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Use of fish waste as silage - A review

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Vol.50, n. 5 : pp. 879-886 September 2007

ISSN 1516-8913 Printed in Brazil BRAZILIAN ARCHIVES OF
BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY
A N I N T E R N A T I O N A L J O U R N A L

Use of Fish Waste as Silage - A Review

Lia Ferraz de Arruda1*, Ricardo Borghesi1and Marília Oetterer2
1 2
Mestre em Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos; Departamento de Agroindústria; Alimentos e Nutrição;
USP/ESALQ; C. P.: 9; 13418-900; Piracicaba - SP - Brasil

ABSTRACT

The use of fish silage as a substitute for protein ingredients in rations for aquatic organisms is an alternative to
solve sanitary and environmental problems caused by the lack of adequate disposition for the waste from the fish
industry. Besides, it is also a way of decreasing feeding costs, and, consequently, fish production costs, since feeding
corresponds to about 60% of the overall expenses with production. The objective of this review was to discuss the
use of fish waste, the elaboration of chemical silage and the use of this ingredient in feed for aquaculture.

Key words: Fish waste, chemical silage, feed for aquaculture

INTRODUCTION Sanitary landings and effluent treatment ponds are

not recommendable alternatives due to the
Companies that want to be effectively clean must unpleasant odor they produce in coastal or interior
use fish processing waste in the manufacture of waters areas, which are almost always used for
new products, not only contributing to leisure (Lustosa Neto, 1994).
environmental preservation, but also increasing Every effort must be made to increase human
their own revenues. The largest benefit, however, consumption of fish, but there will always be
is nutritional, since fish waste represents half of amounts of fish that are considered inadequate or
the raw material volume of the industry and is a that exceed the processing capacity (Oetterer,
source of low-cost nutrients (Oetterer, 2002). Fish 2006).
waste from beneficiation and commercialization A way of minimizing the environmental problems
units can cause serious environmental pollution generated by the high amount of fish waste is its
problems, as their transportation to by-products transformation in a product to be incorporated as
processing plants is not always a sustainable ingredient in animal rations (Ristic et al.; 2002). A
activity (Nunes, 1999). viable alternative would be the production of fish
There is need for creating systems for the use of silage, as it is an easy-to-make product which
waste in industries when it comes to energy requires low investments. The product has a good
savings. The ideal solution would be to use the nutritive quality and can, therefore, be very useful
raw material all along and recover the by-products, in animal feeding (Berenz, 2003). The objective of
avoiding waste production (Maia et al.; 1998). this review was to discuss the use of fish waste,
Most of the technologies known for the use of the elaboration of chemical silage and its use as
waste in fish industries are not economically ingredient of feed for aquaculture.
attractive due to the high initial investment.

*
Author for correspondence

Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology

880 Ferraz de Arruda, L. et al.

Use of fish waste River basin, which drains the southeast and
According to Food and Agriculture Organization northeast parts of the country, there are over 100
(FAO, 2004), the world fish production in 2000 large reservoirs and dams for purposes of energy
was 130.4 million tons of fish, out of which 94.8 production and water storage, with over five
million tons were from fishing and 35.6 million million hectares of flooded areas. The exploration
corresponded to aquaculture production. From potential of this system for semi-intensive of
1996 to 2000, aquaculture increased from 25.7 to intensive fish farming is large (Castagnolli, 1995).
35.6 million metric tons. The aquaculture The processing units of fresh water frozen fish
production for 2001 was estimated as 37.5 million fillets in operation in Brazil has increased,
metric tons. increasing the volume of unused waste (Boscolo et
In 1997, 122 million metric tons of fish were al.; 2005).
produced in the world, which represented US$ 49 Information about these fish processing units in
billion in revenues. The Brazilian production of the country is unsatisfactory. For example, in
fish was 798,719 metric tons, out of which 2000, the Southeast was the area with the largest
115,398 tons came from the national aquaculture number of processing units (23), but there were
production, with consequent revenue of US$ not enough data to quantify the volume which was
198,000,200 (Ostrensky et al.; 2000). being currently processed. Another problem is that
The world production of aquatic organisms from the amount of fish produced by aquaculture is still
aquaculture increased from 28.82 in 1997 to 30.86 small and hardly ever could a medium-sized
million metric tons in 1998. In the same period, processing unit operate only with raw material
there was a reduction of over 7 million metric tons from farming. A positive aspect is that, out of 47
in the production of captured aquatic organisms identified units, 32 (68% of the total) are certified
(FAO, 2000).Sixty percent of the fish captured by sanitary inspection (Ostrensky et al.; 2000).
worldwide are used in the fresh fish market or As in any animal farming, in aquaculture, feed
processed as frozen, canned or cured foods, corresponds to a high percentage of the operational
generating a considerable amount of waste costs, reaching indices ranging from 30 to 60% of
material. The volume of waste produced by the overall (El-Sayed, 1999; Cheng et al.; 2003).
processing plants is calculated to be about 50% of Researchers from all over the world have put great
the total processed fish. To that, we can add a efforts in identifying alternative protein sources
considerable amount of fishing produce that is that would allow a reduction in feeding costs
considered inadequate for human consumption due (Portz and Cyrino, 2004).
to its low commercial value, as well as the
amounts discarded and refused by Federal/State Fish silage
Inspections in fresh commercialization markets Fish silage is a liquid product produced from the
(Rebeca et al.; 1991).Thus about 50% of the world whole fish or parts of it, to which acids, enzymes
fish production becomes waste material, which or lactic-acid-producing bacteria are added, with
means an expressive amount of 65.2 million the liquefaction of the mass provoked by the
metric tons of fish waste (Ferraz de Arruda, 2004). action of enzymes from the fish (FAO, 2003).
The largest contributor to the increase in fish Acid silage was developed in 1920 by A. I.
production is aquaculture, which is one of the Virtanen, using hydrochloric and sulphuric acid
fastest growing agricultural activities in the world. for the conservation of forages. Experiments with
According to Ostrensky et al. (2000), the Brazilian fish began in Sweden in 1936, using hydrochloric,
aquacultural production increased from 23,390 sulphuric, and formic acids and sugars (Tatterson
metric tons in 1991 to 115,398 metric tons in and Windsor, 1974).
1998, an increase of 393%, growing about 26% a Organic acids, such as formic acid, are generally
year, going up from the 35th position in 1991 to the more expressive than the mineral ones. However,
26th position in 1997 in the ranking established by they produce less acid silages that do not need to
FAO. be neutralized before being used. The bactericide
Over 80% of the Brazilian territory is located in action must be considered. A mixture of formic
the tropical area drained by the large and propionic acids has been recommended. If a
hydrographical basins, the Amazon and the 1:1 formic-propionic ratio is used as well as the
Parana-Paraguay basins. In the latter, which covers addition of 3% volume/weight to the biomass, the
the central part of Brazil, and the San Francisco silage obtained is stable, with an acidified aroma

Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology

 Use of Fish Waste as Silage - A Review 881

(Kompiang, 1981). The use of formic acid for the experimental scale and used in rations which
preservation of wasted material to be used in substituted fish and soy meals in the feed of swine,
rations began after World War II. In the fish and birds (Kompiang, 1981).
preparation of chemical silage, the choice of
preservation reagents is made from inorganic acid, Fish feeding
a mixture of acids, organic acids or the mixture of The use of fish silage in the feeding of fish has
organic and inorganic acids, which, as formic acid, been widely studied. Due to the similarity of this
are generally more expansive than common protein source with the raw material and low cost,
inorganic acids, but produce silages that are not especially when compared to fish meal, silage has
excessively acid, and, therefore, do not need a high potential use in aquaculture. (Hussain and
neutralization before being used. Inorganic acids, Offer, 1987; Fagbenro et al.; 1994; Vidotti et al.;
such as hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid can 2003; Goddard and Perret, 2005). Fagbenro et al.
be recommended due to their low cost (Oetterer, (1994) and Fagbenro and Jauncey (1998) studied
2002). the nutritional value of diets containing microbial
For the preparation of the chemical silage, the raw fish silage partially dehydrated by the addition of
material must preferably be presented in small soy meal, poultry by-products, or bone and meat
pieces or be ground. Afterwards, acid is added to powder, and found no significant differences in the
allow for its action until liquefaction takes place. performance and protein use when compared to
Normally, room temperature is used and the diets based on fish meal. The experiment showed
storage provokes the desired biochemical that these diets, especially the ones including
modifications. It is essential that the mixture is silage and soy meal, could be used to feed tilapias,
stirred so that the raw material can be in contact Oreochromis niloticus (omnivorous), and the
with the acid, once non-treated parts of the North African catfish, Clarias gariepinus
material can putrefy. After the initial mixture, the (carnivorous), with no changes in its performance,
silage process naturally begins, but occasional use of protein and carcass composition.
stirring helps in obtaining the desired uniformity In salmon farming, the search for diets that
(Oetterer, 2002). promote fast growth, favour fish sanitation, result
in quality products and have low cost is essential.
Use of fish silage Some authors, trying to evaluate the use of fish
Fish meal is the most abundant animal protein silage in salmon (Salmo salar) feeding, concluded
source for the manufacture of rations for domestic that although this silage did not promote a better
animals. The world market has always been development, it did not cause a decrease either,
looking for an effective alternative to fish meal and its cost was much lower (Espe et al.; 1994;
(Nogueira Junior et al.; 1997). Fish silage is an Heras et al.; 1994).
attractive alternative to fish meal. The advantages The natural food for the pink abalone (Haliotis
in the production of silage, compared to fish meal, fulgens) is microalgae. In the United States, this
are: the process is virtually independent from the microalgae is used as the main food. Commercial
scale; the technology is simple; the investment is diets are produced only in Japan and New Zealand,
little, even in large-scale production; reduced their high cost makes them unviable. Thus,
effluents and odor problems; the silage process is artificial diets are necessary, preferably at low
fast in tropical climates and the product can be cost. Viana et al. (1999) evaluated the use of silage
used in the place. However, a disadvantage is that as an alternative feed. The authors concluded that
the product is voluminous if consumed in its pasty fish silage was very attractive, but not very
form, implying in an additional drying cost palatable. They recommended that it should be
(Kompiang, 1981; Beerli et al.; 2004). used with a more tasteful ingredient, such as corn
Silage has been produced at commercial scale in meal.
Poland and Denmark since the sixties for the Honczaryk and Maeda (1998) studied the use of
production of birds and swine feed or as a protein biological-fish-ensilage-based diets in the feeding
complement incorporated in rations making feed of arapaima (Arapaima gigas), a very important
for domestic animals and fish in aquaculture. In carnivorous fish from the Amazon area, and
France, a fish Protein Hydrolysate Powder with concluded that they presented a higher level of
90% protein was produced reaching US$ 1,500,00 ingestion. The most important was that the
per ton. In Indonesia, silage was produced at technology used in the elaboration of biological

Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology

882 Ferraz de Arruda, L. et al.

ensilage was adequate for the production of a for the investigation of silage quality, as fatty acids
product to be used as protein source in the which are present in fish oil are highly unsaturated
preparation of rations for arapaima, which could can easily oxidize, affecting the nutritional quality
be produced at artisanal level, without of the product, making proteins and amino acids
sophisticated equipment or specialized laborers. unavailable or making the product inedible (FAO,
In nutritional terms, the diet given to aquacultured 2003).
fish can define the fatty acids profile in the fish Fish silage can be used as an alternative protein
meat. Thus, for example, the catfish (Ictalurus source in the formulation of rations for
punctatus) diet, supplemented with 2, 4, and 6% of monogastrics. However, due to the lipid oxidation
menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) oil provided 5.7, that can compromise the nutritional value of the
8.4 and 10.1% of omega-3 fatty acids, ration, the removal of the lipid fraction during the
respectively, in the fish muscles. Also, the elaboration of the silage is recommended in order
supplementation of the tilapias (Oreochromis to obtain a uniform and more stable product (Raa
niloticus) with sardine (Sardinella, sp) oil resulted and Gilberg, 1982).
in a larger proportion of eicosapentaenoic and The lipid oxidation process results in changes of
docosahexanoic acids (Haard, 1992). Lessi et al. flavor, color, texture, nutritional value and toxic
(1989) and Ximenes Carneiro et al. (1996) tested components production (Sales, 1995). The
biological fish ensilage in the feeding of Black- oxidative process can be accelerated if the fish
Finned Pacus (Colossoma macropomum) silage in contact with light and air (FAO, 2003).
fingerlings and shrimp post-larvae Lipids oxidation can provoke the formation of
(Macrobrachium rosembergii) for the first time in peroxides, which form physical and covalent
Brazil. Ensilage was found an alternative and a bonds with proteins. Covalent bonds between
potential substitute for fish meal and meat and oxidized products and proteins can destroy amino
bone meal in Black-Finned Pacus rations. acids, such as tryptophan, oxidize methionine, and
The apparent digestibility is one of the main bind lysine to other compounds, making these
resources in the evaluation of the potential of the amino acids unavailable (Nelson and Cox, 2000).
ingredient to be used in fish rations. Borghesi Disney et al. (1977) discussed the changes that
(2004) determined the apparent digestibility occured with lipids during the storage of the
coefficient (ADC) of the energy, nutrients and silage. They mentioned that the increase in the
amino-acids of acid silage (AS), biological silage contents of free fatty acids indicated the hydrolysis
(BS) and enzymatic silage (ES) in Nile tilapias of glycerides, whereas oxidative changes caused
(Oreochromis niloticus) weighing on average darkening. The authors recommend that in order to
94.54 ± 12.66g. The values for digestible energy keep the quality of the product there must be a fast
found were 4041.32; 3663.95 and 3394.20 Kcal/kg fat removal, as most transformations touch place at
for AS, BS and ES, respectively. The ADC values the beginning of the ensilage process and
found were: 92.01; 89.09 and 93.66% for crude depended on the temperature. Kompiang (1981)
protein; 89.86, 87.61 and 90.10% for ash; 82.52, suggested that the nutritional value of ensilage was
78.98 and 82.96% for dry matter; 81.72, 73.99 and negatively affected with the increase in the storage
80.27% for calcium; and 77.86, 79.21 and 81.46 % time. There was a direct relationship between the
for phosphor in AS, BS and ES, respectively. The darkening provoked by lipids reaction and the loss
average ADC of amino acids were: 91.83; 90.76 of the nutritive value.
and 94.61% for AS. BS and ES, respectively. Most fish species with little amounts of oil are
These results show the possibility of using AS, BS being excessively used in the production of animal
and ES as proteic ingredient in balanced rations feed. For the use of species with larger amounts of
for aquaculture, as partial substitute of fish meal. oil, techniques must be initially established for the
oil to be removed in order to increase the stability
Waste recycling for the production of silage and of the material and its commercial value (Potter et
oil al.; 1979).
The final composition of silage varies Haard et al. (1985), silage with cod fish (Gadus
considerably according to the type of raw material morhua) waste using 3.5% (v/w) of formic acid.
used, especially as to the content of lipids, which The silage obtained became liquid and
varies in different fishing seasons (Haard et al.; homogenous in 36 to 48 h at 20oC, although the oil
1985). The content of lipids is an important point and other protein contents continued to suffer

Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology

 Use of Fish Waste as Silage - A Review 883

hydrolysis for several months. The maintenance of and pressing of waste. Fish oil could be used for
the lipidic components of the silage to increase the pharmaceutical purposes. However, it would be
energetic portion in animal ration formulations necessary consider how fast this oil oxidizes and
was undesirable because of the lipidic degradation the need of extending the stability (Ferraz de
of this fraction. Ferraz de Arruda (2004) tried to Arruda; 2004).
determine the best way for extracting oil from the Numerous benefits have been attributed to fish oil,
acid silage of Nile tilapias (Oreochromis niloticus) particularly to its EPA and DHA fatty acids
and characterize the oil obtained. The lipidic (Soccol and Oetterer, 2003). Fish oil normally
fraction was extracted in three different ways: contain about 30% of the omega-3essential acids,
centrifugation (3500 x G/30min), Soxhlet with approximately 18% EPA and 12% DHA.
(International Union of Pure and Applied Essential fatty acids are used in several countries
Chemistry -IUPAC, 1979) and Bligh and Dyer to prevent and treat several health problems. They
(1959). The results for the yield and peroxide are used in nutritional supplements, children’s
index were 65.53% and 0.00 mEq/1000 g O2, nutrition, medicinal and functional foods,
44.27% and 25.00 mEq/1000g O2, 46.87% and parenteral nutrition, and pharmaceutical actives
0.00 mEq/1000g O2 respectively. Tilapia oil had and vehicles. Their prescription by doctors has
(mg/100g), 28.60, 16.30 and 3.10 oleic, linoleic increased, including in Brazil, and the available
and linolenic acids, respectively. Centrifugation products are being improved (Pacchioni, 1999).
was the best extraction method for preserving the Estudies due the scarcity of experimental data on
physical-chemical characteristics of the oil results the beneficial and side effects of omega-3 fatty
in a larger yield. The content of lipids in the tilapia acids, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in
silage, on a dry-matter basis was 3.99g/100g, with forbidden the commercialization of fish oil as
the extraction of the lipidic fraction through medicine in the United States, placing them in the
centrifugation. The sample was left with only category of food supplement (Badolato et al.;
1.54g/100g of lipids, which is considered 1991)
acceptable for its inclusion in animal feed. The Fish oil has long been used in the manufacture of
lipid fraction, extracted for the concentration of food, especially in margarine (Bimbo, 1987),
the protein fraction, could be used as a lipid source because of its considerable biochemical,
after the addition of anti-oxidants in the metabolic, nutritional and pharmaceutical interest
formulation of rations, or used as a attractive (Stansby, 1969). Scientific studies have intensified
factor in fish rations. However, studies must be in this respect due to the several benefits
carried out on this possibility (Ferraz de Arruda et associated, especially with EPA and DHA fatty
al.; 2006). acids (Ackman and McLeod,1988). In Brazil, the
During the “World Aquaculture 97”, it became supply of fish-oil-based food supplements
evident that after 1997, the feeding of water containing pills of EPA and DHA has grown, as
organisms would depend on the production of fish well as analyses requests by Adolfo Lutz Institute
meal and oil (Wiefels, 1998). In Brazil, sardine is for purposes of brand registration at the Ministry
the most popular fish, accounting for 50% of the of Health. According to declarations by interested
fish commercialization of the Sao Paulo Fresh parties, oil, mostly from sardines, is imported from
Products Market, the largest one in the country. In England and encapsulated in Brazil. The
the southeast, the most explored species is conventional formula guarantees that the product
Sardinella brasiliensis. The composition and contains 180 mg of EPA and 120 mg of DHA per
production of Brazilian sardine oil has been gram. In some cases, vitamin E or tocoferol is
described (Badolato et al.; 1991). added as anti-oxidant (Badolato et al.; 1991).
Fish oil produced in Brazil is normally used in
animal consumption or in the production of paint,
varnishing and finishing of leather (BRASIL, FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
1985). However, there are no exact data on the
total production of fish oil in Brazil. Fish industry The conversion of waste material, with its
has a wide potential as its discharges can be easily consequent reutilization, can bring economical
transformed into marketable products. Currently, advantages for the industry, besides solving a great
during the production of fish meal, fish oil is also problem with the discharge of the waste, which is
produced by processes which involve the heating

Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology

884 Ferraz de Arruda, L. et al.

pollutant material. Studies point to a possible use respeito do aproveitamento do resíduo de pescado,
of silage prepared from Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis elaboração de silagem química e a utilização desta
niloticus) waste processing in the formulation of como ingrediente para ração destinada à
fish rations. Further studies must be carried out in aqüicultura.
order to evaluate the ideal amount of silage input
in the production of fish rations. The use of waste
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