Metabolism Makeover: Fact or Fiction

Len Kravitz, Ph.D.

A major goal of weight management strategies and programs is to create some type of

imbalance with energy intake (decreasing) and energy expenditure (increasing) in order

to facilitate weight loss. Daily or total 24-hour energy expenditure (TEE, see Figure 1 for

its constituents) is a multifaceted physiological phenomenon that is influenced by a

complex interaction of genes (which favor energy conservation and storage for survival)

and an environment (which enables a sedentary lifestyle and promotes ready access to

food) (Rosenbaum and Liebel, 2010). The authors continue that TEE can be separated

into resting metabolic rate (RMR, which is ~60% of TEE), the thermic (i.e., heat and

energy releasing reactions) of exercise and spontaneous physical activity (comprising ~30

of TEE), and the thermic effect of food (digestion, absorption, and metabolism of

nutrients which accounts for 5-10% of TEE). Because of its robust role in TEE, RMR has

become the target of many substantiated and unsubstantiated weight loss propositions.

This column will provide an evidence-based review of several of these popular questions

on metabolism.

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Figure 1. Components of Total 24-hour Daily Energy Expenditure (TEE)

1) How much does RMR lower from diet-only interventions? Hill (2004) states that

basal metabolic rate (which is very similar to RMR, only it is measured using slightly

stricter criteria) can be suppressed up to 20%. For example, a person who’s BMR is 1500

calories a day might have an approximate decrease of 300 calories per day in a diet-only

program. However, Hill continues that physical exercise (aerobic training and resistance

exercise) provides a protective effect to this lowering from energy restriction. This can be

primarily explained by the fact that people tend to lose a considerable portion of muscle

mass in diet-only programs, where as one of the key contributions from exercise in

weight loss programs is the preservation of muscle and RMR.

2) How much does RMR change from continuous long-term participation in aerobic

exercise? Potteiger and colleagues (2008) completed a 16-month study on the effect of

RMR in adult female (exercise group=25, control group=18) and male (exercise

group=16, control group=15) subjects who did aerobic exercise 3-5 days/week for 30-45

minutes/session at a moderate intensity (60-75% of their heart rate reserve). There were

no RMR changes in the control group, who just maintained their normal exercise and diet

patterns for the 16 months. However, on average the females in the exercise group had a

mean increase of 129 calories/day while the males in the exercise group experienced an

average increase in 174 kilocalories/day in this 16-month investigation.

3) How much does RMR change from continuous long-term participation in

resistance exercise? Hunter et al (2000) conducted a 26-week resistance training study

with beginning, sedentary and older (61-77 yrs old) males (n=7) and females (n=8).

Subjects completed supervised workouts consisting of 2 sets of 10 repetitions (with 2

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minutes of rest between each set). The resistance exercises were elbow flexion, elbow

extension, lateral pulldown, seated row, chest press, leg extension, leg curl, seated press,

back extensions, bent-leg sit-ups (15–25 repetitions) and squats or leg presses (as

determined by the supervising exercise physiologist). The subjects trained at intensity

within 65–80% of their 1 repetition maximum (1-RM). Progressive overload was

carefully integrated in the program after reviewing daily training logs and re-testing of

the 1-RM every 3 weeks. At the end of this 6-month investigation male and female

subjects increased their RMR by 7%, which was approximately an additional 100 calories

per day.

4) What is the best equation to estimate resting metabolic rate?

Frankenfield and colleagues conducted a review of four population RMR estimation

equations. The Mifflin-St Jeor (1990) equation was found to be most accurate. The

Miflin-St Jeor RMR equation was derived from data collected on males (n=251) and

females (n=247) aged 19-78 years of age. The RMR equations for men and women are as

follows:

Males: RMR=10x(wt in kg) + 6.25x(ht in cm) – 5x(age in years) + 5

Females: RMR=10x(wt in kg) +6.25x(ht in cm) – 5x(age in years) – 161

To determine body weight in kg from lbs simply divide weight in lbs by 2.205. For

instance, a 140 lb woman would calculate body weight in kg as follows: 140

lbs/2.205=63.5 kg. Height in centimeters is easily determined by multiplying a person’s

height (in inches) by 2.54. So, for a female who is 5 feet 6 inches (or 66 inches), height in

centimeters is 66 inchesx2.54=167.64 cm. Continuing with this RMR estimation, if a

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female client is 30 years old, 140 lbs and 5 feet 6 inches the estimate for her RMR would

be calculated as follows:

RMR=10(63.5) + 6.25(167.64) – 5(30) – 161

5) How much does RMR vary between persons?

Lazer and colleagues (2010) studied the relationship of RMR, gender, age and body

composition in 8,780 obese subjects, whose ages ranged from 7 to 74 years. The data

shows quite a bit of variability between subjects in RMR, which the authors note can be

explained by genetic factors, physical activity, organ mass and hormonal factors. In fact,

because of this variability in persons the Mifflin-St Jeor RMR equation highlighted above

has a plus or minus 10% accuracy prediction of RMR. In addition, some people have

what Rosebaum and Leibel (2010) refer to as an increased ‘genetic risk’ towards obesity.

These persons have metabolisms that are appreciably more depressed by their ‘thrifty

genes’ in the body that strive to maintain body fat levels.

6) Does eating more frequently during the day elevate resting metabolic rate?

As noted early in the article, the thermic effect of food is up to 10% of TEE. Eating more

frequently during the day may actually help to maintain this thermic effect effectively

(Rosenbaum and Leibel, 2010). A worrisome concern to the exercise professional is

when a client chooses to skip meals. Besides creating potential inadequate nutrient intake

and low blood glucose concerns, this unwise strategy may be interpreted as a ‘threat’ by

the mind, resulting in a series of physiological reactions to conserve fat reserves on the

body.

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7) Are any of these proposed ‘thermogenic ingredients’ such as teas (green, white

and oolong, although green tea has been the primary tea studied), caffeine and

capsaicins (the major component in red hot peppers and some spices) successful in

elevating resting metabolic rate?

Hursel and Westerterp-Plantenga (2010) conducted an extensive review of these

proposed thermogenic (process of calorie burning via heat production in the body)

ingredients. From this extensive scientific review the authors concluded that these

ingredients might briefly increase RMR (4-5%) as well as mildly improve fat oxidation

(i.e., fat burning) by the body. The investigators explain that through different

physiological pathways these thermogenic ingredients slightly elevate the sympathetic

nervous system, which is very involved in the regulation of RMR. The researchers

suggest that more research is needed to determine the optimal doses and best

combinations of these bioactive ingredients to increase RMR. As an important caution to

exercise professionals, the authors state that some people may experience increased

systolic and diastolic blood pressure (up to 6 mmHG) with the intake of green tea and

caffeine and/or possible side effects including heart palpitations, anxiety, headache,

restlessness, and dizziness. However, for most individuals the research indicates very

little health risk with the intake of teas and caffeine (and none with capsaicins).

Metabolism Makeover Conclusion

Well-controlled, long-term studies on aerobic exercise and weight lifting show that both

approaches independently increase a person’s resting metabolic rate, thus contributing to

the desired energy balance goals of weight management programs. In addition, optimal

doses and combinations of some thermogenic agents (teas, caffeine and capsaicins) that

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mildly elevate RMR are on the horizon. These too may ultimately help compliment a

client’s serious weight loss efforts.

References:

Frankenfield, D. Roth-Yousey, L., and Compher, C. (2005). Comparison of predictive

equations for resting metabolic rate in healthy nonobese and obese adults: a systematic

review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(5), 775-789.

Hill, A.J. (2004). Does dieting make you fat? British Journal of Nutrition, 92 (Suppl 1),

S15-S18.

Hunter, R.R., Wetzstein, C.J., Fields, D.A., Brown, A. and Bamman, M.M. (2000).

Resistance training increases total energy expenditure and free-living physical activity in

older adults. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 977-984.

Hursel, R. and Westerterp-Plantenga, M.S. (2010). Thermogenic ingredients and body

weight regulation. International Journal of Obesity, 34, 659–669.

Lazzer, S., Bedogni, G., Lafortuna, C.L., Marazzi, N. et al. (2010). Relationship between

basal metabolic rate, gender, age, and body composition in 8,780 white obese subjects.

Obesity, 18(3), 71-78.

Mifflin, M.D., St Jeor, S.T., Hill, L.A., Scott, B.J., Daugherty, S.A. and Koh, Y.U.

(1990). A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure inhealthy individuals.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51, 241-247.

Potteiger, J.A., Kirk, E.P., Jacobsen, D.J., and Donnelly, J.E. (2008). Changes in resting

metabolic rate and substrate oxidation after 16 months of exercise training in overweight

adults. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 18, 79-85.

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Rosenbaum, M. and Liebel, R.I. (2010). Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. 34, S47-

S55.

@Bio:Len Kravitz, PhD, is the program coordinator of exercise science and a researcher
at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, where he won the Outstanding Teacher
of the Year award. He has also received the prestigious Can-Fit-Pro Lifetime
Achievement Award and the Aquatic Exercise Association Global Award.