artery
 The Lateral Nasal Wall 55

Figs 3.21A and B: Important vessels encountered: (1) Anterior ethmoid artery, (2) posterior
ethmoid artery, (3) sphenopalatine artery, (4) septal branch of the sphenopalatine artery

Anterior Ethmoid Artery

The anterior ethmoid artery is given off from the ophthalmic artery in the orbit.
It enters the nose, traverses across the roof of the ethmoidal sinus in an
anteromedial direction and then leaves the nose at the lateral lamella of the
cribriform plate to enter the cranial cavity. Thus the canal in which it traverses
from the orbit to the cranial cavity is called the orbitocranial canal. The lateral
end of the orbitocranial canal is at the suture line of the frontal bone and the
lamina papyracea. The medial end of the canal at the cribriform plate is the
thinnest part of the anterior cranial fossa. The canal is oblique and runs at a
variable distance as much as 17 mm below the roof of the ethmoid to which it
is attached by a bony mesentery. The anterior ethmoid artery lies 1-2 mm behind
the point where the anterior wall of the bulla meets the base skull. If the bulla
does not extend upto the base skull, the artery lies within the suprabullar recess.
Another important endoscopic finding is that the artery is present where the
vertical posterior wall of the frontal sinus turns to form the horizontal base
skull.
56 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

On entering the cranial cavity the artery turns anteriorly along the cribriform
plate in a sulcus called the ethmoidal sulcus. It gives off a meningeal branch
and then re-enters the nasal cavity on either side of the crista galli. It then
passes in a groove along the inner surface of the nasal bone supplying the
upper part of the septum and the lateral nasal wall. It appears on the external
surface of the nose through a notch between the nasal bone and the upper
lateral cartilage.

Posterior Ethmoid Artery

The posterior ethmoid artery arises from the ophthalmic artery in the orbit
and passes through the fissure between the frontal bone and the lamina
papyracea 6 mm in front of the optic foramen to enter the nasal cavity. It usually
lies high in the roof of the ethmoid and may not be easily seen. It passes
anteromedially to gain entry into the cranial cavity at the level of the cribriform
plate. It traverses the cribriform plate in an anterior direction for a short distance
and passes through one of its foramina to re-enter the nasal cavity and supply
the upper and posterior part of the nasal septum.

Sphenopalatine Artery
The sphenopalatine artery is the terminal part of the maxillary artery in the
pterygopalatine fossa. It passes medially through the sphenopalatine foramen
to enter the nasal cavity above the posterior end of the middle turbinate. It
gives off lateral nasal branches, which supply the nasal conchae and meatii. Its
medial branch crosses the anterior face of the sphenoid bone to supply the
septum.
The sphenopalatine artery along with the terminal branches of the greater
palatine artery, the anterior ethmoidal artery and the superior labial branch
of the facial artery forms the Keisselbach’s plexus in the Little’s area, which is
responsible for anterior epistaxis.
Endoscopic Anatomy

Begin by being a Surgeon on the dead body...

with as much care and precision as though it were a live
patient!
 4 Endoscopic
Anatomy*

Endoscopic anatomy is best studied using a fresh cadaver specimen, which

has not being formalinized. This is because the feel of the tissues closely
mimics that, which is felt during live surgery. However, in the absence of a
fresh specimen, a formalinized cadaver will also reveal all the intricacies of
anatomy to the avid learner. In learning endoscopic anatomy, we will try to
follow the steps of surgery as closely as possible as in a live patient.

DIAGNOSTIC ENDOSCOPY
A careful and methodical diagnostic endoscopy is the key to understanding
anatomical variations, pathological processes and to planning one’s approach
for surgery. It consists basically of three passes:

1st Pass
The 0° endoscope (or 30° endoscope) is passed gently along the floor of the
nasal cavity between the inferior turbinate and septum without touching either
structure (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1: 1st pass—left nostril

*Refer to CD-ROM
60 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

The septum is studied for any spurs and deviations. The inferior turbinate
is examined for hypertrophy, especially at its posterior end. Any pathology
obstructing the posterior choana is noticed (Fig. 4.2). The scope is advanced
into the nasopharynx. The posterior wall and roof of the nasopharynx is
examined to look for the presence of adenoids. The ipsilateral eustachian tube
and the cleft behind it, i.e. the fossa of Rosenmueller, are examined (Fig. 4.3).
The contralateral eustachian tube may also be seen but it is better seen with a
30° endoscope, which is advanced into the nasopharynx and rotated. The depths
of the fossa of Rosenmueller are best studied by a 30° endoscope passed
through the opposite nostril. On withdrawing the scope the inferior turbinate
and septum are reviewed and the scope is rolled into the inferior meatus
under the free margin of the inferior turbinate. As the scope is being
withdrawn through the inferior meatus, the roof of the inferior meatus is

Fig. 4.2: 1st pass

Fig. 4.3: 1st pass, fossa of Rosenmueller (*)

 Endoscopic Anatomy 61

studied for the opening of the nasolacrimal duct. This is guarded by a fold of
mucous membrane called the Hasner’s valve. This can be confirmed by the
movement seen in this area on applying pressure near the lacrimal fossa. The
scope is withdrawn out of the nostril.

2nd Pass (Figs 4.4A to C)

The scope is passed along the floor upto the posterior choana. It is then moved
upward medial to the middle turbinate along the roof of the posterior choana
and the anterior surface of the sphenoid. The superior turbinate and meatus
are seen. The sphenoethmoidal recess is visualised. It lies between the superior
turbinate laterally and the septum medially. It is bounded above by the base
of the skull and is continuous inferiorly with the posterior part of the nasal
cavity. The sphenoid ostium opens into the sphenoethmoidal recess 1-1.5 cm
above the roof of the posterior choana and a few mms away fron the septum. It
is very often hidden from view by the superior turbinate, which may need to
be partially excised to visualize the ostium. The ostium shows variations in
size and shape, being circular, oval and sometimes only pinpoint in configu-

Fig. 4.4A: 2nd pass

Fig. 4.4B: 2nd pass- ( ) sphenoethmoidal recess

*
62 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 4.4C: 2nd pass

ration. Below the ostium at the roof of the posterior choana is a mesh of blood
vessels, which form the Woodruff’s plexus. The septal branch of the
sphenopalatine artery also runs across the anterior wall of the sphenoid in this
region. This pass should be practiced as gently as possible without touching
any of the turbinates as it can be quite painful in the live patient.

3rd Pass
The third pass is made to examine the contents of the middle meatus. The
middle meatus can be entered by gently retracting the middle turbinate
medially with the Freer’s elevator. This may be difficult if the middle turbinate
is rigid and may give rise to pain in the live patient.
The second simpler method to enter the middle meatus is to advance the
scope posteriorly and roll the scope under the inferior border of the middle
turbinate to enter the more roomy posterior part of the meatus. The scope is
then withdrawn from posterior to anterior to view the contents of the middle
meatus.

Fig. 4.5: 3rd pass, agger nasi cell (Ag), ridge

overlying nasolacrimal duct (*)
 Endoscopic Anatomy 63

Fig. 4.6: 3rd pass

However, if one goes in an anterior to posterior direction one first sees the
most anterior one-third attachment of the middle turbinate to the cribriform
plate. This arch like attachment has also been called the axilla of the middle
turbinate. The olfactory fossa can be examined in this area.
A bulge may be present in the region where the anterior end of the middle
turbinate attaches to the lateral wall; this is formed by an underlying well-
pneumatized agger nasi cell (Fig. 4.5). Within the meatus most anteriorly is
the curved boomerang shaped uncinate process. A groove may be seen where
the uncinate process attaches to the lateral wall. This is the junction of the
uncinate process to the lacrimal bone. The area anterior to the uncinate process
overlies the lacrimal sac. This area extends downwards in the form of a diffuse
ridge to reach a “peak” in the attachment of the inferior turbinate. This ridge
overlies the nasolacrimal duct. The bulge of the bulla is seen behind the uncinate
process. The groove between the two i.e. the hiatus semilunaris is seen and
palpated with a ballpoint, which enters the infundibulum (Fig. 4.6). A 30° scope
can be used to inspect the infundibulum with a little manipulation. If the bulla
does not reach the skull base the suprabullar recess is visualized and
occasionally the anterior ethmoid artery can also be seen.
On retracting the middle turbinate gently, one can see that it turns laterally
behind the bulla to attach to the lamina papyracea. This is the ground lamella.
As the scope is passed further posteriorly, the third or horizontal attachment
of the middle turbinate is seen. It forms the roof of the middle meatus. The
posterior end of the middle turbinate ends at the level of the roof of the posterior
choana. Accessory ostia may be seen in the region of the anterior fontanelle,
i.e. anteroinferior to the anterior end of the uncinate process, or in the posterior
fontanelle i.e. above and behind the posterior end of the uncinate process.
Accessory ostia are circular and are easily seen unlike the normal ostium, which
can be ovoid, tunnel like and well hidden by the uncinate process (Fig. 4.7).
The middle turbinate may show different anatomical variations:
• Quite commonly it may be ballooned out due to an air cell enclosed within
it. This air cell may be pneumatized from the frontal recess, agger nasi cell
64 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 4.7: 3rd pass

or anterior ethmoids. In such a case the middle turbinate is called the concha
bullosa. This balloon like concha bullosa may block the osteomeatal unit
and the drainage of the anterior group of sinuses.
• The vertical lamella of the middle turbinate may also be pneumatized from
the superior meatus to form the interlamellar cell of Grunwald.
• The middle turbinate may have a paradoxical curve bending laterally
towards the middle meatus.
• Occasionally, it may be bifid.
• The ground lamella of the middle turbinate may not attach to the lamina
papyracea, but may miss the lamina papyracea, pass inferiorly to it and
attach to the lateral wall of the maxillary sinus instead. The maxillary sinus
in this case is divided into two parts. The posterior part behaves like a
posterior ethmoidal cell because it drains behind the ground lamella of the
middle turbinate (see Fig. 6.19).
• The lower part of a normally curved middle turbinate may curve far laterally
to produce a concavity within it. This concavity is called the turbinate sinus
(see Fig. 6.9).

The uncinate process is removed by a sickle knife or a backbiting forcep to

expose the infundibulum (Fig. 4.8). The maxillary ostium can be seen lying in
an oblique or horizontal plane behind the intermediate attachment of the
uncinate process (Figs 4.9A and B). This can be widened posteriorly or
anteroinferiorly to view the interior of the sinus with a 30° endoscope. The
floor of the orbit and the infraorbital nerve can be visualized.
 Endoscopic Anatomy 65

Fig. 4.8: Window cut in uncinate process with

backbiting forceps

Fig. 4.9A: Normal maxillary ostium Fig. 4.9B: Widened maxillary ostium showing
interior of maxillary sinus
66 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

The upper border of the attachment of uncinate process is removed along

with any cells present in the frontal recess so as to expose the frontal sinus
(Figs 4.10 to 4.13). The bulla is then perforated and is removed systematically
in a lateral direction upto the lamina papyracea and in a superior direction
upto the base skull. The posterior wall of the bulla is removed. The retrobullar
and suprabullar recesses if present can be studied. The anterior ethmoidal
artery may be seen running obliquely across the base skull. Occasionally the
anterior ethmoid artery has a bony mesentery, which attaches it to the skull
base.

Fig. 4.10: Uncinate process removed. Bulla (B) Fig. 4.11: Dissection of the frontal recess area
and suprabullar recess (*) seen

Fig. 4.12: Interior of frontal sinus Fig. 4.13: The base skull after dissection of the
frontal recess
 Endoscopic Anatomy 67

* → Entry point into posterior ethmoid cells

Fig. 4.14: The ground lamella

Fig. 4.15: Lateral approach to the sphenoid sinus—

posterior ethmoid cells have been removed

Fig. 4.16: The “maxillary ridge”

68 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

The ground lamella is then visualized (Fig. 4.14). Its position is confirmed
by following the middle turbinate backwards to the point where it turns
laterally. The ground lamella is perforated inferomedially to enter the
posterior ethmoid cells. Care should be taken to preserve the inferior border of
the ground lamella, so as to maintain the stability of the middle turbinate. The
posterior ethmoid cells are larger in size as compared to the anterior ethmoid
cells. They are removed completely to expose the lamina papyracea laterally,
the base skull superiorly and the superior turbinate medially. The posterior
most ethmoidal cell has a pyramidal shape, which tapers to a point poste-
riorly. The posterior ethmoidal artery may be seen running across the base
skull. The sphenoid is opened inferomedially (Fig. 4.15). It is important to note
that the bony partition dividing the posterior ethmoids from the sphenoid is
not in a coronal plane but in an oblique or almost axial plane. The sphenoid
sinus appears globular like the inside of a rounded pot as opposed to the
pyramidal shape of the posterior most ethmoid cell. Another landmark is the
“maxillary ridge”. This ridge is an imaginary line between the medial and
inferior wall of the orbit and extends backwards from the upper border of the
maxillary ostium. If this ridge is extrapolated backwards then those cells which
open above the level of this ridge are the posterior ethmoid cells. The cell,
which opens below the level of this ridge, is usually the sphenoid sinus (Fig.
4.16).
The sphenoid sinus is opened widely to examine its walls (Fig. 4.17A). The
lateral wall shows a bulge superiorly which is the optic nerve, below and slightly
behind is the bulge of the internal carotid artery. There is a recess, which
separates these two structures called the carotico-optic recess. This recess may
be very deep if the anterior clinoid process is pneumatized. In a well-
pneumatized sphenoid, the bulge of the pituitary may be seen posterosuperiorly
in the midline. The intersphenoid septum may not be in the midline leading to
unequal sphenoid sinuses or a “dominance” of one sphenoid sinus. Intra-
sphenoid septae may be present and these usually attach to vital structures
like the optic nerve and the carotid artery (Fig. 4.17B). Dehiscence of the optic
nerve or internal carotid artery may be noticed. The surgeon must take care
whilst removing polyps from within the sphenoid sinus and also whilst
removing septae within the sphenoid sinus.
Occasionally an Onodi cell may grow above the sphenoid sinus, in which
case, the optic nerve may be seen in its lateral wall.
The sphenoid sinus can be approached medial to the middle turbinate (Fig.
4.18). The sphenoid ostium is visualized and the anterior wall of the sphenoid
is punched downwards to open the sphenoid sinus.
The sphenoid sinus may also be approached by an intermediate route. One
can go through the posterior end of the middle turbinate to gain access to the
sphenoethmoidal recess and the normal sphenoid ostium, which can then be
widened.
 Endoscopic Anatomy 69

Fig. 4.17A: Interior of the sphenoid sinus

Fig. 4.17B: Intrasphenoid septae

attaching to ICA

Fig. 4.18: Medial approach to the sphenoid sinus

70 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 4.19A: Dissection of nasolacrimal

apparatus —mucosal flap elevated

Fig. 4.19B: Bone removed to expose the

lacrimal apparatus, nasolacrimal duct ( )
*
The mucosa over the lacrimal bone can be removed (Figs 4.19A and B).
Suture lines can be seen separating the lacrimal bone from the uncinate process
posteriorly and from the frontonasal process of the maxilla anteriorly. The
lacrimal bone is removed to expose the lacrimal sac and dissection can be carried
out inferiorly to view the nasolacrimal duct.
Radiological Anatomy

“Don’t just do something…

Stand there and think!!!”
— Ron Hoille
5 Radiological
Anatomy

Safe, meticulous and complete endoscopic surgery can only be performed by

a surgeon who has a sound knowledge in interpreting CT scans of the paranasal
sinuses. The traditional X-rays of the paranasal sinuses are all but redundant
for two reasons. Firstly, the diagnosis of acute or chronic sinusitis is a clinical
one. Secondly, if surgical intervention is required in either of these cases,
then the information gained from an X-ray paranasal sinus is too inadequate
and a CT scan becomes mandatory.
The CT scan is the gold standard investigation in all preoperative cases
and cannot be replaced by the MRI because it gives detailed bony anatomy of
the area and serves as a “road map” for the operating surgeon. CT scans are
best done after a course of antibiotics, so that acute inflammation is not
mistaken for chronic mucosal disease. It is also advisable to ask the patient to
blow his nose to clear out loose secretions prior to the CT scan. One should
study the scout film provided by the radiologist first (Figs 5.1A and B).

Fig. 5.1A: Scout film—3 mm slice thickness Fig. 5.1B: Scout film—1 mm slice thickness
74 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Most of the anatomical details can be seen well in coronal sections. However,
certain structures, e.g. the pterygopalatine fossa, fossa of Rosenmueller and
the optic nerve are better seen on axial scans. A sagittal reconstruction allows
us to study the anatomy of the lateral nasal wall and is especially useful to
study the region of the frontal recess. Patients with dental fillings show many
artefacts in coronal sections. In such cases, axial films can be taken and coronal
reconstructions obtained. A very basic paranasal sinus study would include
bony and soft tissue windows of 3 mm cuts taken anterior to posterior in the
coronal plane. However, certain cases, e.g. optic nerve injury or CSF rhinorrhea
would require 1 mm cuts for adequate evaluation. The coronal sections are
routinely read from anterior to posterior and the axial sections from inferior to
superior.

Coronal Scans
• The most anterior cuts show the frontal sinus and the nasal bones
(Fig. 5.2A). The frontal sinus shows great variation in pneumatization. The
interfrontal sinus septum is in the midline inferiorly but may deviate to
either side of the midline as it goes posterosuperiorly to attach to the
posterior wall of the frontal sinus. The interfrontal sinus septum may at
times be pneumatized. Septae within the frontal sinus may lead to the
formation of deep lateral recesses. The multiple frontal septae show a
classical scalloping of the frontal sinus, which is lost in cases of mucoceles
(Fig. 5.2B).

Fig. 5.2A: Anterior cut showing frontal sinus and nasal bones Fig. 5.2B: Cut showing interfrontal septum, scalloping
of frontal sinus
 Radiological Anatomy 75

• The inferior turbinate is visualized, any hypertrophy of the inferior

turbinate is looked for. A mucosal swelling is seen in the anterior part of
the septum. This is the septal tubercle, which consists of erectile tissue
and is the phylogenetic remnant of the vomeronasal organ. The septum
should be studied for deviations and septal spurs (Fig. 5.3).
• The middle turbinate is not yet seen. The air cells in this region are the
agger nasi cells. The nasolacrimal duct is visualized. The presence of frontal
cells, type I to IV should be looked for (Fig. 5.4).
• The middle turbinate is visualized; any anatomical variations like the
concha bullosa or a paradoxically curved middle turbinate should be
looked for.

Fig. 5.3: The septal tubercle( )

*

Fig. 5.4: Agger nasi cells (A), nasolacrimal duct

(arrow), middle turbinate not yet visualized
76 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• The attachment of the middle turbinate at the junction of the medial and
lateral lamellae of the cribriform plate is seen (Fig. 5.5). The level of the
cribriform plate and the depth of the olfactory fossa should be assessed
and classified according to the Keros classification. The height of the
ethmoidal fovea above the level of the cribriform plate is noted.
Pneumatization of the crista galli may be visualized.
• The ethmoidal bulla is seen lateral to the middle turbinate. If the ethmoidal
bulla does not extend to the skull base, the suprabullar recess may be
visualized. A cell extending above the orbit, behind the frontal sinus may
be seen in this cut. This is the supraorbital cell, which drains into the
suprabullar recess (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.5: The olfactory fossa. Anterior attachment of

middle turbinate seen (arrow)

Fig. 5.6: The ethmoidal bulla and supraorbital cell (arrow)

 Radiological Anatomy 77

• The uncinate process is seen below the bulla (Figs 5.7A and B). The groove
between the uncinate process and the bulla, i.e. the hiatus semilunaris
and the infundibulum are seen leading into the normal maxillary ostium.
This is the osteomeatal unit.
• It should be noted whether any of the septal spurs impinge upon, or
compromise the osteomeatal unit. Hypertrophy of the turbinates or a
concha bullosa on the side opposite to the septal deviations should be
looked for.
• The mode of attachment of the uncinate process should be carefully studied
so as to ascertain the pathway of drainage of frontal sinus (Fig. 5.8).
Variations in the anatomy of the uncinate process, and the presence of
Haller cells should be looked for.

Fig. 5.7A: Osteomeatal unit Fig. 5.7B: Osteomeatal unit (close up view)

Fig. 5.8: Drainage of frontal recess—medial to

infundibulum on the right and into the infundibulum
on the left
78 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• Accessory ostia may be seen in the region of the anterior and posterior
fontanelle (Fig. 5.9).
• The maxillary sinus is seen. It is triangular in shape in this section. The
infraorbital nerve is seen in the roof of the maxillary sinus (Fig. 5.10). At
times it may be dehiscent.
• 2-3 mm behind the bulla, the anterior ethmoidal artery is seen as a classical
“beaking” of the medial orbital wall (Fig. 5.11). The artery may lie close
to the skull base or may cross low within the anterior ethmoids in which
case the orbitocranial canal with its bony mesentery is clearly seen.

Fig. 5.9: Accessory ostium in the left posterior fontanelle Fig. 5.10: Maxillary sinus appears triangular in
anterior cuts (arrow: infraorbital nerve)

Fig. 5.11: Anterior ethmoidal artery. Beaking of lamina papyracea

seen on left. Orbitocranial canal seen on the right (arrow)
 Radiological Anatomy 79

• The middle turbinate is attached to the lamina papyracea by its ground

lamella (Fig. 5.12A). This lamella is seen separating the anterior ethmoid
cells from the posterior ethmoid cells. The superior turbinate is visualized
in the more posterior cuts and any variations in it, e.g. pneumatization,
paradoxical curvature should be looked for. The posterior most attachment
of the middle turbinate to the palatine bone is seen (Fig. 5.12B).
• The posterior ethmoid cells are larger and fewer than the anterior ethmoid
cells. The posterior ethmoid artery may occasionally be identified in the
region of the skull base. The maxillary sinus changes shape from triangular
to ovoid, in more posterior cuts. The orbit changes from a circular outline
to a triangular or pyramidal shape. The posterior part of the orbit with the
extraocular muscles and the optic nerve is seen. The fissure between the
orbit and the maxillary sinus, i.e. the inferior orbital fissure is seen in this
section. The infraorbital fissure opens laterally into the infratemporal fossa
(Fig. 5.13). It is important to know that the medial rectus is separated from

Fig. 5.12A: The ground lamella (arrow). Intermediate Fig. 5.12B: Posterior attachment of middle turbinate
attachment of middle turbinate

Fig. 5.13: Posterior ethmoidal cells (asterix). Inferior

orbital fissure (arrow)
80 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

the lamina papyracea by a pad of fat anteriorly. However, more posteriorly

in the orbit this pad of fat is absent and the medial rectus is in direct relation
to the lamina papyracea and therefore more prone to injury (Figs 5.14A and
B).
• The sphenoid sinus is seen. In the more anterior cuts both the posterior
ethmoid cells and the sphenoid sinus are seen. The superolateral cell is
the posterior ethmoid cell whereas the inferomedial cell is the sphenoid
sinus. The more subsequent cuts show the sphenoid anatomy more clearly.
The sphenoid dominance should be noted when the intersphenoid septum
is asymmetrical. The sphenoid sinus ostium may also be visualized though
this is better seen in sagittal cuts (Fig. 5.15). Accessory septae within the
sphenoid should be looked for and traced to see if they are attached to

Fig. 5.14A: Fat intervening between lamina Fig. 5.14B: Medial rectus in direct contact with lamina
papyracea and medial rectus anteriorly papyracea posteriorly

Fig. 5.15: Bilateral sphenoid ostia

 Radiological Anatomy 81

vital structures. The optic nerve and the internal carotid artery are studied
for any dehiscence of the overlying bone. Pneumatization of the anterior
clinoid process leading to an almost bare optic nerve protruding into the
sphenoid sinus should be looked for. In the presence of an Onodi cell
superolateral to the sphenoid sinus, special attention should be paid to
the course of the optic nerve. The extent to which the pituitary bulges into
the sphenoid sinus will depend on the extent of pneumatization. This is
best appreciated in sagittal reconstructions.
• The retort-shaped orbital apex is seen on either side of the sphenoid sinus
in the anterior cuts (Figs 5.16 and 5.17). The pterygoid processes extend
downwards and are perforated by two canals. The first is the foramen
rotundum, which is seen just below the orbital apex. Inferomedial to this

Fig. 5.16: Orbital apex (arrow), sphenoid dominance

(left), pterygoid processes (P)

Fig. 5.17: Vidian canal (thin arrow), foramen rotundum

(thick arrow), and optic nerve (curved arrow)
82 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

foramen is the opening of the vidian canal. The pterygoid processes form
the posterior wall of the pterygopalatine fossa (the pterygopalatine fossa
itself is best seen in axial sections). A canal may be seen below the sphenoid
sinus between the pterygopalatine fossa and the posterior choana (Fig.
5.18). This is the sphenopalatine foramen, which opens above the posterior
end of the middle turbinate. The sphenoid sinus may extensively
pneumatize the pterygoid process and the greater wing of sphenoid to
produce a large lateral recess extending between the foramen rotundum
and vidian canal.
• Coronal sections of the nasopharynx show the eustachian tube opening,
the torus tubaris, the fossa of Rosenmueller and the adenoids, if present
(Fig. 5.19). Asymmetry of the fossa of Rosenmueller should be looked for.
The foramen ovale is seen laterally in the greater wing of sphenoid
(Fig. 5.20). Widening or destruction of the foramen should be looked for
in a case of nasopharyngeal angiofibroma or a carcinoma of nasopharynx
respectively.

Fig. 5.18: Sphenopalatine foramen ( arrow) Fig. 5.19: Torus tubaris (T), fossa of
Rosenmueller (arrow), adenoids (A)

Fig. 5.20: Foramen ovale

 Radiological Anatomy 83

Axial Scans
Certain structures are well seen on axial cuts:
• The nasolacrimal duct is seen as a circular opening at the anteromedial
corner of the maxillary sinus (Fig. 5.21). Its anterolateral walls are thick,
whereas its medial wall is comparatively thinner.
• Anteroposterior deviations of the septum can be assessed.
• The nasopharynx can be studied well in axial cuts and asymmetry of the
fossa of Rosenmueller can be looked for (Fig. 5.22).
• An axial section through the middle turbinate will show its ground lamella
and its attachment to the lamina papyracea (Figs 5.23A and B). The anterior
ethmoid cells can be demarcated from the posterior ethmoid cells on the
basis of this ground lamella. The space between the bulla and the ground
lamella, i.e. the retrobullar recess when present can also be seen in axial
sections.

Fig. 5.21: Nasolacrimal duct (arrow) Fig. 5.22: Fossa of Rosenmueller (arrow),
EO—eustachian tube opening

Fig. 5.23B: G: ground lamella, B: bulla,

R: retrobullar recess, U: uncinate process
Fig. 5.23A: The ground lamella (arrow) (close up view)
84 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• The maxillary sinus, the medial and lateral pterygoid plates and the
intervening pterygopalatine fossa can be seen (Fig. 5.21). The
pterygopalatine fossa opens medially into the nose via the sphenopalatine
foramen. Laterally, it opens into the infratemporal fossa. The anterior,
posterolateral and medial walls of the maxillary sinus can all be studied in
the axial cuts. The roof and the floor of the maxillary sinus are better studied
in coronal cuts.
• The lamina papyracea runs a fairly straight course in an anteroposterior
direction (Fig. 5.24). However, in lower cuts of the orbit the upper part of
the maxillary sinus is also seen; and hence, the lamina papyracea appears
to take an abrupt curve laterally into the orbit (Fig. 5.25). Any natural
dehiscence in the lamina should be looked for.
• Axial sections give an excellent opportunity to study structures in the
orbit, i.e. the medial and lateral rectus, the intraconal, the extraconal and
preseptal compartments (Fig. 5.24). The optic nerve can be traced in its entire
course and its relation to a pneumatized anterior clinoid process or Onodi
cell can be ascertained.

Fig. 5.24: The orbit in axial section

Fig. 5.25: Lamina papyracea in lower

section of the orbit
 Radiological Anatomy 85

• The sphenoid sinus can be examined for asymmetry. Dehiscence over the
internal carotid artery is better appreciated in axial cuts than in coronal
cuts.
• The cavernous sinus can be seen on either side of the sphenoid sinus. It is
better studied after injection of contrast.
• The cribriform plate, crista galli and foramen caecum can be studied in
1 mm sections (Fig. 5.26). Anterior to the cribriform plate is the frontal sinus.
The anterior and posterior walls of the frontal sinus are better appreciated
in axial than in coronal sections.

Fig. 5.26: Crista galli (thick arrow),

foramen cecum (thin arrow)
Sagittal Sections
The sagittally reconstructed section gives an excellent opportunity to study
details of the lateral nasal wall anatomy (Figs 5.27A and B).
• The four lamellae that the endoscopic surgeon has to cross in an antero-
posterior direction are well seen in a single cut on the sagittal section. The

Fig. 5.27A: Sagittal reconstructed CT scan Fig. 5.27B: Schematic representation of the sagittal CT scan
86 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

anterior and posterior ethmoids and sphenoid sinus are well demarcated
from each other on the basis of these lamellae.
• The retrobullar and suprabullar recesses (sinus lateralis) if present, can also
be seen.
• It is especially useful to study anatomy of the frontal recess area and should
be asked for prior to operations on the frontal sinus.
• Pneumatization of the sphenoid in relation to the pituitary fossa can also
be studied prior to pituitary surgery. The sphenoid sinus ostium is also
better seen on sagittal cuts.
• The extent to which an Onodi cell has migrated over the sphenoid sinus
can be assessed on a sagittal scan.

Usually only a plain CT study is necessary. Contrast enhanced CT scans of

the paranasal sinuses are reserved for cases such as tumors and suspected
pyoceles. CT cisternography may be used in cases of CSF rhinorrhea. However,
a combination of plain CT with T2 weighted MRI images is a better noninvasive
option. MRI scans are useful in case of tumors, especially to detect intracranial
extension, involvement of soft tissues of the face and to differentiate tumors
from secretions. They are also indicated in cases like optic nerve injury and
fungal infections of the paranasal sinuses where they give a classical signal
void in T2 images. 3-D reconstructed scans help in cases of tumors and
craniofacial anomalies. Other radiographic techniques available in our
diagnostic armamentarium are the MR angiography, digital subtraction
angiography and the dacryocystography. The MR angiography has the
advantage of being non-invasive but digital subtraction angiography becomes
necessary if any intervention is required in vascular lesions.
Although we can garner a wealth of information from a plain CT paranasal
sinus, it sometimes becomes necessary to ask for more advanced investigations
to reach a complete diagnosis. Thus, there is an almost bewildering range of
technologically advanced investigations available to the endoscopic sinus
surgeon. It requires a judicious surgeon to pick and “mix and match” these
investigations, in such a way that he gains the maximum information possible
at a reasonable cost to the patient.
Anatomical Variations

Exceptions prove the rule...

6 Anatomical
Variations

Human beings are individualistic creatures and this is reflected in the human
anatomy, which is subject to a large number of anatomical variations or
deviations from the rule. The endonasal anatomy is no different and shows
numerous variations. These can confound the operating surgeon if he does not
have a sound understanding of not only the structure but the genesis of these
variations. Certain structures show fairly constant anatomy, e.g. the inferior
turbinate and the nasolacrimal duct. Others such as the uncinate process, the
frontal recess and the middle turbinate are notorious for their variations.
We will deal with the variations of individual structures in a sequential
order.

Septal Deviations
• Septal deviations may occur in an anteroposterior direction in which case
they are better appreciated in the axial scans.
• Deviations may also present as sharp spurs at junctions of cartilage with
the vomer. These are better seen in coronal scans (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1: Septal spur

90 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• Septal deviations may compromise key areas like the osteomeatal unit
leading to impaired drainage of the sinuses.
• Deviations may also be associated with a concha bullosa or hypertrophied
turbinates on the roomy side. These variations in turn may compromise
the osteomeatal unit (Fig. 6.2).
• The septum can be pneumatized (Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.2: Hypertrophied inferior turbinate

Fig. 6.3: Pneumatization of the septum

 Anatomical Variations 91

Agger Nasi Cell

• The agger nasi cells are usually 1-3 in number. Their size depends on the
extent of pneumatization of the lacrimal bone and the adjacent frontonasal
process of the maxilla.
• The cells may be hypoplastic.
• They may be very well pneumatized in which case they produce a distinct
bulge, anterior to the anterior attachment of the middle turbinate (Fig. 6.4).
• A prominent agger nasi cell tends to displace the anterior attachment of the
middle turbinate posterosuperiorly.

Fig. 6.4: Prominent agger nasi cell

Uncinate Process
• The uncinate process may be hypoplastic or laterally bent. In this case the
infundibulum is a narrow space, which may be difficult to enter.
• It may be well developed and medially rotated so much so that it resembles
the anterior wall of the bulla. A further medial rotation of the uncinate
process brings it in contact with the middle turbinate. Here it may be curled
on itself, to look like a duplicated middle turbinate.
• The upper end of the uncinate process may show different patterns of
attachment. The commonest type is where the uncinate process attaches
laterally to the lamina papyracea; in which case it’s upper end encloses
within it a blind recess called the recessus terminalis. The commonest mode
of drainage of the frontal sinus is medial to the uncinate process (Fig. 6.5A,
i and ii).
• The uncinate process may attach to the skull base. In this case the frontal
sinus drains into the infundibulum and therefore disease from the frontal
sinus can spread to the maxillary sinus and vice versa (Fig. 6.5B, i and ii).
• The uppermost portion of the uncinate process may bend medially to attach
to the middle turbinate (Fig. 6.5C, i and ii).
• Occasionally the upper end of the uncinate process may lie free within the
middle meatus and not attach to any adjacent bony structure (Fig. 6.5D,
i and ii).
92 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 6.5A (i) and (ii): Attaching laterally to lamina

Fig. 6.5B (i) and (ii): Attaching to cribriform plate

Fig. 6.5C (i) and (ii): Attaching medially to middle turbinate

 Anatomical Variations 93

Fig. 6.5D (i) and (ii): Lying free in middle meatus

Fig. 6.5E (i) and (ii): Pneumatized uncinate process

• The uppermost portion of the uncinate process may be pneumatized and

compromise the infundibulum (Fig. 6.5E, i and ii).
• In pathologic cases the lateral surface of the uncinate facing the infundibulum,
will show edematous or polypoidal change indicating infection within the
anterior group of sinuses.

Middle Turbinate
• The middle turbinate may be pneumatized and ballooned up. This is a concha
bullosa, which is pneumatized from either the frontal recess, the agger nasi
cell, anterior ethmoid cells or the middle meatus. The concha bullosa may
show isolated disease. It may have septations and therefore multiple cells
94 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

within it. Although the concha bullosa itself is not considered a pathological
finding it may compromise ventilation and drainage of secretions to produce
chronic infection of the paranasal sinuses (Fig. 6.6).
• Occasionally the superior meatus may pneumatize the vertical lamella of
the middle turbinate to produce what is called the interlamellar cell of
Grunwald (Fig. 6.7).
• The middle turbinate may show a sharp bend laterally instead of its usual
smooth medial curvature. This is the paradoxically bent middle turbinate.
It is quite often bilateral and can block the infundibulum (Fig. 6.8).
• A normally curved middle turbinate may curl upon itself to produce a
concavity within it. This concavity is called the turbinate sinus (Fig. 6.9).
• The anterior head of the middle turbinate usually extends upto a few
millimeters in front of its anterior attachment to the lateral nasal wall.
However, in some cases the anterior head may extend as far anteriorly as 1
cm in front of its anterior attachment. It may be difficult to negotiate the
anterior portion of the middle meatus in such a case.

Fig. 6.6: Concha bullosa Fig. 6.7: Interlamellar cell

Fig. 6.8: Paradoxically curved middle Fig. 6.9: The turbinate sinus
turbinate
 Anatomical Variations 95

Ethmoidal Bulla
• The ethmoidal bulla is usually the largest and most constantly pneumatized
anterior ethmoid cell.
• It may, however, be hypoplastic or rarely even a solid non-pneumatized
hillock.
• More commonly it may be extensively pneumatized to produce a large
bulge, which abuts against the uncinate process anteriorly or the middle
turbinate, compromising the infundibulum or the middle meatus
respectively.
• The bulla may not extend upto the skull base, in which case the space
between the upper margin of the bulla and the skull base is the suprabullar
recess. The suprabullar recess may open into the frontal recess.
• The bulla or its adjacent air cells may not extend upto the ground lamella.
This space between the ground lamella and the bulla is called the retro-
bullar recess.
• Occasionally both the suprabullar and retrobullar recesses are present. They
form a semilunar space above and behind the bulla called the sinus lateralis.
This sinus lateralis opens into the middle meatus by a cleft, which is called
the hiatus semilunaris superioris. The frontal recess may drain into the sinus
lateralis.
• The sinus lateralis may extend laterally to pneumatize the roof of the orbit
thus forming the supraorbital ethmoid cell. This cell is seen in a coronal CT
scan at the level of the bulla behind the frontal sinus (Fig. 6.10).

Fig. 6.10: Schematic representation

at the level of bulla
96 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Ethmoid Air Cells

The anterior and posterior ethmoid air cells may pneumatize surrounding bones
like the lacrimal bone, maxilla, frontal bone and sphenoid to produce varying
patterns of pneumatization (Figs 6.11A and B). These “migrated” air cells have
distinct features and specific names.
• The anterior ethmoid cells pneumatize the lacrimal bone and frontonasal
process of the maxilla to produce the agger nasi cells. These cells when well
pneumatized produce a distinct bulge on the lateral nasal wall and can
compromise the drainage of the frontal recess.
• The anterior ethmoid cells may pneumatize the roof of the maxillary sinus.
This migrated cell is the Haller’s cell and it is usually seen in the floor of the
orbit at the level between the inferior and medial rectus. It can very often
compromise the infundibulum (Fig. 6.12).

Figs 6.11A and B: Patterns of migration of ethmoidal air cells into: (1) lacrimal bone (agger nasi), (2) inferior
to orbit (Haller’s cell), (3) frontal bone (frontal cells), (4) supraorbital cell, (5) middle turbinate (concha bullosa),
(6) crista galli, (7) above sphenoid (Onodi)

Fig. 6.12: Haller’s cell

 Anatomical Variations 97

• The anterior ethmoid cells may migrate into the frontal recess area where
they are then named the frontal cells. These are of four types (Figs 6.13A to
D):
— Type I: A single cell above the agger nasi cell.
— Type II: Two or more cells above the agger nasi cell.
— Type III: (Frontal bulla) A cell which extends well into the frontal sinus
and simulates the frontal sinus itself on endoscopy.
— Type IV: An isolated “loner cell” within the frontal sinus.

Fig. 6.13A: Frontal cell—type I Fig. 6.13B: Frontal cell—type II

Fig. 6.13C: Frontal cell—type III Fig. 6.13D: Frontal cell—type IV

98 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• Pneumatization from the suprabullar recess may extend laterally over the
roof of the orbit to form the supraorbital cell. This cell is seen on coronal
scans above the ethmoidal bulla and posterior to the frontal sinus (Fig. 6.14).
• Anterior ethmoid cells may pneumatize the middle turbinate to give rise to
the concha bullosa.
• Anterior ethmoid cells may also pneumatize the crista galli (Fig. 6.15).
• Posterior ethmoid cells may pneumatize the sphenoid bone posteriorly to
give rise to a cell, which extends superolateral to the sphenoid sinus. This is
the Onodi cell. The optic nerve and sometimes the internal carotid artery
are in close relation with the lateral wall of this cell rather than with the
sphenoid sinus (Figs 6.16 and 6.17).

Fig. 6.14: Supraorbital cell Fig. 6.15: Pneumatization of crista galli

Fig. 6.16: Onodi cell with dehiscent Fig. 6.17: Onodi cell seen in sagittal section
optic nerve
 Anatomical Variations 99

Ground Lamella
• The ground lamella of the middle turbinate, which separates the anterior
and posterior ethmoid cells, is not always in a coronal plane. It may bulge
into the anterior ethmoids and have a convexity anteriorly. Conversely, it
may bulge into the posterior ethmoids with a concavity anteriorly.
• It may show dehiscences or be partially deficient in which case infection
can pass from anterior to posterior ethmoids.
• It may itself be pneumatized and split into multiple septae (Fig. 6.18).
• The ground lamella usually attaches to the lamina papyracea. Rarely it may,
however, turn inferiorly in which case it “misses” the lamina papyracea
and attaches to the lateral wall of the maxillary sinus (Fig. 6.19). The
maxillary sinus is thus divided into two parts. The posterior part behaves
like a posterior ethmoidal cell in terms of drainage and involvement by
disease.

Fig. 6.18: Ground lamella spliting into septae

Fig. 6.19: “Missed” ground lamella

100 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Superior/Supreme Turbinate
• The superior turbinate is always present and acts as a guide for the sphenoid
ostium.
• It may occasionally be pneumatized (Fig. 6.20) or paradoxically curved (Fig.
6.21).
• A fourth turbinate, i.e. the supreme turbinate, which represents persistence
of an ethmoturbinal may be seen in the adult.

Fig. 6.20: Pneumatized superior turbinate Fig. 6.21: Paradoxically curved superior
turbinate
Olfactory Fossa
The olfactory fossa is formed by the horizontal lamella of the cribriform plate,
its vertical lamellae and a part of the orbital plate of the frontal bone. The
thickness of the orbital plate of the frontal bone is 0.5 mm. The vertical lamella
in its thinnest part (where the anterior ethmoidal artery perforates it) is only
1/10th this thickness, i.e. 0.05 mm (Fig. 6.22). The depth of the olfactory fossa
varies and has been classified by Keros into (Figs 6.23A, i and ii; B, i and ii; C,
i and ii).
• Type I: 1-3 mm
• Type II: 4-7 mm
• Type III: 8-17 mm

Fig. 6.22: The olfactory fossa

 Anatomical Variations 101

Fig. 6.23A (i) Fig. 6.23A (ii)

Fig. 6.23B (i) Fig. 6.23B (ii)

Fig. 6.23C (i) Fig. 6.23C (ii)

Figs 6.23A (i) to 6.23C (ii): Keros classification

102 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

The deeper the olfactory fossa, the longer is the vertical lamella of the
cribriform plate. This increased length of very thin bone is liable to injury.
However, in a shallow olfactory fossa although the vertical lamella is not very
long it is placed in a more horizontal or axial plane and is therefore also liable
to injury by the advancing tip of the forceps.
The olfactory fossa is usually symmetrical. Occasionally it may be
asymmetrical.

Lamina Papyracea
The orientation of the lamina papyracea is best seen in axial cuts of the CT
scan. It runs fairly straight in an anterior to posterior direction between the
ethmoid cells and the orbit. It may however, occasionally bend towards the
orbit or towards the ethmoid sinus. There may be natural breaks in the lamina
papyracea. The edges of these breaks are well corticated as opposed to breaks
due to trauma or some expansile lesion.

Sphenoid Sinus
The sphenoid sinus shows great variations in pneumatization (Fig. 6.24).
• It may be present as a small pit in a predominantly non-pneumatized
sphenoid bone-conchal type.

Fig. 6.24: Patterns of sphenoid pneumatization

 Anatomical Variations 103

• It may extend upto the anterior wall of the sella turcica—Presellar type.
• It may pneumatize the entire sphenoid body below and behind the sella
turcica, so that the pituitary forms a distinct bulge in its posterosuperior
wall—Sellar type.
• Pneumatization may occasionally be different on each side.
• The right and left sphenoid sinuses are more often than not asymmetrical
leading to dominance of one sphenoid.
• The intersphenoid septum as well as septae within the sphenoid sinus may
attach to vital structures like the optic nerve and the internal carotid artery
(Figs 6.25 and 6.26).

Fig. 6.25: Intersphenoid septum attaching

to optic nerve

Fig. 6.26: Intersphenoid septum attaching to

internal carotid artery
104 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

• Pneumatization of the anterior clinoid process produces a deep recess

between the optic nerve and internal carotid artery- the carotico-optic recess.
The optic nerve may often be dehiscent in such a case (Fig. 6.27).
• The internal carotid artery may be “clinically dehiscent” (i.e. covered by
very thin bone) in 25 percent cases and the optic nerve is dehiscent in about
6 percent cases.
• The sphenoid sinus may show extensive pneumatization laterally into the
pterygoid processes and the greater wing of sphenoid. The maxillary and
vidian nerves can then be seen prominently within these lateral recesses of
the sphenoid (Fig. 6.28).

Fig. 6.27: Pneumatized anterior clinoid process

Fig. 6.28: Lateral recesses of the sphenoid

 Anatomical Variations 105

• The sphenoid ostium may be pinpoint, oval or round. It may be easily seen
on the anterior face of the sphenoid or may be hidden behind the superior
turbinate. Occasionally there may be more than one ostia on one side.
• In a well pneumatized sinus the carotid artery siphon may take a gentle
curve or be fairly straight. In elderly individuals the internal carotid artery
may take a more tortuous route.

Frontal Sinus
• The frontal sinus may vary from being completely absent to being
extensively pneumatized with multiple chambers. These chambers may
drain individually into the frontal recess.

Fig. 6.29: Pneumatized interfrontal septum

• The interfrontal septum may be occasionally pneumatised (Fig. 6.29).

• The pattern of drainage of the frontal sinus as well as different types of
frontal cells has already been discussed.

Maxillary Sinus
• The maxillary sinus is fairly constant in its pattern of pneumatization and
drainage. Occasionally it may be hypoplastic or asymmetric. Rarely it may
be completely absent.
• Partial or complete septations may occur within the maxillary sinus (Fig.
6.30).
• A Haller cell may compromise the infundibulum and the drainage of the
maxillary sinus through its normal ostium.
• Accessory ostia may be present in the anterior and posterior fontanelle in
25 percent of the cases.
• An extensively pneumatized maxillary sinus may encroach upon the
alveolar process of the maxilla, in which case, the roots of the teeth will
106 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

Fig. 6.30: Septa within maxillary sinus Fig. 6.31: Dehiscent infraorbital nerve

project into the maxillary sinus. Pneumatization may also encroach into
the zygomatic process of the maxilla.
• The infraorbital canal may be dehiscent with the nerve lying submucosally
(Fig. 6.31).
• The natural ostium is usually ovoid, lies in an oblique plane and appears
tunnel like during endoscopy. It may however, be pinpoint, round or
multiple.
• The medial wall of the maxillary sinus may be bowed laterally to protrude
into the maxillary sinus.
It is now obvious that the nose and paranasal sinuses are subject to many
variations in anatomy which are fairly common and not necessarily patho-
logical. As such no surgery is required for these findings on CT scan if the
patient is clinically asymptomatic.
They may however be the etiological factor in sinus infections and should
be especially looked for when an isolated sinus is involved. For example a
type II or III frontal cell may be the only reason for frontal sinusitis and a
discerning surgeon would achieve a clinically gratifying result with minimally
invasive surgery. More importantly, a sound knowledge of the possible
variations would help the surgeon in avoiding pitfalls and harming his patients.
Surgical Anatomy

“At what point then is the approach of

danger to be expected?”
Abraham Lincoln (1838)
7 Surgical Anatomy

This chapter is a summary of facts discussed in this book and their relevance
in the milieu of the operating theatre.

Diagnostic Endoscopy
• The turbinates and septum are very sensitive to touch; it is therefore
necessary to get good decongestion and anesthesia of the nose prior to
attempting diagnostic endoscopy.
• Endoscopy should be done in such a way so as to avoid touching the
septum and turbinates during the passes. The second pass can prove to be
the most difficult as the sphenoethmoidal recess is a narrow niche.

The Septum
• In case of a deviated nasal septum or a nasal spur, diagnostic endoscopy
should be done in the roomy nostril first so as to gain the patient’s
confidence prior to attempting endoscopy in the narrow cavity.
• A very common site for mucosal trauma and subsequent adhesions is on
the opposing surfaces of a septal spur and the inferior turbinate. Special
care should be exercised to prevent trauma to these opposing mucosal
surfaces.

Olfactory Fossa
• The olfactory fossa is most often symmetrical bilaterally. In case of a break
in the horizontal portion of the cribriform plate, the meninges may descend
into the upper recesses of the nasal cavity. The olfactory fossa will appear
asymmetrical on coronal CT scans. This is called the gyrus rectus sign and is
indicative of the site of breach in a case of CSF rhinorrhea.
• The olfactory nerves pass through the cribriform plate to reach the nasal
cavity. These foramina may appear like breaks in the detailed 1 mm coronal
110 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

CT scans, which may be taken to locate a site of CSF leak. This fact should
be borne in mind when hunting for a CSF leak.

Lacrimal Apparatus
• The lateral wall of the nasolacrimal duct is formed by the frontonasal process
of the maxilla which is thick bone. The medial wall however is formed by
thin bones, namely, the descending portion of the lacrimal bone and the
lacrimal process of the inferior turbinate. Thus contrary to common belief,
the nasolacrimal duct can be injured without encountering thick bone whilst
widening the maxillary ostium anteriorly.
• The lacrimal bone articulates superiorly with the frontal bone which is
very thick. Therefore, in exposing the upper portion of the lacrimal sac
one may need to use a drill on this bone.
• The lacrimal fossa does not extend backwards beyond the lacrimal bone.
Hence in endoscopic dacryocystorhinostomy one needs to operate anterior
to the uncinate process and it is therefore not necessary to remove the
uncinate process.
• Since canalization of the nasolacrimal duct is not complete till after birth,
regurgitation of tears is common in infancy. This problem does not need
to be addressed surgically in most cases.
• A rare anomaly of the lacrimal system is the oblique facial cleft in which
the maxillary process does not fuse with the lateral nasal process and the
nasolacrimal duct is not formed.

Uncinate Process
• The upper part of the uncinate process is hidden by the attachment of the
middle turbinate. Therefore an uncinectomy by any technique does not
remove this uppermost portion. It needs to be removed separately with a
ballpoint probe or forceps while dissecting in the region of the frontal
recess.
• In a hypoplastic and laterally rotated uncinate process the infundibulum
is very shallow. If uncinectomy is done with a sickle knife in such a case it
is easy to traverse the infundibulum and enter the orbit accidentally.
• It is not necessary to remove the entire uncinate process in all cases. For
example only the horizontal portion of the uncinate process needs to be
removed if there is isolated disease of the maxillary sinus.

Middle Turbinate
• At least two of the three attachments of the middle turbinate (namely, the
anterior and the posterior attachment) should be preserved to maintain its
stability. Preservation of the lower border of the ground lamella also helps
to keep the middle turbinate stable and prevents its lateralization.
• The middle turbinate should be manipulated very gently as it attaches
directly to the cribriform plate. A forcible attempt to medialize the middle
turbinate in order to get a better view of the middle meatus may lead to
a break in the cribriform plate and a CSF leak.
 Surgical Anatomy 111

• While dissecting in the region of the frontal recess, care should be taken
to maintain the mucosa over the middle turbinate. If the mucosa of the
anterior attachment of the middle turbinate is stripped off, adhesions will
form between the lateral nasal wall and the upper attachment of the middle
turbinate. These adhesions will cause lateralization of the middle turbinate
and obliteration of the frontal recess with subsequent iatrogenic frontal
sinus disease. In extreme cases complete obliteration of the middle meatus
may occur.
• Preserving the posterior attachment of the middle turbinate to the
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid protects the sphenopalatine artery as
it exits from the sphenopalatine foramen just above and behind the
posterior attachment of the middle turbinate.
• While opening a concha bullosa care should be taken to maintain the mucosa
over its lateral surface, so as to prevent adhesions developing between
the two opposing raw areas.

Bulla Ethmoidalis
• Clearance of the bulla, anterior and posterior ethmoid cells should be done
using the side of the straight or upward biting forceps and not the tip in
order to prevent accidental injury to the lamina papyracea and orbital
contents.
• The anterior wall of the bulla lies just in front of the anterior ethmoidal
artery at the base skull. Thus, if the bulla is kept intact during dissection
in the frontal recess area, the risk of bleeding from the anterior ethmoidal
artery is minimized.
• Minimal inflammation in the osteomeatal area can block off aeration to
the anterior ethmoid, frontal and the maxillary sinus, leading to infection
in them. This concept is the basis of Messerklinger’s functional endoscopic
sinus surgery whereby the clearance of this area alone may reverse changes
in the draining sinuses.

Maxillary Ostium
• The normal maxillary sinus ostium lies deep in the infundibulum very
close to the attachment of the uncinate process to the lateral wall. If the
entire width of the uncinate process is not removed the normal ostium
can be missed during dissection. This leads to the “missed ostium sequence”
and recirculation of mucus.
• The presence of accessory ostia also leads to recirculation of mucus. The
mucus is transported out of the sinus through the normal ostia and reenters
the sinus through an accessory ostium. This recirculation of mucus can be
prevented by joining the normal ostium with the accessory ostium so as to
get one large opening.
• The normal ostium should be widened in an anteroinferior direction at
the expense of the anterior fontanelle to prevent injury to the nasolacrimal
duct, which lies 5 mm anterior to it.
• The lamina papyracea and the orbit lie just above the maxillary ostium.
Hence, if for some reason the normal ostium cannot be located, it is safest
to probe for the maxillary sinus ostium just above the inferior turbinate.
112 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

The probe should be directed in an anteroinferior direction. This would

prevent accidental entry into the orbit.
• A branch of the sphenopalatine artery runs along the lateral nasal wall in
the middle meatus. This branch may be encountered whilst widening the
maxillary ostium posteriorly.

Frontal Recess
• The path of drainage of the frontal sinus depends upon the mode of
attachment of the uncinate process. If the uncinate process is attached to
the cribriform plate the frontal sinus will drain into the infundibulum. If
the uncinate process is attached to the lamina papyracea, the frontal sinus
drains medial to the infundibulum. In such a case the infundibulum will
lead up into a blind recess—the recessus terminalis. The dome of this
recess has to be removed before the frontal sinus can be entered. This has
been described by Stammberger as ‘uncapping the egg’. Care should be
taken to direct the probe laterally as the thin vertical lamella of the
cribriform plate lies medially.
• Whilst dissecting in the frontal recess the surgeon may think he has entered
the frontal sinus, when in fact, he is within a frontal cell. It is necessary to
de-roof this frontal cell so as to reach the frontal sinus and establish its
drainage.
• When a supraorbital cell is present the frontal recess will show two
openings. In this case, the medial one is the frontal sinus opening and the
lateral one is the opening of the supraorbital cell.
• When the frontal sinus drains medial to the uncinate process, its secretions
do not traverse the infundibulum. Thus infection from the frontal sinus
would not normally spread to the maxillary sinus and vice versa. However,
if the frontal sinus drains lateral to the uncinate process its secretions pass
through the infundibulum making the maxillary sinus prone to infection.
• When the frontal recess is viewed from below with an endoscope, the
opening of the frontal sinus can be seen in the anterior limits of the frontal
recess. We have to look around the corner of the frontal beak in order to
view the interior of the frontal sinus. This is best done with a 70° or 45°
telescope or by hyper extending the head whilst using a 0° telescope.

Ethmoidal Air Cells

• The anterior ethmoidal air cells are variable in number; the posterior
ethmoidal air cells are fewer and larger. The ground lamella should be
perforated slightly medially and inferiorly in order to enter the posterior
ethmoid air cells. This will prevent accidental entry into the orbit.
• As the surgeon dissects posteriorly, he must learn to recognize the posterior
most pyramidal ethmoidal cell. He must then change the direction of
surgery inferomedially to access the sphenoid sinus. If he continues to
dissect through the posterior wall of the posterior ethmoid he would enter
the cranial cavity.
 Surgical Anatomy 113

Lamina Papyracea
A breach in the lamina papyracea anteriorly may not cause major damage
because a pad of fat separates the medial rectus from the lamina papyracea.
Posteriorly, however, the medial rectus is in close relation to the lamina
papyracea and therefore is more prone to injury.
After the lamina papyracea is cleared of cells and the maxillary ostium is
widened a “ridge” can be delineated and extrapolated backwards. This ridge
can be used as a landmark to open the sphenoid sinus.

Sphenoid Sinus
• Differentiation between the posterior most ethmoid cell and the sphenoid
sinus is one of the most common difficulties faced by the novice endos-
copic surgeon. The following points help to identify the sphenoid sinus:
— The sphenoid sinus is globular in shape (like the inside of a pot). The
posterior most ethmoid cell on the other hand is pyramidal in shape
and tapers to an apex posteriorly.
— The sphenoid sinus opens inferior to the maxillary ridge mentioned
above in a more or less axial plane. The posterior ethmoid cells most
often open above the ridge in a coronal plane.
— The roof of the posterior choana and the posterior end of the septum
can be used as landmarks to identify the normal sphenoid ostium and
then widen it to open the sinus.
• The sphenoid ostium lies close to the roof of the sphenoid sinus. Therefore
it is safest to widen the ostium in an inferior direction along its anterior
wall. A branch of the sphenopalatine artery runs across the anterior face
of the sphenoid to reach the septum. This may be injured during widening
the ostium. This bleeding is safely and effectively controlled using a
monopolar suction cautery. Another technique is to raise a mucosal flap
along with the artery and nibble away only the bone of the anterior wall
so as to prevent damage to the artery.
• Since the skull base slopes downward from anterior to posterior, its lowest
level is the roof of the sphenoid. This fact should be borne in mind while
clearing the cells of the ethmoid fovea.
• There is a great deal of unnecessary nervousness on the part of the beginner,
in approaching the sphenoid sinus laterally through the posterior ethmoid
cells. If a curved ballpoint or suction is used to probe inferomedially
through the posterior ethmoid cell, this instrument can go only in one of
two areas, i.e. either the sphenoid sinus or more anteriorly into the nasal
cavity. A common mistake by the beginner is to probe more anteriorly
and therefore reenter the nasal cavity itself instead of the sphenoid sinus.
This can be easily rectified by probing in an inferior direction in a more
posterior cell. Thus if the direction of dissection is strictly inferomedially
it is not possible for the surgeon to damage any vital structure or to
accidentally enter the cranial cavity. The risk for these mishaps exists only
if the surgeon dissects in a posterior, superior or lateral direction.
• In approximately 6 percent of cases, the bone over the optic nerve may be
dehiscent and in approximately 25 percent of cases, bone over the internal
114 Anatomical Principles of Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A Step by Step Approach

carotid artery may be clinically dehiscent. This may be difficult to visualize

on CT scan, if the sphenoid sinus is full of polyps. Therefore extreme caution
has to be exercised in pulling polyps out from within the sphenoid sinus.

Anterior and Posterior Ethmoidal Arteries

• The orbitocranial canal may have bony dehiscences (40%), which leave the
anterior ethmoidal artery exposed to the risk of trauma.
• The point at which the anterior ethmoidal artery perforates the lateral
lamella of the cribriform plate is the thinnest part of the anterior base
skull (0.05 mm). The underlying dura is also strongly adherent to this
area of bone. Thus this region is particularly vulnerable to iatrogenic CSF
leaks. Patients with deep olfactory fossae with long lateral lamellae (Keros
type III) are at the greatest risk. However, as mentioned earlier, shallow
olfactory fossae can also be vulnerable to injury as the lateral lamella is
more horizontal in orientation, and therefore, more easily accessible to the
tip of the advancing forceps.
• Viewed from the side of the orbit, the anterior and posterior ethmoidal
arteries enter the nose at the level of the suture line between the frontal
bone and the lamina papyracea. The distance from the anterior lacrimal
crest to the anterior ethmoidal artery is 24 mm (anterior ethmoidal foramen),
from the anterior ethmoidal artery to the posterior ethmoidal artery is 12
mm (posterior ethmoidal foramen) and from the posterior ethmoidal artery
to the optic nerve is 6 mm (optic foramen).

Sphenopalatine Artery
The sphenopalatine artery can be approached through the posterior part of
the middle meatus by detaching the middle turbinate from the ethmoidal
crest so as to access the sphenopalatine foramen.
 In Conclusion...

This is really for my junior colleagues and for all those who are starting out
in endoscopic surgery – testing the waters, so to speak.

One often hears of the learning curve in endoscopic sinus surgery. I think
of the 4 lamellae the surgeon has to cross during surgery, as the 4 stages in
his learning curve. He first learns to do diagnostic endoscopies and possibly
just an uncinectomy. Having developed hand-eye coordination and some
knowledge of the anatomy, he would then breach the anterior wall of the
bulla to operate on the anterior group of sinuses. Once he has gained enough
experience, only then should he breach the ground lamella to operate on the
posterior group of sinuses. This is because the complications arising from
surgery on the posterior group of sinuses are far more debilitating as compared
to those in the anterior group of sinuses.

Having mastered surgery in the posterior group of sinuses, the surgeon

would then venture beyond the sinus boundaries to the orbit, the cranial
cavity and the pterygopalatine fossa.

We all trace our own learning curve. The important thing is to recognize
that it exists and that to ignore it or to jump it would be to court disaster.
However, if we combine a sound knowledge of the subject with meticulousness
and patience the results will definitely be gratifying for our patients.
 Index
A H Orbitocranial canal 55, 78
Haller’s cell 96 Osteomeatal unit 33-35, 77
Accessory ostium 17, 42, 78
Agger nasi cell 32, 63, 91 Hasner’s valve 49, 61
Anterior ethmoidal artery 20, 55, 78, 114 Hiatus semilunaris inferior 37 P
Anterior fontanelle 43 Hiatus semilunaris superior 37
Palatine bone 25
Atrium 31 Pituitary 32, 53
I
Posterior ethmoidal artery 56, 114
C Inferior turbinate 23
Posterior fontanelle 43
Infundibular cells 42
Carotico-optic recess 23, 52 Infundibulum 63
Concha bullosa 93 R
Interlamellar cell of Grunwald 94
Conchal crest 17, 26 Recessus terminalis 39, 112
Cribriform plate 19 K Retrobullar recess 36, 37, 95
Crista galli 19, 98 Keros classification 20, 101
S
E L
Lacrimal apparatus 110 Septal tubercle 75
Ethmoid bone 19
Lacrimal bone 24 Sinus lateralis 37, 95
Ethmoid fovea 19
Lamina papyracea 48, 82, 102, 113 Sphenoethmoidal recess 61
Ethmoidal bulla 36, 95, 111
Loner cell 40, 97 Sphenoid bone 22
Ethmoidal crest 17, 26
Sphenoid ostium 46, 61
Eustachian tube opening 32, 60, 83
M Sphenoid sinus 102, 113
Mandibular processes 3, 4, 9 Sphenopalatine foramen 82
F
Maxilla 16 Superior turbinate 100
Foramen caecum 85 Maxillary hiatus 17, 111 Suprabullar recess 36, 37, 95
Foramen ovale 82 Maxillary process 3, 4, 9, 24 Supraorbital cell 76
Foramen rotundum 81 Maxillary sinus 18, 105 Supreme turbinate 100
Fossa of Rosenmueller 32, 60, 83 Maxillary tuberosity 18
Frontal bone 18 T
Middle turbinate 21, 33, 93, 110
Frontal bulla 40 Torus tubaris 82
Frontal cell 40, 97 N Turbinate sinus 64, 94
Frontal recess 37, 112 Nasal bones 27
Frontal sinus 105 Nasal placode 4 U
Frontonasal process 17 Nasal septum 60, 109
Nasolacrimal duct 17, 49, 70, 83 Uncinate process 21, 33, 39, 63, 91, 110
G
V
Greater palatine artery 54 O
Ground lamella 63, 83, 99 Olfactory fossa 100, 109 Vestibule 31
Gyrus rectus sign 109 Onodi cell 46 Vidian canal 81, 104