UNDERSTANDING YOUR

STEP BY STEP
Cath Botta

Yea
River
Catchment Landcare
UNDERSTANDING YOUR

STEP BY STEP
Cath Botta

Yea
River
Catchment Landcare
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Copyright © Yea River Catchment Landcare Group, 2015

Reprinted 2016
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN 978-0-646-94804-1
Cover and text design: Ann Friedel Publishing
Editor/project management: Judy Brookes
Printed and bound by Prominent Group, Shepparton
Disclaimer: this book does not seek to advise on or promote fertiliser application. It contains
material to help the reader understand their soil-test results, but results should always be
checked with your local government natural resources department or agronomist.
Editor’s acknowledgements: the production of this book proved more challenging than
anticipated due to the complexity of the subject and the battle to make that complexity
as accessible to the reader as possible. Cath Botta rose to this challenge with skill, superb
fortitude, eternal patience and the requisite humour. Rhiannon Apted (Land Health Manager,
GBCMA) was extraordinary in her support throughout the project, injecting invaluable
advice and a belief in the project that kept us buoyed. Ann Friedel produced the practical
and aesthetic design I envisaged and offered numerous handy tips and reassurance along
the way. And to the readers, my immense gratitude for giving their precious time to assess
the draft manuscript: Rhiannon Apted, Karen Brisbane (Land Health Project Officer, GBCMA),
Greg Bekker (Land Management & Livestock Extension Officer, Meat & Wool Hume Region),
Bridget Clarke, and local farmers Peter and Liz Ingham, John Waterhouse and Brad Watts –
you all rendered advice that changed the manuscript for the better.
Author’s acknowledgements: I am indebted to Mark Imhof, Doug Crawford, and Cameron
Gourley for assessing the draft manuscript and providing feedback and advice on scientific
aspects of the text.
This project was supported by the Goulburn Broken CMA’s Beyond SoilCare Project
through funding from the Australian Government’s National Landcare Program.

Front cover image courtesy: TurboSquid (GFX_Artist) Inside front cover: Kurosol profile Inside
back cover: Chromosol profile (both courtesy: Mark Imhof, Agricultural Research, Department of
Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources)
CONTENTS

Your soil test: quick reference guide ..................................................... iv

Introduction..................................................................................................... 1
Soil texture and colour................................................................................. 8
Cation exchange capacity.........................................................................10
Soil pH....................................................................................................13
Organic matter....................................................................................18
Phosphorus..........................................................................................22
Nitrogen................................................................................................26
Potassium..............................................................................................29
Sulphur..................................................................................................31
Exchangeable cations and percentages
Calcium..................................................................................................32
Magnesium...........................................................................................32
Potassium..............................................................................................33
Sodium...................................................................................................33
Hydrogen..............................................................................................33
Aluminium............................................................................................34
Cation ratios.........................................................................................35
Salinity, electrical conductivity and chloride.....................................37
Trace elements..............................................................................................41
Appendix ........................................................................................................43
Common soil types of the Goulburn Broken Catchment
Glossary ........................................................................................................46
Bibliography...................................................................................................49
YOUR SOIL TEST: QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Test Units Comments

Cation exchange cmol(+)/kg Level determined by soil type generally:
capacity (CEC) a CEC >12 is considered moderate and soil has good
nutrient-holding capacity.
Sand/sandy: < 10
Clay: 10–15
Organic matter: 200-400
Sandy soils may be prone to leaching. Consider
splitting fertiliser applications on such soils.

pH CaCl2/ Ideal: > 4.8(CaCl2)/5.5(water)

water Lower than ideal considered highly acidic with
increased risk of aluminium toxicity. For productive
improved pastures, consider liming (type of lime
depends on test results). pH(CaCl2) is typically 0.8 units
lower than pH(water) for soils with low salt levels.

Organic matter Walkley Black % Pastures (> 400 mm rainfall):

(OM) Low: < 5
Normal: 5–8
High: > 8
Required for nutrient cycling, biological activity;
provides protection for soil surface; improves soil
structure. Soils with low OM likely to slake/have poor
structure.
Organic carbon x 1.7 = OM%
Phosphorus (P) Olsen mg/kg (ppm) Native pastures: < 12
Introduced pasture species and systems aiming for
80–90% potential pasture yield (lower stocking rate):
12–14
Introduced pasture species and systems aiming for
90–95% potential pasture yield (higher stocking rate):
15–18

iv
 Test Units Comments
Phosphorus (P) Colwell/ mg/kg (ppm) Systems aiming for 80–90% potential pasture yield
CONTINUED Phosphorus (lower stocking rate):
Buffering PBI Target Colwell P
Index (PBI)
Low (71–140) 27–35
Moderate (141–280) 32–42
High (280–840) 44–58

Systems aiming for 90–95% potential pasture yield

(higher stocking rate):
PBI Target Colwell P
Low (71–140) 35–45
Moderate (141–280) 42–54
High (280–840) 58–75

Potassium (K) Colwell K mg/kg (ppm) Systems aiming for 80–90% potential pasture yield
(lower stocking rate):
Soil texture Target Colwell K
Sands 60–100
Sandy loams 70–110
Clay loams 70–120
Clays 80–130
Systems aiming for 90–95% potential pasture yield
(higher stocking rate):
Soil texture Target Colwell K
Sands 90–130
Sandy loams 100–150
Clay loams 110–160
Clays 120–180

v
 Test Units Comments
Potassium (K) Exchangeable cmol/kg Systems aiming for: Loam soil types
CONTINUED K
80–90% potential pasture yield 0.28–0.44
90–95% potential pasture yield 0.38–0.54
Target levels for sandy soil types are lower; higher for
clay soil types. Target level as % of CEC: 3–8%

Sulphur KCl-40 mg/kg (ppm) Systems

aiming for:
80–90% potential pasture yield 6–7.5
90–95% potential pasture yield 7.5–12

Exchangeable % (of CEC) < 5% (< 3% for most clover species; < 1% for sensitive
aluminium plants, e.g. lucerne).
Becomes toxic to plants if < 4.8(CaCl2)/5.5(water).
Consider liming, particularly if resowing.

CaCl mg/kg (ppm) Ideal: < 2

KCl mg/kg (ppm) Ideal: < 50
Exchangeable % (of CEC) Ideal:
cations Calcium: 65–80 Magnesium: 15–18
Potassium: 3–8 Sodium: < 3

% Soil structure
Ca:Mg ratio > 2:1 = well-structured soil
ESP < 6 = well-structured soil
Soils with Ca:Mg < 2 and ESP > 6 are more likely to be
dispersive/poorly structured. Use gypsum/organic
matter to improve.

EC (salinity) 1:5 dS/m Ideal: < 0.50 dS/m

ECe dS/m Ideal: < 1.8. If > 2, more sensitive plants (e.g. lucerne)
affected. Saline if > 4.

vi
INTRODUCTION

This booklet has been written for the the physical and biological properties
dryland grazing zones of the Goulburn of the soil to enable and support the
Broken Catchment of Victoria. The soil functions vital for plant growth.
same principles will apply, however, to Land managers are encouraged to
other dryland grazing zones in Victoria. consider all three of these factors in their
It aims to assist land managers in management strategies, not just soil
understanding and interpreting soil test chemical properties.
data. The guidelines are not intended to
Soil chemical properties ensure the
provide specific recommendations but
supply of adequate nutrients for plant
general information for consideration
when making soil nutrient decisions in growth and indirectly animal health.
conjunction with professional agronomic The major mineral nutrients (which
advice. are used in greatest quantity by plants
and usually become deficient first) that
Soil is a critical resource in a productive are important for crop and pasture
agricultural system. Whether you are production are nitrogen, phosphorus,
growing crops or pastures, soil tests are potassium, sulphur, calcium and
an important tool in your routine farm magnesium. The micro-nutrients (trace
management program. Understanding elements) required in smaller amounts to
and monitoring the ‘health’ of your soil support plant growth are boron, copper,
provides the foundation for key farm iron, molybdenum and zinc. Other
decisions for sustainable productivity. trace elements, such as selenium, are
A program of soil testing can give you particularly important for animal health.
a broad understanding of your soil’s Soil pH and soil cation exchange capacity
overall fertility. Conducted over time are also key soil chemical properties that
from the same paddock, it can provide influence nutrient availability. These are
you with a snapshot of your soil’s fertility, discussed in greater detail later.
allowing you to monitor changes, Soil physical properties provide the
make more informed and confident framework in which plant roots and
fertiliser decisions, and reduce the risk of organisms live. Soil particles are held
unnecessary inputs and unintended off- together in natural clumps or crumbs
and on-site environmental impacts. (referred to as soil peds or aggregates).
Healthy, productive soils are friable, These consist of the soil particles of
provide water and nutrients, and are sand, silt and clay, combined with the
biologically active. There are many soil organic matter. A well-structured soil
factors that influence soil health and soil allows good water and air movement,
productivity. Assessment of soil chemical penetration by plant roots and adequate
properties using soil tests is focusing water retention. Soil structure refers to
on only one set of these factors. Other the number, size and arrangement of the
factors include the management of soil aggregates and the spaces between
INTRODUCTION | 1
them (the pores). This can be determined of living and decaying plant residues
in the field by examining the soil profile and roots, living and decaying soil
and the soil aggregates, as well as the biota, and soil humus (the stable end
penetration of the plant root system into product of decomposed organic matter).
the soil profile. Organic matter plays a critical role in
The relative proportions of the soil improving the physical, chemical and
particles (sand, silt and clay) give the soil biological properties of soils, so good
its texture (this is discussed in greater grazing management (i.e. rotational
detail on p. 8). grazing to allow adequate ground cover
and growth and senescence of roots)
is critical for the retention of organic
matter in the soil. Soil pH and good
soil structure are also paramount for
maintaining a diverse, active soil biota
population.

How soils form

Soils are formed from the gradual
breakdown of rocks, minerals and
organic materials via weathering
A poorly structured soil (left) and well- (through physical, chemical and
structured soil (right) (source: Dr Richard Doyle, biological processes).
Senior Lecturer in Soil Science, Tasmanian
Institute of Agriculture, School of Land and Soil formation is also influenced by the
Food, University of Tasmania) accumulation of materials through the
action of water, wind and gravity.
Soil biological properties are
essential to healthy soils and sustaining There are five main interacting factors
agricultural production. Active soil that affect the formation of a large
biota ensure vital processes in the variety of soils:
soil are maintained, such as organic
1. parent material (i.e. the rocks and
matter breakdown, nitrogen fixation,
minerals present in the geology form
nutrient cycling, and the formation and
the basis of the soil);
maintenance of soil aggregates. They
also play a role in suppression of disease- 2. living organisms (which can provide
causing organisms and the degradation and decompose organic matter and
of pollutants. mineralise important plant nutrients);
Soil organic matter is paramount for 3. climate (which affects the rate
maintaining large numbers of diverse of weathering and organic
soil biota. Soil organic matter consists decomposition);
2 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
4. topography (i.e. the grade of slope The type of parent material and the
can affect drainage, erosion and degree of weathering will influence the
deposition); and type of soil, including the clay minerals
present and their chemical reactivity. In
5. time (soil-forming processes are the cation exchange capacity section (see
slow – it can take millions of years to p. 10), you will learn more about how this
produce soil). works.

Soils commonly have three main horizons (or distinct zones):

• A horizon – the topsoil has higher

levels of biological activity, nutrients
and organic matter. This horizon is
usually darker in colour than the
others due to the presence of organic
materials. O horizon

• B horizon – the subsoil has higher A horizon

levels of clay and usually holds more
moisture than the A horizon, but is
often less fertile. It is generally less
biologically active, heavier in texture
(i.e. more clay) and lighter in colour
than the A horizon. B horizon

• C horizon– the underlying weathered

rock from which the A and B horizons
form. The relative thickness of the A
and B horizons will vary, depending
on the soil type and the location in
the landscape.
Some soils also exhibit an O horizon,
which consists mainly of plant litter that C horizon
has accumulated on the soil’s surface. (Source: www.qld.gov.au)

INTRODUCTION | 3
 How to take a soil sample

Remember that a soil test is only as Deeper cores may need to be taken
good as the care taken in sampling. to check for subsoil acidity, salinity
or other issues, depending on the
Sampling time Grazing pastures
crops or pasture being considered
should be tested every three to five
years (highly productive farming (please contact your advisor for this
systems that export greater nutrient advice).
will require more frequent testing, Sampling pattern There are a
and less productive farming systems number of common sampling
will require less frequent testing). patterns: the zigzag, line transect
It is best to sample at the same or grid. For optimal coverage of
period each year. Late winter to early the paddock, a grid sampling
spring is usually the recommended pattern can be used; the transect
sampling time (but avoid very wet sampling pattern, however, is often
conditions). During the drier months considered the best for monitoring
of summer and autumn, it is often changes over time.
difficult to obtain a good soil sample
at the standard depth of 10 cm.
Note: paddocks should not be
sampled for at least six to eight
weeks after the last fertiliser
application. If practical, also leave
sampling until a couple of weeks
after removal of stock from a
paddock.
Sampling depth It is important
that the standard sampling depths
are used. Soils are generally sampled Paddock grid sampling pattern
to a depth of 10 cm by using a
sampling tube or soil corer to extract Be alert to changes in soil type in the
the soil core. Corers are generally sampling area. Submit a separate
available from your agronomist, soil sample from each soil type
local Landcare group or CMA office. (e.g. clay, loam or sandy) and from

4 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

How to take a soil sample (CONTINUED)

paddocks that have been managed you want carried out. It is also crucial
differently, because these factors to ask when choosing a laboratory
affect fertiliser needs. Record where whether it is a member of the
samples were taken on a map Australian Soil Plant Analysis Council
(using GPS, if possible) for a more (ASPAC) and if this accreditation
accurate comparison each testing. It applies to all the tests it offers.
is recommended that around 25–30 ASPAC-accredited laboratories
soil cores are taken to make up an meet accuracy standards for one
individual soil sample. or more of the tests carried out in
their laboratory. Equally important
Note: be careful not to take soil core
is asking whether the laboratory
samples from dung pads, stock
has accreditation with the National
camps, gateways, fence lines and
Association of Testing Authorities
around troughs. (NATA). NATA is an association that
Sample handling and packaging sets and maintains the high quality
Place no less than 300 g of the (well- control standards for the various
mixed) sample into a clean bag and analytical methods. It is important
seal it. Clearly write on the bag the to understand that accreditation is
paddock or section name and your only provided for specific tests, so it
name . Once the samples have been is unlikely that all tests on the price
collected, they should be sent as list will be accredited. Therefore, it is
soon as possible to the laboratory for recommended that you check if the
analysis. If there is any delay, keep laboratory is accredited for the tests
the samples cool before posting you want.
them to the laboratory. (Source: adapted from www.depi.vic.
gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-
Selecting a laboratory There management/business-management/
are many soil-testing laboratories ems-in-victorian-agriculture/
offering a range of soil tests, so it environmental-monitoring-tools/
is important to clarify which test(s) soil-fertility)

INTRODUCTION | 5
Plant nutrients and
chemical symbols
Plants take up nutrients that are in the soil
water (solution) via their roots. Nutrients
exist in the soil water as ions (either
cations or anions). Cations are ions with
a positive charge (+) and anions are ions
with a negative charge (-).

Table 1 Chemical names, their symbols and ion form in soil

Chemical Chemical Ion form most commonly found in

name symbol soil or most important for nutrient
uptake by plants
Phosphorus P H2PO4- (also exists in other forms)
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ (also exists in other forms)
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca2+
Magnesium Mg Mg2+
Aluminium Al Al3+ (also exists in other forms)
Zinc Zn Zn2+
Sulphur S SO42-
Hydrogen H H+
Iron Fe Fe2+ (also exists in other forms)
Molybdenum Mo MoO42-
Copper Cu Cu2+
Boron Bo H2BO3-, HBO32- (and other forms)
Manganese Mn Mn2+
Chlorine Cl Cl-
Hydroxyl OH OH-
Sodium Na Na+

6 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

 Units of measurement and conversions
Soil laboratories use a range of units to measure nutrient levels.
Use this information should you need to convert them.

Units of measurement
mg/g = micro-grams per gram
mg/L = milligrams per litre
meq/100g = milli-equivalent per 100 gram of soil
meq % = milli-equivalent percent
cmol/kg = centimole per kilogram; also written as cmol(+)kg-1
ppm = parts per million
mS/cm = microSiemens per centimetre
mS/cm = milliSiemens per centimetre
dS/m = deciSiemens per meter
ha = hectares
t = tonnes
Conversions
1 mg/kg = 1 ppm = 1 mg/g
1 meq/100g = 1 meq % = 1 cmol/kg = 1 ppm
1 ha = 2.5 acres
1 t = 1000 kilograms
Electrical conductivity (EC1:5)
1000 mS/cm = 1 deciSiemen/metre (dS/m)
1000 mS/cm = 1 milliSiemen/centimetre (mS/cm)
1000 mS/cm = 1 EC unit

FURTHER READING
www.aspac-australasia.com
www.nata.asn.au (follow links: Find a Lab, Chemical Testing, Soils, Environmental/Chemical Tests)
video on soil sampling: www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-management/pastures
INTRODUCTION | 7
SOIL TEXTURE AND COLOUR

Texture when manipulated in your hand, and the

length of soil ribbon that is created. A
Soil texture is determined by relative laboratory determination of soil texture
proportions of the different soil particles gives a more detailed and reliable
present, namely sand, silt and clay. Soil measure of the relative amounts of sand,
texture will vary due to the differences in silt and clay particles in a soil. Generally
the type and mineral composition of the the loams (ranging from soil textures of
parent rock material, the soil’s position fine, sandy loams to silty clay loams) will
in the landscape, and the physical and have more plant-available water than
chemical weathering processes involved the sandier-textured soils or the straight
in soil formation. clay-textured soils, and so can maintain
plant growth for longer periods after
rain.
The particles in soil are divided
Soils with sandier textures (and low
into four groups, depending on the
organic content) can be more easily
particle size:
eroded, hold less water and less
Rock and gravel > 2 mm in diameter nutrients. These soils will need the
Coarse sand 0.2–2 mm protection of good vegetative cover
(over summer, in particular). Soils with
Fine sand 0.02–0.2 mm a sandier texture should have nutrients
Silt 0.002–0.02 mm applied in smaller quantities and more
Clay < 0.002 mm frequently, as they are prone to leaching,
particularly for more mobile nutrients,
such as potassium, nitrogen and sulphur.
Key soil physical and chemical properties Clay-textured soils can hold more
important for plant growth are nutrients but can be more difficult to
influenced strongly by soil texture, such manage, because they are dense and
as water storage capacity and nutrient coarsely structured. This can mean they
supply (e.g. soils with a high clay content are more prone to waterlogging and
retain more water due to small pores poor soil structure. Building organic
and have the capacity to hold a greater matter levels in the clay-textured and
amount of nutrients). Soil texture also the sandier textured soils will reduce the
affects the movement of air and water in impact of these limitations (see Organic
a soil (e.g. the large pores of sandier soils Matter, p. 18).
allow greater infiltration rates and better
internal drainage than the more clay- Colour
textured soils).
Soil colour is usually described in terms
A simple field measure of soil texture is of common colours such as red, yellow,
to observe the way the moist soil feels brown, black or grey (soil colour charts,
8 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
such as Munsell Colour Company [1975], often due to the accumulation of organic
are used for more scientific or objective matter in the surface top soils. Some
assessments of soil colour). soil profiles can have very pale coloured
zones between the surface soil and the
The colour of a soil is related to the subsoil horizons. This can indicate that
minerals present, organic matter, and the strong leaching of nutrients, iron and
drainage characteristics of the soil. Iron is other minerals has occurred.
a common mineral that influences colour
in soils. In an aerobic (well-drained) Table 2 A guide to common soil colours
environment, iron has a red colour (e.g.
red-coloured subsoil usually indicates Water status of the soil Soil colour Colour
the presence of iron oxides). Yellow Well drained Red
colours commonly result from iron in
Brown
less well-drained situations and grey
colours in waterlogged (i.e. anaerobic) Yellow
conditions. Many types of subsoil are Periodically waterlogged Mottled
mottled with two or three colours, yellow/red/grey
indicating periodical waterlogging.
Mostly waterlogged Grey
Surface soils often have a darker
coloured zone at the very surface. This is Green grey

FURTHER READING
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au (follow links: agriculture/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-
soil-tests-pasture)

SOIL TEXTURE AND COLOUR | 9

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC)

The cation exchange could be so will adsorb both anions and

considered as the engine room of soil cations.
chemistry, as it drives much of what
Clay particles tend to have a negative
happens underground. If you grasp this
concept, it will help you understand charge. How much negative charge
some of the science that is pivotal to they have depends on the particular
how soils work. clay minerals present in your soil. Also,
the smaller the clay particles, the larger
Plant nutrients exist as either cations or the surface area and the more negative
anions in the soil. The word ‘ion’ means ‘a charges they will hold.
charged particle’. Cations have a positive
charge and anions have a negative The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
charge and it is important to understand shown on your soil test is an indication of
their mobility in the soil. the amount of negative charges on your
soil (and thus its ability by electrostatic
force to hold/adsorb and release the
Remember: a positive charge is
positively charged cations into the soil
attracted to a negative charge and
solution where plants can access these
vice-versa.
nutrients). This gives you a general idea
of the fertility of your soil: a sandy soil,
There are two types of cations: for example, will generally have a low
CEC (i.e. low fertility); that of clay soils will
• acid-forming (or acidic) cations, be higher, and soils with good levels of
e.g. hydrogen (H+) and aluminium
(Al3+). These are not plant nutrients
and a soil with high levels of either is
an acid soil with a low pH; and
• alkaline-forming (or base) cations, e.g.
calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+),
potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+).
Cations (both types) are adsorbed
(chemically bound) onto the negatively
charged surfaces of clay or soil organic
matter. Cations removed by plants from
the soil solution can be replaced by Cations (positively charged ions, such as
those exchangeable cations held on the calcium and potassium) are attracted to
surfaces of soil components. (negatively charged) soil clay particles and
organic matter in the soil. Anions (negatively
Interestingly, soil organic matter charged ions, such as nitrate) are repelled
has both negative and positive charges, (source: University of Minnesota Extension).
10 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
organic matter have the highest (in each Management
case due to the particle surface area).
considerations
CEC is usually measured as centimoles
of positive charge per kilogram of soil Soils with higher CEC capacity are
(cmol/kg). This is numerically equal to generally considered more fertile, able
the older unit of measurement milli- to support higher production levels and
equivalents per 100 grams can retain larger amounts of nutrients
(meq/100 g). against losses via leaching through
the soil profile. This has important
In most soil laboratories, CEC is estimated implications for developing a whole-
by summing the exchangeable base farm plan and farming to the capacity of
cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium your soil.
and sodium) to give an adequate
measure of CEC (‘CEC by bases’). As If your CEC is low, consider increasing
soils become more acidic, however, the inputs of organic matter, either through
acidic cations (hydrogen, aluminium and additional inputs of organic materials
manganese) become the predominant or careful grazing management (e.g.
portion of the CEC. Effective CEC (ECEC) maintaining good ground cover).
on a soil test refers to the sum of both
base and acidic cations and this gives a
Environmental
more accurate indication of your CEC. considerations
The CEC of clay minerals may commonly Being negatively charged, nutrients
range from 10–150 cmol(+)/kg, while that exist as anions (e.g. nitrogen
that of organic matter may be in and sulphur) are not attracted to the
the range of 200–400 cmol(+)/kg. negatively charged clay surfaces and
Conversely, the CEC of sand and sandy are therefore more susceptible to
soils is often below 10 cmol(+)/kg. This leaching and nutrient runoff when
means that the more organic matter added as soluble fertilisers (resulting in
content and the amount of clay and environmental concerns and economic
type of clay minerals present in your soil loss), particularly in soils with a low CEC.
greatly influences its capacity to retain Care must be taken when applying them,
nutrients. as large applications of a negatively
charged element followed by heavy
Generally speaking, however, a
rainfall can move the nutrient quickly
CEC above 12 cmol(+)/kg would be
through the soil before adequate access
considered moderate and means that
by plants is possible.
a soil has a good capacity to retain
nutrients for plant growth. This can also happen on sandier textured
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY | 11
soils (with a low CEC) where there are Phosphorus is the odd anion. It is not
not enough negative charges on the mobile in the soil, despite having a
soil particles to hold positively charged negative charge, because it is not highly
cations, such as potassium. This has soluble and chemically binds with clay
important implications when planning a minerals, aluminium, and iron oxide
fertiliser program. In such soils, consider minerals. It will still move through
splitting applications of fertilisers to the soil, however, attached to the soil
avoid potential losses via leaching minerals. Minimising runoff with good
through the soil profile. ground cover will help ameliorate this.

FURTHER READING
www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-soil-tests-
pastures
Cation exchange capacity fact sheet: www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/Cation Exchange Capacity
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne

12 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

SOIL pH

Soil pH is a measure of the concentration the higher rainfall areas (above 600 mm),
of hydrogen (H+) ions in the soil solution it is common to find soils with a pH less
(i.e. the greater the number of hydrogen than 4.8(CaCl2) or 5.5(water).
ions, the greater your soil’s acidity).
Soil pH is important because it:
This measure of soil acidity or alkalinity
is based on a logarithmic scale from • influences most soil chemical
1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. So, the processes that can affect nutrient
lower the pH reading, the greater the availability (e.g. the availability of
acidity of your soil. The logarithmic phosphorus and nitrogen);
scale means that each unit change in • dictates the availability of elements
soil pH translates to a tenfold change in that are toxic to plants (e.g.
the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. For aluminium); and
example, a soil pH of 4 is ten times more
acidic than a soil pH of 5 and 100 times • affects microbial activity, particularly
more acidic than a soil pH of 6. biological processes affecting
decomposition rates of organic
Two laboratory methods are used to matter, which in turn affect nutrient
measure soil pH: availability and plant growth.
• the water method (in a ratio of one All of the above conspire to restrict root
part of soil to five parts of water). growth and limit access to water and
Results are reported as pH(water) or nutrients, which often results in poor
pH 1:5(water); and germination and establishment of crops
• the CaCl2 method (in a ratio of and pastures.
one part of soil to five parts of In acid soils – less than pH 4.8 (CaCl2) or
calcium chloride solution). Results 5.5(water) – the major plant nutrients
are reported as pH(CaCl2) or pH (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
1:5(CaCl2). The value given in this test sulphur, calcium and manganese) and
is (on average) 0.8 units lower than the the trace element molybdenum may
pH(water) value. have restricted availability to plants (see
Note, however, that pH measured in diagram, p. 14).
water is more affected by seasonal
Acid soils also affect the element
variations than pH measured in CaCl2
aluminium, which becomes more soluble
solution (so, from a soil monitoring point
and, in high levels, can be toxic to
of view, it’s best to use the results from
sensitive plants, limiting root growth and
the CaCl2 test).
restricting access to water and nutrients
Throughout the Goulburn Broken (see graph, p. 15). Plant species range in
Catchment, soils are generally acidic. In their tolerance of available aluminium in
SOIL pH | 13
The influence of pH on nutrient availability is complex, but this graph provides a basic guide to the
general trends: the wider the white band, the more favourable the conditions of supply. Note: figures
refer to pH(water) (source: Potash Development Association UK, adapted from Emil Truog, 1946)

soils. High manganese levels are often bacteria are particularly affected by
associated with waterlogged soils in acidic soil conditions, thereby decreasing
addition to soil acidity and this can also legume nodulation (and symbiotic
be toxic to plants. nitrogen fixation and availability).
Pasture legumes may fail to persist
In acid soils, microbial populations and due to failing legume nodulation and
their activity can be reduced. Rhizobia reduced functioning of the symbiosis.
14 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
Management indicating the need for lime, your soil pH
reading is not a reliable guide to how
considerations much lime is needed. It is important that
The ideal target for topsoil is above a pH you consider other factors in conjunction
of 4.8(CaCl2) or 5.5(water). In pastures with your soil pH:
grown on soils with a pH below the • the soil type (i.e. soils with a high
target range, overall pasture production cation exchange capacity – those with
may be reduced and some legume high organic matter and clay content
species may fail to persist. – will be more resistant to changes
If the topsoil pH is below these target in pH and will generally require more
pH levels, liming is often recommended, lime than soils with a low cation
particularly if resowing a pasture. While exchange capacity);

Generally, as soil pH(CaCl2 ) declines below 4.8(CaCl2 ) or 5.5(water), exchangeable aluminium

increases (data from Strathbogie, Ruffy, Tarcombe, Naring, Warrenbayne, Boho, Benalla
region, Goormabat, Alexandra, Yea, Broadford, Mansfield, Nagambie, and Miepoll) (source:
Goulburn Broken CMA, 2014).
SOIL pH | 15
• lime quality (ask your agronomist From an economic point of view, liming
about a lime’s neutralising should only be considered for your
value); most productive land (i.e. avoid areas
• your farming system (e.g. whether it subject to waterlogging, weeds, rocks,
has a low- or high-stocking density and native grasses, or which have access
and is a low- or high-input system); issues).
and Plants differ in their tolerance of acid soil
• rainfall (i.e. the higher your rainfall, conditions. The use of tolerant pasture
the higher the probability of acidic or crop species/varieties can reduce the
soils). impact of soil acidity.

Why do soils acidify?

The acidification of soil is a natural it), can leach away from the root
process that occurs over thousands zone, leaving behind hydrogen
of years. Under agriculture, however, and aluminium ions, and thereby
the process can be accelerated, increasing soil acidity; and
affecting either the surface soil only • the export of alkalinity in produce,
or the subsoil as well. Surface acidity such as milk, wool, grain and
can be relatively simple to treat with hay. As nutrient cations (such
the application of lime (calcium as calcium, magnesium and
carbonate) but, if untreated, can potassium) are taken up from the
become a problem in subsurface soil by plants and then removed
soils, which are more difficult and by harvesting crops or hay, in
costly to correct. particular, the more acidic cations
Research has demonstrated that the (hydrogen and aluminium)
biggest contributors to acidification make up a larger proportion of
of Australian soils under agriculture the soil cation exchange. The
are: nutrient cations can also be lost
by leaching (usually in association
• nitrate leaching – nitrate in the soil with nitrate leaching), again
solution (both natural and applied) resulting in the more acidic cations
is highly mobile and, if not used by making up a larger proportion of
plants (e.g. annual pasture species, the soil cation exchange. Both of
which don’t have the larger root these processes will steadily lower
systems of perennials to capture the soil pH over time.

16 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

Environmental • feeding hay back on to paddocks
from which it was cut, thereby
considerations reducing the acidifying effect of
Soil acidity is a major environmental product export from paddocks.
and economic concern. A number of Pasture production on highly acidic
management practices can maintain soils will most likely be reduced and
your pH levels (attained through a consideration of the potential off-site
liming program) or reduce the rate of
impacts must be made. Off-site impacts
further soil acidification, including:
mainly resulting from reduced plant
• reducing the risk of nitrate leaching growth include an increased risk of
in high rainfall areas by using the salinity, as deep-rooted pasture species
correct type and rate of nitrogen required to increase water usage may
fertiliser at the right time (avoid not thrive. There is also an increased
applying before high rainfall events); risk of runoff and subsequent erosion
• utilising perennial pastures, which that can have impacts on streams and
better capture nitrate before it water quality. Increased risks of nutrient
leaches; and leaching may pollute ground water.

FURTHER READING
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au: Primefact 34 (February 2006), Pasture Responses to Lime
Animation on soil acidification: http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soilhealth_
acidification
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
www.publish.csiro.au/?paper=SR9950277: Slattery W, Morrison G & Coventry D, 1995, ‘Liming effects on soil
exchangeable and soil solution cations of four soil types in North-eastern Victoria’, Australian Journal of Soil
Research, vol. 33, pp. 277–95
SOIL pH | 17
ORGANIC MATTER

Soil organic matter probably plays the sulphur, calcium, magnesium and trace
most important role in the health and elements). Because organic matter has
productivity of your soil. It comprises a a huge surface area and both negative
diverse collection of living components and positive charges, it can hold great
(e.g. fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes and quantities of these (positively charged)
earthworms) and non-living components nutrients or cations (see also Cation
(decaying and decomposing plant and Exchange Capacity, p. 10). The glues and
animal material). slimes that the soil organisms produce
during the decomposition process
Typically the top 20 cm of soil has higher
help bind the soil mineral particles into
numbers of soil organisms and higher
aggregates. This improved soil structure
levels of biological activity than soil
equates to improved water-holding
lower in the profile, so your management
capacity, aeration, drainage and root
practices can have a great impact on
penetration, and less risk of erosion and
them. Most of them rely upon organic
leaching of nutrients.
matter as their energy source and,
during the decomposition process Humus is the relatively stable end
in aerobic conditions, release a large product of decomposed organic matter.
reservoir of plant-available nutrients This means it is more resistant to further
(i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, decomposition by soil organisms and so

Organic matter additions to soil can lead to an increase in the numbers of beneficial soil
organisms, such as earthworms (pictured), bacteria, fungi, and other soil fauna (source: Judy
Brookes).
18 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
tends to decay more slowly (over decades are the same and refer specifically to
to centuries). Due to its large surface area the carbon derived from the organic
and being the most chemically reactive materials in soil.
component of organic matter (having
both positively and negatively charged In the testing process, soil laboratories
sites), humus plays a pivotal role in all key typically use either a wet or dry oxidation
soil functions. process to convert all forms of carbon in
the soil to carbon dioxide. An example
Total carbon in your soil test refers to of a wet oxidation process used by
both the organic forms (as described laboratories is the Walkley-Black method.
above) and the inorganic forms of The LECO test is an example of the dry
carbon (usually carbonates and oxidation process used.
bicarbonates).
The target range for your particular area
The terms total organic carbon, soil
will depend on the climate (particularly
organic carbon and organic carbon
the rainfall and temperature), soil type
and your management. Drier, hotter
Nutrient potential in soil areas will generally have lower soil
organic matter carbon values (except where irrigation
is used) compared to wetter and colder
areas. Cropped soils will generally have
The ratio of carbon:nitrogen:
sulphur:phosphorus in organic lower soil carbon values compared to
matter is roughly 100:10:1.5:1.5. soils under permanent pasture.

In other words, a hectare of soil Table 3 Organic carbon percentages (%)

10 cm deep with a bulk density of for dryland pastures. These values can
1 tonne/m3 weighs 1 000 000 kg. be multiplied by the conversion factor
Therefore, soil with a carbon matter of 1.7 for the equivalent organic matter
content of 3% would contain 3000 kg percentages.
of organic nitrogen, and 450 kg each
Organic Pastures Pastures
of organic phosphorus and sulphur
carbon – low rainfall – high rainfall
per hectare.
levels (< 400 mm) (> 400 mm)
Not all of the organic forms of Low < 1.8 <3
nutrients are mineralised (converted
Normal 1.8–2.7 3–5.0
to plant-available forms) by soil
organisms each year, however, High > 2.7 > 5.0
but what is (slowly) converted still (Source: adapted from www.depi.vic.gov.au/
represents a potentially significant agriculture-and-food/farm-management/
pool of nutrient for plant production. soil-and-water/soils/understanding-soil-tests-
pastures)
ORGANIC MATTER | 19
Management Building organic matter is a
considerations slow process
Organic matter is the jewel in the crown:
it plays such a critical role in improving A hectare of soil 10 cm deep with
and maintaining the physical, chemical an average bulk density of 1 tonne/
and biological properties of soils. So, it’s m3 weighs 1000 tonnes. Therefore,
important to monitor and manage your increasing soil organic matter by
soil to maintain the organic carbon levels 1% will result in a 10-tonne change.
at the highest possible level (keeping
economical and seasonal constraints in But you cannot simply add 10
mind) to sustain your soil’s health and tonnes of manure or residue,
overall productivity. Organic carbon as only 10–20% of this material
levels can dramatically decrease due becomes part of the soil organic
to erosion, cultivation, cropping, and matter. The rest is converted over
burning of crop stubble. If your soil several years into carbon dioxide
organic carbon levels are low, options to
via soil biological decomposition
improve them include:
processes.
• increasing inputs of organic matter.
Large organic additions (such
as manures, biosolids, composts
and biochar) can increase the • including (in particular, perennial)
organic carbon percentage in a soil grasses in your pasture mix, as
temporarily, but unless the additions these tend to have a higher root-
are continued, the soil will revert to its to-shoot ratio and can increase
steady state of equilibrium of organic organic additions to the soil via
carbon. Consideration of economic the roots;
return should be an important factor
in your decision-making when using • rotational grazing, which
these options; and encourages extensive pasture
root growth and maximises
• growing more biomass. This can pasture recovery time between
increase organic additions in the soil grazing events (hence producing
via decomposition of increased root more organic matter for
mass and leaf litter. Options include: decomposition); and
• green manure crops, particularly
legume crops or mixes (e.g. vetch • ensuring adequate supply of
or peas with oats) that are grown nutrients (fertiliser) to pastures to
and then slashed and/or turned encourage greater plant root and
into the soil before seed set; general pasture growth.
20 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
Environmental This reduces the potential for organic
matter losses and soil losses by wind
considerations and water erosion (plus the opportunity
In pasture situations, it is crucial to for weed invasion). As a general rule,
manage your grazing to ensure there maintenance of more than 70% ground
is optimum ground cover (i.e. the soil cover is required to prevent such losses.
surface is covered by living and dead More ground cover is required on
plant material), particularly in summer. steeper country.

FURTHER READING
Chan, KY, Oates A, Liu DL, Li GD, Prangnell R, Polie G & Conyers MK, 2010, A Farmer’s Guide to Increasing Soil
Organic Carbon Under Pastures, Industry & Investment NSW, Wagga Wagga (www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/
resources/soils/soil-carbon/increasing-soil-organic-carbon-farmers-guide)
www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/soils/soil-carbon/increasing-soil-organic-carbon-of-agricultural-
land
Animation: http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soilhealth_organic_carbon-cycle

ORGANIC MATTER | 21
PHOSPHORUS (P)

Phosphorus (P) is an essential element to measure plant-available P in the soil

for both plant and animal growth (about solution.
80% of P is found in the bones and teeth
The Colwell P test is similar to the Olsen
of animals). In plants, it is important
P test, but uses a different dilution
for energy storage and transfer, early
ratio and is shaken for 16 hours before
shoot and root growth (i.e. vital for
measuring the amount of P in the
seedlings and young plants), and legume
solution. Because of this, it is thought
nodulation processes.
that the Colwell P test not only gives a
Most Australian agricultural soils are measure of the plant-available P, but also
highly weathered with very low levels some of the less available soil-adsorbed
of P in their natural state, so introduced (chemically bound) P in the soil. This is
crops and grasses need P applied for why the Colwell P test produces higher
productive yields. test values than the Olsen P test.
Especially when the soil pH is less than The Phosphorus Buffering Index
4.8(CaCl2) or 5.5(water), P reacts quickly (PBI) provides a measure of your
with the soil, chemically bonding with soil’s tendency to chemically adsorb
clay minerals, aluminium and iron (chemically bind) P. The PBI should be
minerals. These reactions result in less used in conjunction with the Colwell
P available to plants, and only a small P test. The target Colwell values will
portion of P applied as fertiliser is taken increase with increasing PBI values.
up by the plant in the year of application. Additionally, PBI provides a more
There are various chemical tests used to accurate estimate of the amount of P
estimate the amount of plant-available needed to increase plant-available P
P in the soil, so it is important to use levels in your soils. Low PBI soils adsorb
one that is suitable for your region only small amounts of P, leaving more
and situation. Soil-test results are most of the fertiliser-applied P available for
meaningful where there has been field plant uptake. High PBI soils, however,
research conducted to establish yield- more strongly bind P, making more of
response curves for that particular it unavailable for plant use. So, high PBI
soil-test method, soil type and plant soils require greater applications of P
species combination. This gives some over time to raise plant-available P levels.
confidence to interpreting how much
There are a couple of other soil tests you
P might be needed to achieve a certain
may see on your soil test for P, such as
plant response. A national research
the Bray test and the DGT-phosphorus.
program has provided well-established,
pasture-yield response curves for the The Bray test is more commonly used in
Olsen P test, in which soil is shaken in NSW, particularly for the temperate areas
a bicarbonate solution for 30 minutes on acid soils. The DGT-P is a relatively
22 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
 A national assessment of soil-test levels and yield responses to fertiliser found
that 95% of the maximum pasture yield can be achieved by targeting an Olsen
P test value of 15 mg P/kg of soil. Higher or lower soil P test targets may be
appropriate, depending on the value of pasture utilised and the profitability of
the grazing enterprise (source: Gourley et al, 2007).

new P test, which is being developed of soils, climatic conditions and an

primarily for crops (as yet, no calibration understanding of pasture type and
has been made with pasture species, nor management goals. Table 4 (p. 24)
is the test ASPAC-certified). provides target ranges for P (Olsen P,
Responses to P based on soil-test Colwell P and PBI). Targeting the higher
results can vary widely and consultation levels of these ranges will be necessary
with local advisors is recommended. for pasture systems that are aiming for
Estimating critical values or target 90–95% potential pasture yield and
ranges for P requires local knowledge using higher stocking rates.
PHOSPHORUS | 23
Table 4 Target ranges for P (Olsen P, Colwell P and Phosphorus Buffering Index)

Olsen P Target range (mg/kg or ppm)

Native pasture species < 12
Introduced pasture species – pasture system aiming for 80–90% 12–14
potential pasture yield (lower stocking rate)
Introduced pasture species – pasture system aiming for 90–95% 15–18
potential pasture yield (higher stocking rate)
Colwell P Target range (mg/kg or ppm) for
pasture system aiming for 80–90%
potential pasture yield (lower
stocking rate)
PBI range
0–35 (very low sandy soils) 18–26
35–70 (very low sandy/silty loams) 23–30
71–140 (low) 27–35
141–280 (moderate) 32–42
281–840 (high) 44–58
> 840 (very high) > 70
Colwell P Target range (mg/kg or ppm) for
pasture systems aiming for 90 - 95%
potential pasture yield (higher
stocking rate)
PBI range
0–35 (very low sandy soils) 23–34
35–70( very low sandy/silty loams) 30–39
71–140 (low) 35–45
141–280 (moderate) 42–54
281–840 (high) 58–75
> 840 (very high) > 80

Note: There is too much variation to be able to convert Olsen P to Colwell P (and vice versa). (Source:
www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-
soil-tests-pastures)

24 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

Management of soil P. Soil biological processes can
mineralise this P over time.
considerations Rotational grazing helps achieve a
Phosphorus is a key driver of pasture more even spread of P across the
growth. If your farm management goals paddock, avoiding hotspots of high P
are more directed towards achieving concentration in stock camps.
environmental outcomes (i.e. lower
stocking rates), then your target range Environmental
for P will be in the lower end of the considerations
target range. If your goals are more
Even though P is not highly mobile in
directed towards achieving high
the soil, it is now recognised that the loss
production levels, then your target range
of P in surface run-off during heavy rain
will be higher. Monitoring your soil P events amounts to a major loss of P to
levels over time will provide you with pastures and contributes considerably to
more confidence in interpreting your P the pollution of waterways. Your ground
production targets. cover is critical: avoid applying P when it
Also monitor your soil pH and apply is less than 70%; less-than-ideal ground
lime if pH is low and aluminium levels cover may be due to overgrazing, the
are high (causing the P to be tied up). impact of drought conditions, or fire.
If using P fertiliser, target your best Consider maintaining a fertiliser-free
pastures (i.e. paddocks with good clover buffer zone around water bodies and
content, low weed content, good pH riparian zones (ideally fencing them off
levels and low risk of waterlogging). from stock).
This will give you a greater chance of
A minimum distance of 10 m around
obtaining an economic return on your
dams, and a minimum of 40 m from
investment in P.
waterways will reduce the risk of P
It is important to maintain organic polluting your water bodies (and you
matter levels in your soil as a reserve losing P).

FURTHER READING
Animation on phosphorus: http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soil-phosphorus-
animation-grazing-system
www.makingmorefromsheep.com.au/grow-more-pasture/tool_7.3.htm
www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farm-management/pastures/informed-decisions-on-phosphorus
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Gourley, CJP, Melland, AM, Waller, RA, Awty, IM, Smith, AP, Peverill, KI, & Hannah, MC, 2007, Making Better
Fertiliser Decisions for Grazed Pastures in Australia, Victorian Government Department of Primary Industries
(download: www.asris.csiro.au/downloads/BFD/Making-Better-Fertiliser-Decisions-for-Grazed-Pastures-in-
Australia)
PHOSPHORUS | 25
NITROGEN (N)

Nitrogen (N) is essential for all plant the clover component of pastures is the
growth processes and plants need main supplier of N.
it in large quantities. In plants, it is a
Your soil test may offer up to three
key element in amino acids, proteins,
measurements for N. When considering
enzymes and chlorophyll. In simple
terms, N produces bigger leaves and these, however, it is important to note
bigger plants, with dark green growth. that N levels in soils fluctuate widely,
In a mixed pasture situation, N directly depending on seasonal conditions
affects the grass component of the and rainfall. Levels greatly depend on
pasture and the protein content within biological activity, and the nitrate-N form
those grasses. In pasture systems where is highly mobile and easily leached. This
N fertilisers are not applied, such as in means its concentration in the soil can
extensive sheep and cattle enterprises, vary considerably over a short time, even

A host-specific strain of soil bacteria (rhizobia) infects the roots of legumes, such as clover, to form a
nodule, which converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. The legume uses this nitrogen and the
bacteria uses carbohydrates made by the plant. When pink (as above), the nodules are healthy and
functioning (source: Ninjatacoshell, Wikimedia Commons)
26 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
in the same paddock, and it is therefore such as potassium chloride. Nitrate-N is
difficult to interpret the results. often measured in the laboratory using
the 1:5 soil:water solution, using a similar
As it suggests, total nitrogen measures
procedure to that used for measuring
the total amount of N in the soil. Over
pH.
98% of this N, however, is contained in
organic matter (plant residue, insects, Total nitrogen can be measured in the
fungi, bacteria, etc.) and is unavailable laboratory using the Kjedahl (chemical)
to plants. This bank of organic N is digestion process. The other common
mineralised (decomposed by microbes) method is the Dumas (or LECO)
to produce ammonium-N (NH4+) and combustion method.
nitrate-N (NO3-). Mineralisation occurs
throughout the growing season, Estimating a target range for N requires
providing a steady supply of N to local knowledge and some experience
pasture (however, in high-production with the local soils and climate. There
situations, such as haymaking, this is are no real target levels, but agronomists
unlikely to meet N requirements of that generally prefer a level of 10 mg/kg
crop). Nitrogen mineralisation processes or more in pasture soils (for both
are negatively influenced by low pH and nitrate and ammonium). Nitrogen
waterlogging. recommendations are better based on
regional fertiliser trials conducted over a
Nitrate-N (NO3-) is a negatively charged number of years, rather than on soil-test
anion and is therefore not held by the levels.
soil but remains highly mobile in the
soil solution. This mobility means that N is also supplied to the soil through
nitrate-N is readily available for plant the symbiotic relationship that legumes
uptake, but (in high rainfall events form with a host-specific strain of
and free-draining soils) is more easily bacteria known as rhizobia. These infect
leached out of reach of the plant root the root to form a nodule. In introduced
system. pasture situations, the most common
legume is clover. The legume nodules on
Unlike nitrate-N, ammonium-N (NH4+) the root have an iron atom containing a
is a positively charged cation and protein called leghaemoglobin, which
can be chemically bonded onto the is able to convert atmospheric N to
(negatively charged) surfaces of clays ammonia. The ammonia is used by the
and organic matter. Agronomists use plant and the plant carbohydrates are
levels of ammonium-N on soil tests to used by the bacteria. There is growing
indicate how much N is likely to become
evidence that shows some free-living
available.
bacteria also provide a significant
Ammonium-N can be measured in the amount of N to soils through non-
laboratory using a chemical extractant, symbiotic processes.
NITROGEN | 27
Management Monitor your soil pH and use lime,
if needed, as biological N-fixation
considerations processes are restricted at low pH levels.
When pastures and crops are cut for hay, If resowing, inoculate clover seed
significant amounts of N are exported. with the correct host-specific strain of
Applying N fertiliser in these situations rhizobia.
should be considered.
It is important to maintain organic Environmental
matter levels in soil as a reserve of soil considerations
N, which soil biological processes can
mineralise over time. When applying N as fertiliser, there is the
Maintaining the legume component in risk that excess nitrates are either lost as
pastures maximises symbiotic N fixation runoff (into waterways) or accumulate
(as a general rule, undergrazing or the in the soil (to be leached into the
absence of grazing will favour grass groundwater). So, for environmental (and
growth and reduce legume content). economic) reasons, use the right rate and
right type of N fertiliser at the right time,
Rotational grazing helps achieve a
avoiding periods of high rainfall.
more even spread of N across the
paddock, avoiding hotspots of high-N Importantly, high fertiliser N application
concentration in stock camps. can limit biological N fixation processes.

FURTHER READING
Animation on nitrogen cycle: http://vro.depi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soilhealth_nitrogen-cycle
www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/mineral-nitrogen
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne

28 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

POTASSIUM (K)

Potassium (K) is one of the three major Generally crop and pasture responses
(macro-) nutrients (with phosphorus and to applied K fertiliser have been rare
nitrogen) for plants and is important for in south-east Australia (including the
regulating water and nutrient uptake, Goulburn Broken Catchment) on clay
flowering and seed set, and plant soils.
resistance to environmental stresses and
disease. When plants are growing quickly
in response to warm, moist spring
K is one of the most abundant elements conditions, for example, the K taken
in soil, but its availability to plants up by the plant roots from the soil
is controlled by soil chemistry and solution may not be replaced quickly
mineralogy. It is taken up by plant roots enough by natural soil processes to
as the positively charged cation K+ from avoid a temporary deficiency in pasture.
the soil solution or as an exchangeable Therefore, many agronomists will advise
cation (see Exchangeable Cations, the application of a K-based fertiliser,
p. 32) held by the negative surface of particularly on pastures or crops
clay minerals and organic matter. It is
targeted for hay production/silage or
also found ‘fixed’ between clay layers and
grown on sandier textured soils. Because
within particular clay minerals (Illite).
these lighter soils have limited ability to
Fixed K is not readily available to plants
store K (due to a low cation exchange
and is only released slowly into the soil
capacity, see p. 10), large applications
solution as minerals are weathered.
of fertiliser on such soils are likely to
Some plant species, such as lucerne, be used inefficiently by plants and
have higher demands for K, and there lost by leaching – small and frequent
are differences in pasture species in applications are commonly more
their efficiency of K uptake – those with appropriate.
broader rooting patterns and greater
rooting depth are able to access the K Soil tests measure either extractable K or
found in soil profiles with clay at depth. exchangeable K.
Most clay-textured soils in the Goulburn The Colwell K method measures
Broken Catchment contain adequate extractable K in the soil solution,
amounts of K in the soil for optimum estimating the readily available and
crop and pasture growth. Sandy-textured potentially available K in your soil (see
soils (with a low cation exchange Table 5, p. 30).
capacity) in higher rainfall areas have
The Exchangeable K test, however, is
limited ability to store K and are,
only a measure of readily available K (see
therefore, more prone to K deficiency. So,
Table 6, p. 30).
interpreting soil K results and predicting
plant responses to applied K fertiliser is The Skene K is an older test but, in
dependent on soil texture and soil type practice, gives an equivalent level of K to
(see Table 6, p. 30). the Colwell K method.
POTASSIUM | 29
Table 5 Target ranges for extractable K (mg/kg) – Colwell K method

Sands Sandy Clay Clays

loams loams
System aiming for 80–90% potential pasture yield 60–100 70–110 70–120 80–130
(lower stocking rate)
System aiming for 90–95% potential pasture yield 90–130 100–150 110–160 120–180
(higher stocking rate)

Table 6 Target ranges for exchangeable K (cmol/kg) according to soil type

Sands Sandy Sandy Clays

or silty or silty loams
loams clay and
loams clays
System aiming for 80–90% potential pasture yield 0.25–0.36 0.28–0.38 0.31–0.44 0.31–0.44
(lower stocking rate)
System aiming for 90–95% potential pasture yield 0.33–0.44 0.38–0.49 0.30–0.54 0.41–0.56
(higher stocking rate)

FURTHER READING
www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-soil-tests-
pastures
Potassium fact sheet: www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/potassium
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Gourley, CJP, Melland, AM, Waller, RA, Awty, IM, Smith, AP, Peverill, KI, & Hannah, MC, 2007, Making Better
Fertiliser Decisions for Grazed Pastures in Australia, Victorian Government Department of Primary Industries
(download: www.asris.csiro.au/downloads/BFD/Making-Better-Fertiliser-Decisions-for-Grazed-Pastures-in-
Australia)
30 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
SULPHUR (S)

Sulphur (S) is an essential element for The main test used for S is the Potassium
growing plants as it aids in nitrogen Chloride-40 (KCl- 40) (or Blair) test. It
fixation by legumes and is involved in the is generally thought that the KCl-40 test
formation of several important amino picks up most of the S already in the
acids, proteins and vitamins. It also has a (plant-available) sulphate ion form, as
key role in the synthesis of chlorophyll. well as some of the organic (tied-up) S.
Sulphur is vital in animal health as well Table 7 The ideal target for S (mg/kg)
(for instance, in the formation of proteins
that make up skin, hair and wool). Target S
(KCI- 40) mg/kg
More than 95% of the S in the soil is Pasture system aiming for 6–7.5
contained in the organic matter. Through 80–90% potential pasture yield
biological processes similar to those (lower stocking rate)
of nitrogen, S is mineralised by soil
Pasture system aiming for 7.5–12
organisms to plant-available sulphate
90–95% potential pasture yield
ions. These biological processes are (higher stocking rate)
negatively influenced by a low pH and
waterlogging. Management
The sulphate ion has a negative charge, considerations
so is not held by the (negatively charged)
clay surfaces but remains in the soil Maintaining good organic matter levels
solution, making it highly mobile (nor in your soil as a reserve of soil S is good
does it form strong bonds with iron and practice. Soil biological processes can
aluminium minerals, as is the case with mineralise this S over time.
phosphorus). Its mobility means that it If you are using fertilisers, consider
can be more readily leached out of reach rotating high-analysis fertilisers
of the plant root system, particularly in (containing little or no S) with
sandy, free-draining soils in high rainfall low-analysis fertilisers (containing
zones. appreciable amounts of S).

FURTHER READING
www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-soil-
tests-pastures
Sulphur fact sheet: www.soilquality.org.au/factsheets/Sulphur
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of
Australia Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Gourley, CJP, Melland, AM, Waller, RA, Awty, IM, Smith, AP, Peverill, KI, & Hannah, MC, 2007, Making Better
Fertiliser Decisions for Grazed Pastures in Australia, Victorian Government Department of Primary Industries
(download: www.asris.csiro.au/downloads/BFD/Making-Better-Fertiliser-Decisions-for-Grazed-Pastures-in-
Australia)
SULPHUR | 31
EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS AND PERCENTAGES

If you are unfamiliar with the concept the actual levels (those given in cmol/
of cations and their exchange in the kg). However, most soil tests will also
soil, you will find a comprehensive report the desirable percentage range of
explanation on p. 10. each cation, as in Table 8 below.
In short, the major cations present in
soil are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
Calcium (Ca)
potassium (K) and sodium (Na). In acid Calcium (Ca) is essential for many plant
soils, aluminium (Al), hydrogen (H) and functions, including cell division, root
manganese (Mn) also occur in higher and shoot growth, cell wall development
amounts. and strength, legume nodulation and
Generally, your soil test will report levels nitrogen fixation processes, enzyme
of the major cations in two ways: activity, and seed set in clover.
• as cmol/kg of soil (or meq/100g), and A component of many common minerals
found in the soil, Ca is released into
• as a percentage of the total
the soil as these minerals undergo
exchangeable cations (most likely
weathering processes. As a (positively
towards the bottom of your soil test).
charged) cation (Ca2+) in the soil
The proportion (or percentage) of solution, Ca is adsorbed (chemically
the cation exchange capacity that is bonded) onto the negatively charged
occupied by the base exchangeable surfaces of soil organic matter and clay
cations (i.e. calcium, magnesium, particles. Even in acidic soils, Ca is often
potassium and sodium) is known as the the most dominant cation in the soil,
base saturation percentage. There is and can occupy 70% or more of the
considerable evidence that the relative soil’s cation exchange sites (see also
proportions (percentages) of cations are calcium:magnesium ratio, p. 35).
more relevant to soil performance than
Deficiencies of calcium are not common.
Table 8 Desirable percentage range of
exchangeable cations for soils Magnesium (Mg)
Cation Range (%) Magnesium (Mg) is a key element of the
Calcium 65–80 chlorophyll molecule and so plays a vital
Magnesium 10–20 role in plant photosynthesis. It is also
involved in the transport of phosphorus
Potassium 3–8
in the plant, and has an important part
Sodium <6 in enzyme activity, protein and sugar
Aluminium <5 synthesis and other functions.
(Source: www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-
food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/ Magnesium is available to plants in the
understanding-soil-tests-pastures) soil solution as a (positively charged)
32 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
cation (Mg2+) and, as such, is adsorbed component of salts in soil (see also
onto the negatively charged soil surfaces Salinity, Electrical Conductivity and
associated with the CEC. Soils often Chloride, p. 37). As a cation, Na is
contain less exchangeable Mg than Ca. It adsorbed onto the negatively charged
is a component of several minerals in the soil surfaces associated with the cation
soil and is released into the soil during exchange capacity. It is not considered
weathering processes. to be an essential nutrient for plants.
Magnesium is usually present in However, if the proportion of the
sufficient quantities to satisfy plant exchange sites occupied by Na is 6% or
requirements (see Table 8). An important greater, the soil is considered to be sodic
measure, however, in your soil test is the (adversely affecting soil structure). Also, if
calcium:magnesium ratio (see p. 35). the amount of exchangeable Na is large,
then less of the essential cations (such as
Potassium (K) Ca, K and Mg) are available.
Potassium (K) is the only macro-nutrient To counteract high Na, gypsum (calcium
that is also exchangeable (i.e. nitrogen sulphate) can be added to the soil. The
and phosphorus are not), hence its aim is to replace some of the Na with
inclusion in this section as well. It is calcium on the soil’s exchange sites.
important for regulating water and
nutrient uptake, flowering and seed set Hydrogen (H)
and plant resistance to stresses.
Hydrogen (H) is not a plant nutrient
K is one of the most abundant elements but a component of many minerals,
in soil. It is taken up by plant roots as oxides and clay minerals in the soil. The
a positively charged cation (K+) from measure of exchangeable H+ ions in the
the soil solution. K ions are also found soil solution indicates your soil’s pH (see
between clay layers within specific
also pH, p. 13), i.e. the more H+ ions in
minerals, and this type of K is only
the soil solution, the lower the pH and
released slowly into the soil solution.
the more acidic your soil. In acid soils,
Note: in your test results, you may find H and aluminium ions make up a larger
Exchangeable K as well as Colwell K. proportion of the exchangeable cations,
These are not the same. Exchangeable reducing the proportion of essential
K is a measure of readily available K and nutrients held by the soil, e.g. calcium,
Colwell K indicates readily available and magnesium and potassium. This can
potentially available K. be especially significant in high rainfall
environments (greater than 600 mm)
Sodium (Na) due to the potential leaching of the
Sodium (Na) is a component of basic cations (calcium, magnesium and
some minerals in soil and a common potassium).
EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS AND PERCENTAGES | 33
When reading your soil test, if the either the CaCl2 (calcium chloride) or KCl
percentages of each exchangeable base (potassium chloride) methods, which are
cation are low and that of H is high, then reported in milligrams per kilogram (mg/
you are likely to have an acidic soil. kg) or parts per million (ppm).

Aluminium (Al) In acidic soils, Al is adsorbed (chemically

bonded) onto the negatively charged
Like hydrogen, aluminium (Al) is not a soil surfaces associated with the soil’s
plant nutrient but is a major component cation exchange capacity, taking up a
of soils, particularly clay minerals. greater proportion of the surfaces than
In most cases, exchangeable Al is only the exchangeable cations considered
measured if the soil’s pH level is less as essential nutrients for plants (for
than 4.8(CaCl2) or 5.5(water). In some example, calcium, magnesium and
cases, Al levels are measured using potassium). In acidic soils, the solubility
of Al increases and, in excess, is an
important growth-limiting factor for
plants, and restricts access to water and
nutrients. Plant species range in their
tolerance of available Al in soils.
Al is often expressed in soil test results
as a percentage of the soil’s cation
exchange capacity. If your test results
indicate your soil is highly acidic, it
is helpful to check the percentage of
exchangeable Al: exchangeable Al
should be the lowest of all cations and it
is ideal that it remains less than 5% (see
Table 8, p. 32). For Al levels measured
using the CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
method, less than 2 mg/kg (or ppm) is
ideal. For Al levels measured using the
KCl (potassium chloride) method, less
than 50 mg/kg (or ppm) is ideal.
Note: when applying lime (generally
calcium carbonate), the carbonate reacts
Nil aluminium 2 ppm aluminium with the hydrogen ions in the soil and
High aluminium levels in acidic soils limit root precipitates the available Al into an
growth in sensitive pasture species, such as unavailable form, thus eliminating its
phalaris. toxicity.
34 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
Cation ratios is considered strongly sodic (see also
Salinity, p. 37).
Cation ratios examine the relative
Exchangeable aluminium percentage
proportions of cations as well as the
percentage of the total cation exchange Exchangeable aluminium should
capacity that is attributed to that comprise the lowest percentage of the
particular cation. There are a number of cations. The ideal amount is less than 5%
important ratios detailed below. for most pasture species, but less than
1% is required for more sensitive species,
calcium:magnesium
such as lucerne.
Soil structural problems (such as
Exchangeable aluminium is used to
dispersion) may occur in some soils if
ascertain the requirement for lime
the ratio of calcium:magnesium is less
where aluminium-sensitive species,
than 2. Well-structured soils generally such as white clovers, lucerne and, to a
have a calcium:magnesium ratio greater lesser extent, subclovers, are involved.
than 2 (in other words, the amount of Elevated aluminium levels can be toxic
exchangeable calcium cations is more to plants, but aluminium generally drops
than two times greater than the amount to harmless levels once the pH(CaCl2) is
of exchangeable magnesium cations). greater than 4.8 or 5.5(water).
This ratio needs to be considered in
combination with the exchangeable Management
sodium percentage (ESP) (see below).
considerations
Exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) The application of gypsum (calcium
sulphate) could be considered where
Exchangeable sodium percentage
pasture or crops are to be sown on soils
(ESP) is used to indicate if soils have
with a calcium:magnesium ratio of less
sodic properties. Sodic soils are
than 2 and/or an exchangeable sodium
often dispersive with poor structural
percentage of more than 6%. Gypsum
characteristics. These soils tend to have
provides a source of calcium and can
poor drainage and aeration and can be
promote improved soil structure of sodic
more vulnerable to erosion.
(dispersive) soils.
The exchangeable sodium percentage is
If the topsoil exchangeable aluminium
calculated by dividing the exchangeable
percentage is more than 5% and pH is
sodium amount by the sum of cations (or
below a pH of 4.8(CaCl2) or 5.5(water),
CEC) and multiplying it by 100.
liming is often recommended,
An ESP of less than 6% is considered particularly if resowing a pasture. The
non-sodic; an ESP of 6–15% is considered amount of lime required will depend
sodic; and an ESP of greater than 15% on the soil pH profile, lime quality, soil
EXCHANGEABLE CATIONS AND PERCENTAGES | 35
type, farming system and rainfall. When exchangeable magnesium is more than
making a decision to lime a paddock, 20% of the cations present, it can result
consideration also needs to be given to in a potassium deficiency in plants
other factors that may limit an economic and animals. Conversely, a magnesium
return from liming, such as marginal deficiency can be induced if the
areas and access issues. Ca:Mg ratio becomes too high or if the
Lime application on low pH soils potassium level is high.
adds calcium to the soil and corrects In pasture situations, sodic soils with a
low pH and high aluminium issues. calcium:magnesium ratio of less than 2
Care should be taken when selecting and/or an ESP of 6% or more, it is critical
liming materials, however. Both to manage grazing to ensure the soil is
agricultural lime (calcium carbonate) covered, particularly on sloping country,
and dolomitic lime are good sources as these soils are more vulnerable to
of calcium, but dolomitic lime also erosion. As a general rule, maintenance
contains appreciable quantities of of more than 70% ground cover is
magnesium. Adding magnesium to required to prevent soil losses by wind
soils already high in magnesium or with and water erosion. More ground cover is
soil structure issues can exacerbate required on steeper country.
poor soil structure (so it is important to
check your calcium:magnesium ratio). Rotational grazing that encourages
Caution: there is also a risk of inducing pasture root growth and maximises
animal health risks and creating nutrient pasture recovery time in between
imbalances between the key nutrient grazing events can help build and
cations of calcium, magnesium, and maintain soil organic matter levels to
potassium, particularly in soils with promote improved soil structure of
a low cation exchange capacity. If dispersive soils.

FURTHER READING
www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-and-food/farm-management/soil-and-water/soils/understanding-soil-tests-
pastures
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
36 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
SALINITY, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) AND CHLORIDE

Increasing dryland salinity is one of the zone and when the water evaporates at
main natural resource management the soil surface, concentrated salts are
concerns facing the central parts of left behind.
the Goulburn Broken Catchment and
Salinity negatively affects plant growth
threatens important assets within
by making it more difficult for plants to
the Catchment, such as water quality,
extract water from the soil; some salts
productive land, urban infrastructure
may be toxic to plants; and high levels
and biodiversity.
of salt may also affect the availability
Soil salinity is a measure of the naturally of other ions (e.g. an excess of chloride
occurring water-soluble salts in the soil reduces the uptake of nitrogen and an
solution. In sufficient quantities, these excess of potassium limits the uptake of
salts can adversely affect the growth calcium).
of most plants. The subsequent poor
growth often leads to an increased risk of Overall, the impact of salinity is a
soil erosion. reduction in plant growth. Germination/
seedling emergence and early growth
Sodium chloride (NaCl), common salt, is are the most sensitive stages. Mature
the most common salt in soils, but others plants may appear wilted and show leaf
can occur, including potassium, calcium burn; leaves are often smaller and darker.
and magnesium salts. The presence of The more tolerant species will dominate
salts in soils originates from the geology pasture; generally this means less clover
of the underlying rock type of the soil, and more salt-tolerant grasses, such as
wind-blown salts from sea spray, and barley grass.
historical inland sea levels over parts of
Australia. Salts become more mobile in The point at which the growth of
the soil due to changes in the regional different plants is adversely affected
and local groundwater levels. In the case varies. Some species are very sensitive
of dryland salinity, this can happen with to salt, while others, such as Phalaris
clearance of native forest vegetation for aquatica and River Red Gum (Eucalyptus
shallow-rooting agricultural plants. In the camaldulensis), are salt tolerant.
case of irrigation salinity, this can occur Most soil laboratories determine
with inefficient irrigation practice (e.g. salinity by measuring the electrical
overwatering) or with the use of saline conductivity (EC) of a mixture of 1 part
irrigation water. soil to 5 parts distilled water. These are
Dryland soils develop salinity via continuously mixed for one hour before
interactions with groundwater. If testing the electrical conductivity. This
groundwater rises to within 2 metres test is known as the EC 1:5 method and
of the soil surface, water can rise by is measured in deciSiemens per metre
capillary action to the surface. In this (dS/m). Levels less than 0.50 dS/m are
process, salt is brought into the root ideal.
SALINITY, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND CHLORIDE | 37
 Salinity versus sodicity

Salinity is commonly confused with calcium:magnesium is less than 2.

sodicity, as both are associated with
Dispersion is usually linked with
sodium. the Sodosol soil type (see Appendix,
In sodic soils, most of the chlorine p. 44). These are texture contrast
(in the salt sodium chloride) has soils that have an abrupt change
been leached away, leaving the in texture from the topsoil to the
sodium ions bonded to the soil’s clay subsoil. The subsoil of Sodosols
particles. This union is weak, and is classed as sodic. In short, a soil
the clay particles lose their ability is classed as sodic when sodium
to stick together, readily dispersing occupies 6% or more of the cation
when wet and preventing adequate exchange capacity (see also Cation
drainage and water infiltration in Exchange Capacity, p. 10).
soils. There is evidence to suggest Soils that are classed as saline are
that magnesium can also cause usually sodic, but sodic soils are not
dispersion when the ratio of always saline.

Dispersive sodic soil (causing erosion) near Faithfuls Creek, Euroa

(source: Bruce Gill, Department Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and
Resources)

38 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

Electrical conductivity is an indirect This means it does not readily adsorb
measure of the total soluble salt (chemically bond) onto the surface of
concentration in the soil solution, in clays. Thus, Cl is very mobile in soil and
which high electrical conductivities largely follows the water flows through
generally indicate high soluble-salt soil.
concentrations in the soil.
On most soil tests, chlorides are
Determining the salt tolerance of plants determined using the same extract for
is usually derived from a different measuring the electrical conductivity
method, the electrical conductivity of a (EC) – using a mixture of one part soil
saturated extract. This is called the ECe to five parts distilled water. The soil and
test and is also measured in deciSiemens water are continuously mixed for one
per metre. hour before the chlorides are tested. This
Salinity levels are satisfactory if the test is called the 1:5 soil:water method,
ECe is under 1.8 dS/m. At this level, the and the unit of measure is milligrams per
effects on pasture and crop species are kilogram of soil (mg/kg).
negligible. If the ECe level is > 2 dS/m, Critical levels are:
however, some of the more sensitive • 120mg/kg for sands to sandy loam,
species, such as lucerne, may be affected. • 180mg/kg for loam to clay loam,
A soil is classed as saline when the ECe • 300mg/kg clays.
is 4 dS/m or more and many crop and
Above these figures, salinity damage
pasture species are affected.
may occur, depending on soil drainage
Chloride (Cl) is an essential nutrient and plant tolerance.
for plants but is only required in small
quantities (known as a micro-nutrient). Management
It plays some important roles in plants, considerations
including in photosynthesis, osmotic
adjustment and key plant enzymes. Highly saline soils can also be highly
sodic (dispersive). They may not always
Deficiency of Cl is not a common issue in disperse, however, due to the high
Australia, but toxicity can be (and is often amounts of soluble salts. Recognising
associated with salinity damage). Toxicity
and acting on salinity problems early is
issues can result from accumulation of
the best solution, as soil salinity can be
chloride in the leaves and this can reduce
a difficult and expensive issue to correct
the overall crop and pasture yield on
when well advanced. Keep an eye out for
saline soils.
initial changes in pasture composition;
Cl occurs predominantly in the soil critical signs include bare patches with
solution as a negatively charged ion (Cl-). visible salt crystals on the soil surface
SALINITY, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND CHLORIDE | 39
and the presence of salinity indicator plant water use to assist in reducing
plants (such as Spiny Rush). ground water recharge). Tree planting
Salinity-affected areas can be managed on rises and the break of slope areas
by excluding grazing and sowing saline- are also a key strategy for landholders.
tolerant perennial pasture species, Consider seeking specific advice, as
such as phalaris, cocksfoot, rye and tall some strategies can be more effective in
fescue (their deep roots help maximize certain landscapes than others.

FURTHER READING
Animation on soil dispersion: http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/soilhealth_
dispersion-animation
Salinity indicator plants: Hazelton, P & Murphy, B 2007, Interpreting Soil Test Results: What do all the Numbers
Mean?, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/salinity/solutions/dryland
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne

40 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

TRACE ELEMENTS (MICRO-NUTRIENTS)

Of the 16 essential plant nutrients, eight The trace elements exist as cations
are trace elements (or micro-nutrients). and some as anions (see Introduction,
They are so called because plants require Table 1, p. 6) and include molybdenum,
them in only small amounts, but they manganese, iron, copper, zinc, boron,
are equally as important to the plant as chloride, sodium, and cobalt. Selenium,
the macro-elements (such as nitrogen, while not essential for plant growth, is
phosphorus and potassium). It is still important for animal health and can
possible, however, to have toxicities result in such conditions as ill thrift
and deficiencies of trace elements that and infertility in certain stock (it can be
affect the growth and yield of pasture. monitored using blood tests – confer
These are generally influenced by soil with your local vet).
pH conditions and specific soil types
(soils vary in their concentrations of While soil tests are a valuable tool for
trace elements and, with the exception identifying the macro-nutrient status
of iron and manganese, usually have of paddocks on the farm, research has
lower concentrations than of the major shown that, especially on acid soils,
and secondary nutrients). In addition, using them to indicate micro-nutrient
some of the trace element deficiencies in levels can be inaccurate and is, therefore,
pastures can cause nutrient deficiencies not generally recommended. Plant
in the stock that graze them. tissue testing is the preferred method for

Table 9 The concentration of trace elements in the soil and the pH

ranges for optimal availability

Trace element Symbol Total content (ppm) Optimum pH range

Boron B 10–630 5.0–7.0

Cobalt Co 1–40 5.0–5.5
Copper Cu 1–960 5.0–6.5
Chloride Cl 5–800 not affected
Iron Fe 3000–100 000 4.0–6.0
Manganese Mn 30–5000 5.0–6.5
Molybdenum Mo 0.1–18 6.0–8.5
Zinc Zn 2–1600 5.0–6.5
(Source: Glendinning, JS [ed.], p. 60)

TRACE ELEMENTS | 41
diagnosing micro-nutrient toxicities and Management
deficiencies in plants.
considerations
In addition, the difference between
adequate soil levels and toxic levels of Care needs to be taken if deciding to
trace elements can be quite small, so correct a micro-nutrient issue with
fertiliser application, as correcting one
interpretation of soil test results and
can sometimes induce an imbalance
prediction of requirements is difficult.
in others. For example, iron deficiency
In many cases, it is easier to address any can be induced by excess molybdenum,
concerns for animal health issues directly copper, and manganese levels in soils.
with nutrient licks and injections.
Molybdenum is generally the micro-
Trace element levels can change with soil nutrient of most concern for the
depth, particularly if the pH of the soil Goulburn Broken Catchment, and
changes with depth. For example, toxic is more likely to be deficient in acid
boron levels often occur in subsoils, and soils. This is because the availability of
this needs to be taken into account when molybdenum to plants is influenced
interpreting boron results for the top 10 by pH. The lower the pH, the lower the
cm of soil. availability of molybdenum. In pastures,
clovers are generally more sensitive
There is little evidence of manganese to molybdenum deficiency. Liming
deficiency occurring in pastures in to bring your pH above 4.8 (CaCl2) or
Victoria, particularly in the acid soils 5.5(water) usually fixes molybdenum
of the Goulburn Broken Catchment. deficiency in the long term, or
Manganese toxicity can occur in acid molybdenum can be added to fertiliser,
soils, usually in combination with such as superphosphate, if liming is
waterlogging conditions. not an option (i.e. if uneconomical or in
marginal country). The potential need
Specific local advice should be sought for for molybdenum should be discussed
interpretation of soil test and plant tissue with your advisor and the frequency
test results and decisions on micro- of application will depend on pasture
nutrient fertiliser applications. species, rainfall and soil type.

FURTHER READING
Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry Federation of Australia
Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
42 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
APPENDIX

Common soil types of east of Alexandra). Yellow and Brown

Kurosols occur mainly in the granite
the Goulburn Broken areas to the south of Euroa and to the
Catchment east of Seymour. There are also minor
occurrences north of Seymour.
Below are some of the more common
soil types found throughout the These acidic subsoils can have
dryland pasture zones of the Goulburn significant implications for management,
affecting soil nutrient availability,
Broken Catchment. Others (such as
nutrient leaching, crop and pasture
Ferrosols and Dermosols) are found
establishment, and plant root growth.
in localised areas in the Catchment.
These soils are classified using the Chromosols (like Kurosols) also display a
Australian Soil Classification System, strong texture contrast between surface
which works in a similar fashion to plant
or animal classification systems, using
identification ‘keys’ and names with Latin
or Greek roots.
The properties of the subsoil (B
horizon) are a major determinant in
the classification system. As you will
see below, Kurosols, Chromosols and
Sodosols all have a strong texture
contrast between the surface horizon
(topsoil) and the subsoil but are classified
differently because of key differences in
characteristics in the upper part of the
subsoil.
Kurosols are soils that display a strong
texture contrast between lighter loamy
surface (A) horizons and clay subsoil (B)
horizons. The subsoil is strongly acidic.
Kurosols occur predominantly in the
higher elevations or uplands, where
rainfall is higher and consequently the
leaching of certain nutrients is greater.
In the Goulburn Broken region, Red
Kurosols occur in the uplands (such as
in the Strathbogie Ranges and south- Kurosol profile
APPENDIX | 43
(A) horizons and subsoil (B) horizons. The and the depth of the topsoil can vary
subsoil is often strongly coloured, most considerably. This can have significant
commonly red or brown, and is not sodic implications for management, affecting
(like Sodosols) or strongly acidic (like soil workability, permeability, crop
Kurosols). establishment, moisture availability and
Chromosols can be found on the alluvial erodibility. The subsoil tends to be clay-
Riverine Plains and the uplands. The textured and is often mottled in colour,
dominant occurrences of this soil type indicating some restricted drainage.
are north, east and west (sporadic However, generally Chromosols are
occurrences only) of Benalla, east of better drained than Sodosols.
Seymour and around the Mansfield area. Sodosols are widespread in the
The surface soil textures of these soils Goulburn Broken region. They are
tend to be lighter loamy textures generally found on the extensive

Chromosol profile Sodosol profile

44 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
Riverine Plains north of the uplands (and (where they are associated with Yellow
the Hume Highway) and the low hills and Chromosols).
rises east of Heathcote. Sodosols have a
The poorly structured Kandosols
strong texture contrast between surface
can have significant implications for
(A) horizons and subsoil (B) horizons,
management, affecting soil fertility,
and the subsoil horizons are classed
moisture availability, erodibility and crop
as sodic (where high sodium levels are
establishment.
detrimental to the soil structure). This
means the subsoils have exchangeable
sodium percentages of more than 6%
(see Salinity, p. 37). These soils are prone
to disperse when wet and generally set
hard when dry.
The dense and poorly structured
Sodosols can have significant
implications for management, affecting
soil workability, permeability, crop
establishment, moisture availability
and erodibility. Root growth and water
movement through the profile are
commonly restricted. Sodosols can be
associated with salinity and are prone to
erosion and seeps. They can also contain
varying amounts of buckshot gravel
(ironstone nodules).
Kandosols are non-textured contrast
soils (with little or only a gradual increase
in clay content with depth) that have
massive (i.e. weakly to non-structured)
subsoils (B) horizons. These soils can vary
from stony, hard-setting soils to deeper,
friable soils. Some may have a bleached
or very pale subsurface (A2) horizon.
Kandosols are located in the upland Kandosol profile (source: all profile images
areas, particularly close to the Dividing courtesy Mark Imhof, Agricultural Research,
Range, as well as the western Strathbogie Department of Economic Development,
Ranges and the Yea to Broadford area Jobs, Transport and Resources)

APPENDIX | 45
GLOSSARY

Adsorption The attraction and bonding buffer or resist a change in the pH. In
(chemically) of a substance onto the contrast, if lime is applied to a sandy
surface of minerals, clay minerals or soil with a low CEC, the acidic cations
organic matter. In contrast, absorption (aluminium and hydrogen) are removed
is a process in which the substance is from the soil solution (via the chemical
actually taken up into the structure of reaction when the lime is applied). This
the mineral or clay mineral. soil has very little capacity to replenish
the soil solution from the acidic cations
Aerobic Oxygen is present. This on the CEC. Hence, there is a change to
is particularly important for many the soil pH with only a small amount of
biological processes that involve lime applied.
organisms that require oxygen, such as
nitrogen fixation. Good soil structure Cation A positively charged ion.
will promote aerobic conditions by Common soil cations include calcium
increasing the size, volume and stability (Ca2+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and
of soil pores. magnesium (Mg2+).

Anaerobic Very little or no oxygen is Chemical reaction A reaction involving

present. This is often the case in poorly changes to atoms or molecules
structured and/or waterlogged soils.
Anaerobic conditions can promote Chemically reactive A tendency to
biological processes that produce react with other substances
undesirable products, such as methane Dispersion A process that results in soil
and nitrous oxide. aggregates breaking down in water and
Available That portion of the total in which the clay particles move apart
amount of a nutrient in the soil solution from each other, ‘dispersing’ into the soil
that is available for plant uptake. water and creating cloudy water. The
water is cloudy because it contains these
Available soil water That part of the very small clay particles in suspension.
soil water that can be absorbed by plant This can then clog up the small holes
roots. This includes water held in pores (pores) in soil, causing waterlogging and
between soil aggregates and within soil erosion. When the soil dries, it will tend
aggregates. to set hard.

Buffering capacity The ability of the The susceptibility of a soil to dispersion

soil to resist changes in pH. Soils with is related to the relative proportions of
higher clay levels and higher cation cations on the clay surface, particularly
exchange capacity (CEC) will be able to the proportions of sodium, magnesium
46 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST
and calcium ions. If a soil has sodium structure and reduce crusting in hard-
occupying more than 6% of the cation setting, clayey soils. The applied calcium
exchange capacity, the soil will have a increases soil aggregation, which results
tendency to disperse when wet. There is in improved water infiltration, seed
evidence to suggest that magnesium can germination and root growth. Typical
also cause dispersion when the ratio of rates used are around 2 t/ha and up to 5
calcium to magnesium is less than 2. t/ha, with heavier rates being required
on highly sodic soils.
Exchangeable cations Cations (positive
ions) are attracted to the negative Ion A charged particle
surfaces of the clay and organic matter
particles in soils. Cations held on these Leaching A process that results in
negative surfaces can be replaced by the loss in the soil solution of the more
other cations in the soil solution; this is soluble minerals, nutrients and salts by
why they are known as ‘exchangeable’. the downward movement of water into
the soil profile.
Extractable An agronomic soil test
uses chemical extractants to chemically Lime A naturally occurring, calcareous
release a portion of the total amount of material used to raise the pH of acid
a nutrient in the soil. This then allows a soils and/or supply nutrient calcium
soil laboratory to measure the amount for plant growth. The term normally
of nutrient in the soil sample. It is used refers to ground limestone (CaCO3), but
to estimate the amount of nutrient that may also include processed forms such
is available to plants, i.e. it may over- or as hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) or burnt
underestimate the amount of nutrient lime (CaO). Dolomitic lime (MgCO3)
available. also contains appreciable quantities of
Fixed ions Ions that are part of the magnesium.
crystalline structure of minerals or clay
Loam A medium-textured soil of
minerals. In this form, they are generally
approximate composition 10–25% clay,
insoluble and resistant to mineralisation
25–50% silt, and less than 50% sand.
by micro-organisms and weathering
processes. They may remain in the soil Mineralisation A biological process
for many years unavailable to plants. in which organic compounds in
Friable When a soil breaks easily into organic matter are decomposed by soil
crumbly peds and aggregates organisms to release nutrients in plant-
available forms. Bacteria and fungi are
Gypsum (calcium sulphate) Normally primarily responsible for most of the
used as a soil ameliorant to improve soil mineralisation of organic matter in soils.
GLOSSARY | 47
Nitrogen fixation The capture of free occupied by sodium is greater than 6%.
nitrogen in the air by soil organisms This is sufficient exchangeable sodium to
to produce nitrogen compounds that adversely affect soil structural stability,
eventually become available to plants. plant growth and/or land use. The soil
Organic carbon Derived from living will tend to disperse.
plants or animals and containing carbon
Soil solution The critical pool of soil
Parent rocks (material) The geological water from which plant roots can take up
material from which the soil profile nutrients
develops
Waterlogged The condition of a soil
Peds Individual natural soil aggregates
that is saturated with water and which
Sodic soil A soil is considered sodic has replaced most or all of the soil air in
if the proportion of the exchange sites soil pores with water

48 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR SOIL TEST

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Glendinning, JS (ed.), 2000, Australian Soil Fertility Manual (rev. edn), Fertiliser Industry
Federation of Australia Inc. & CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Hazelton, P & Murphy, B, 2007, Interpreting Soil Test Results: What Do All the Numbers
Mean?, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
Peverill, K, Sparrow, L & Reuter, D (ed.), 1999, Soil Analysis: An Interpretation Manual,
CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne

Websites
www.environment.nsw.gov.au
www.soilquality.org.au
www.vic.gov.au/agriculture
www.vro.depi.vic.gov.au

BIBLIOGRAPHY | 49
If you use your soil to make your living, soil tests are an important
routine management tool. They can offer a useful snapshot of
your soil’s nutrient status, allowing you to make more informed,
cost-effective decisions regarding your property’s productivity and
the protection of your soil.

The way laboratories present soil-test results can vary widely. Some are
simpler to understand than others, but to many of us they appear as a
list of incomprehensible figures.

Understanding Your Soil Test: Step by Step is a handy reference for

farmers in the Goulburn Broken Catchment (and other dryland areas
throughout Victoria). Explaining each component of your soil test in
detail, this booklet helps demystify those figures and support key
farming decisions for sustainable productivity.

Cath Botta has over 20 years of practical experience working in the

agriculture, natural resource management, and education sectors. She
works extensively as a soil scientist, educator and facilitator with rural
and regional communities, presenting soil-health workshops, delivering
soil-health training programs, and working with individuals and groups
to help them better understand their soils. Cath is a Certified Professional
Soil Scientist with Soil Science Australia. She holds a Bachelor and Masters
of Science in Agriculture, a Graduate Certificate in Soil Conservation, and
a Graduate Certificate in Mediation and Conflict Resolution. She also
holds a Certificate IV in Training and Assessment and is a graduate of the
Australian Institute of Company Directors.