2.

12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous Receiver

FT
R. SIEV (1969) K. O. PLACHE (1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995)
Mass
J. E. JAMISON (2003) Flow Sheet Symbol

Types A. Flow computers using inputs from volumetric flow sensors and densitometers, or
pressure/temperature transmitters
B. Doppler ultrasonic or magnetic flowmeter and radiation-type densitometer com-
binations
C. Angular momentum and other similar principles
D. Linear hydraulic Wheatstone-type

Applications Gas, liquid, solids

Design Pressures and Magmeter/radiation units available up to 255 PSIG (17.5 bars) and 300°F (150°C)
Temperatures

Pipe Sizes Available A. Unlimited

B. 2 to 36 in. (50 mm to 0.9 m)
C. Small diameters only—aero turbine fuel applications
D. Under 1 in. (25 mm), for very low flows only

Errors (Inaccuracy) Varies with the designs, generally approximately ±1% of full scale

Costs A. Flow computers without the sensors can cost approximately $600 minimum; $700
to $4000 normally, depending on options, features, remote communications capa-
bilities, and so on
B. A 6-in. (150-mm) magmeter/radiation combination costs about $13,000
C. Costs vary substantially with size and materials of construction
D. Price starts at about $2000 minimum; normally $7000 to $13,000, depending on
model, options, and range required

Partial List of Suppliers Barton Instrument Systems Ltd. (www.barton-canada.com) (A)

Bristol Babcock (www.bristolbabcock.com) (A)
Contrec Inc. (www.contrec.com.au) (A)
ELDEC Corp., a Crane Company (www.eldec.com) (C)
Kessler-Ellis Products (KEP) Co. (www.kep.com) (A)
Omega Engineering Inc. (www.omega.com) (A)
Pierburg Instruments Inc. (www.pierburginstruments.com) (D)
Pierburg GMBH (www.pierburg-instruments.de) (D)
Solartron Mobrey (www.solartronusa.com) (A)
Thermo MeasureTech (www.thermomt.com) (B)
Universal Flow Monitors Inc. (www.flowmeters.com) (A)
West Coast Research Corp. (www.members.aol.com/wescores) (A)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com) (A)

A knowledge of mass flow rates is necessary in combustion weighing systems, solids flowmeters, and the more frequently
fuel control, reactor recipe formulations, and many other appli- used liquid/gas mass flowmeters (such as Coriolis and thermal
cations, including the mining and dredging, food, pulp and types) are discussed in Sections 2.11 and 2.13. In this section,
paper, pharmaceuticals, and chemical industries. The various some of the other mass flow detection methods are covered.

237
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
238 Flow Measurement

RADIATION-TYPE MASS FLOWMETERS as a single, obstructionless mass flow sensor. Its features and
materials of construction are similar to those of a magnetic
One of the earliest methods of mass flow determination was or ultrasonic flowmeter except that it is bulkier and more
to install two separate sensors—one to measure the volumet- expensive because it incorporates a radiation-type densitom-
ric flow and the other to detect the density of the flowing eter. If the flow sensor is a magnetic flowmeter, the unit is
stream—and then to use the two transmitter signals as inputs also limited to use on process fluids having at least 3.0 µS/cm
into a mass flow computing module. This approach was fea- conductivity.
sible, but it required coordination between the products of
different suppliers and corrections for such process variables
as temperature, pressure, viscosity, particle size, and velocity
ANGULAR MOMENTUM-TYPE MASS FLOWMETERS
profile changes. The introduction of density/mass flow sys-
tems has made it easier to use this technique. The key work-
The principle of angular momentum can best be described
ing component in these combinational designs is the multi-
by referring to Newton’s second law of angular motion and
ple-input transmitter (Figure 2.12a), which, in addition to a
the definition of angular momentum, using the following
radiation-type density input, accepts a flow measurement sig-
notation:
nal from any volumetric flowmeter. Based on these two
inputs, the microprocessor-based transmitter generates an
H = angular momentum (lbf-ft-sec)
output signal that relates to mass flow. 2
I = moment of inertia (lbf-ft )
A further improvement occurred in the design of these
ω = angular velocity (rad/sec)
density/mass flow systems in which the density and volu-
α = angular acceleration (rad/sec )
2
metric flow sensors were combined in a single package
(Figure 2.12b). These units are composed of a either a Dop- Υ = torque (ft-lbf)
pler ultrasonic flowmeter or a magnetic flowmeter and a r = radius of gyration (ft)
gamma-radiation-based densitometer, all in a single unit includ- m = mass (slugs)
ing a microcomputer. These mass flow units do not require t = time (sec)
compensation for changes in process variables and are installed
Newton’s second law of angular motion states that

Indicator/ Y = Iα 2.12(1)
Radiation Transmitter
Type Density
Sensor and defines that

Mass Flow H = Iω 2.12(2)

Output
Volumetric
Flow Meter But because, by definition,

2
I = mr 2.12(3)
FIG. 2.12a
Combination mass flow system. Equation 2.12(1) becomes

Y = mr α
2
Field 2.12(4)
Coil
Process and Equation 2.12(2) becomes
Fluid Pipe
Electrode Electrode
H = mr ω
2
2.12(5)

Because

Gamma
Detector ω
Source α= 2.12(6)
t
Magnetic
Field Field Coil
Equation 2.12(4) becomes
FIG. 2.12b
Mass flowmeter combining a magnetic flowmeter and a radiation- m 2
Υ = rω 2.12(7)
type densitometer in a single unit. t

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 239

m
Solving for mass flow rate, , (lbm/sec), we get Constant Torque-Hysteresis Clutch
t
Another angular-momentum type mass flowmeter eliminates
m Υ the necessity of making a torque measurement after imparting
= 2.12(8)
t r 2ω a constant torque to the fluid stream. The relationship between
mass flow and torque is
Also, dividing both sides of Equation 2.12(5) by t,
m Y
= 2 2.12(10)
H m 2 t rω
= rω 2.12(9)
t t
Therefore, if Υ is held at a constant value, and since r is a
2

physical constant of any given system,

Because torque is expressed in terms of force, the right-hand
2
side of Equation 2.12(8) must be multiplied by g (32.2 ft/sec
2
or 9.8 m/sec ) to obtain a dimensionally correct equation. m k
= 2.12(11)
2
Therefore, since r is a constant for any given system, the t ω
mass flow of fluid can be determined if an angular momentum
is introduced into the fluid stream and measurements are This relationship is used in designing a mass flowmeter as
made of the torque produced by this angular momentum and follows:
of the fluid’s angular velocity.
1. A synchronous motor is placed in the center of the
flowmeter assembly.
Impeller-Turbine Flowmeter 2. This motor is magnetically coupled to an impeller that
The impeller-turbine-type mass flowmeter uses two rotating is located within the flowing process stream.
elements in the fluid stream, an impeller and a turbine (see 3. The magnetic coupling between the motor and the
Figure 2.12c). Both elements contain channels through which impeller is provided by means of a hysteresis clutch
the fluid flows. The impeller is driven at a constant speed by that transmits a constant torque from the motor to the
a synchronous motor through a magnetic coupling and impeller.
imparts an angular velocity to the fluid as it flows through
the meter. The turbine located downstream of the impeller Thus, a measurement of the rotational speed of the impeller
removes all angular momentum from the fluid and thus is inversely proportional to the mass flow rate.
receives a torque proportional to the angular momentum. This
turbine is restrained by a spring that deflects through an angle Twin-Turbine Flowmeter
that is proportional to the torque exerted upon it by the fluid,
thus giving a measure of mass flow. Another angular-momentum-type device is the twin-turbine
mass flowmeter. New developments in this technology are also
discussed in Section 2.25, which covers turbine flowmeters.
In this instrument, two turbines are mounted on a com-
Signal mon shaft (see Figure 2.12d). They are connected with a
Turbine Generator calibrated torsion member. A reluctance-type pickup coil is
Impeller

Pickup 1 Pickup 2
Fluid
Path

Restraining
Spring

Housing

Turbine 1 Turbine 2
FIG. 2.12c
Impeller-turbine mass flowmeter. (Illustration reproduced by per- FIG. 2.12d
mission of the General Electric Co.) Twin-turbine mass flowmeter.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

240 Flow Measurement

mounted over each turbine, and a strong magnet is located B

in each turbine within the twin-turbine assembly.
Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle; T Flow
therefore, there is a tendency for the turbines to turn at
different angular velocities. However, because the motion of
the turbines is restricted by the coupling torsion member, R
Flexible
the entire assembly rotates in unison at some average veloc- Coupling
ity, and an angular phase shift is developed between the two
turbines. This angle is a direct function of the angular
momentum of the fluid. As previously shown, angular C
momentum can be measured by torque, and angular momen- w
tum is a function of mass flow. In the twin-turbine assembly,
the turbines are not restrained by a spring, but the torsion
A
member that holds them together is twisted. This torsion
member has a well established torsion-spring rate (ft-lbf/rad). FIG. 2.12f
Therefore, the angle developed between the two turbines Gyroscopic mass flowmeter.
is a direct function of the twist or torque exerted by the
system. The torque measured is that required to impart to the
This angle is measured by a unique method. As each fluid stream a Coriolis acceleration, given by the expression
turbine magnet passes its own pickup coil, the coil generates
Υ = ω ( R22 − R12 )
a pulse. The pulse from the upstream turbine is used to open m
2.12(12)
a so-called electronic gate, while the pulse from the down- t
stream turbine closes this gate. An oscillator is placed in the
where R2 and R1 = outer and inner radii (ft).
electronic circuit, and the oscillations are counted while the
Comprehensive analysis and laboratory testing of this
gate is opened. The number of oscillations is thus a function
type of flowmeter are described in Reference 1.
of the angle between the two turbines. Knowledge of the
angle gives the value of torque, which, in turn, is proportional
Gyroscopic
to mass flow rate.
Another angular momentum mass flowmeter (Figure 2.12f)
Coriolis operates on the principle of a gyroscope. It consists of a pipe
shaped in the form of a circle or a square. A motor introduces
Coriolis mass flowmeters are discussed in detail in Section 2.11 an oscillating vibration at a constant angular velocity ω about
and are mentioned here only for the purpose of completeness. the A axis. When the fluid passes through the loop, a precession-
The classic Coriolis-type mass flowmeter (see Figure 2.12e) type moment is produced about the B axis and is measured
consists of a centrifugal-pump impeller wheel and a vaned by the deflection of a sensing element. This deflection can
sensing wheel that acts as a turbine wheel to extract the be shown to be directly proportional to mass flow.
angular momentum imparted to the fluid by the impeller. The The gyroscopic mass flowmeter can handle slurries in the
sensing (or turbine) wheel is contained in the same housing medium pressure and temperature ranges, but its industrial
as the impeller and is attached to the latter by a strain gauge; use is very limited as a result of its high cost and inability
the combination is driven at a known constant speed. The to handle high flow rates. The gyroscopic and basic Coriolis
power applied to the impeller is merely that required to over- flowmeters described earlier were generally not successful in
come the frictional drag of the system. the mass-flow-measurement market. A newer combination of
the two principles has resulted in the highly successful Coriolis
mass flowmeter described in the previous section.

LINEAR MASS FLOWMETERS

The linear mass flowmeter is, in principle, a hydraulic equiv-

alent of the electrical Wheatstone bridge. Four matched orifices
make up the bridge, and an integral constant flow recirculating
pump establishes the internal reference flow. Sensing imbal-
ance generated by external flow through the meter, the hydrau-
FIG. 2.12e lic bridge produces an output of differential pressure that is
Classical Coriolis mass flowmeter. both linear and proportional to the true mass liquid flow.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 241

This flowmeter has a wide rangeability and is unaffected

by changes in process temperature, density, and viscosity. It TABLE 2.12g
Plant Steam Balances
is a fast-responding flowmeter that can detect very low flows
at very low pressure drops. This meter is widely used in the Volumetric Mass
Boiler Output Plant Consumption Plant Consumption
automotive industry and wherever engines and fuel systems 3
are checked, such as in the manufacturing of fuel injectors. 20,000 lb/h Weaving: 13,841 ft /h 4000 lb/h
3 3
(67,340 ft /h) Spinning: 14,286 ft /h 4000 lb/h
3
Finishing: 14,706 ft /h 4000 lb/h
3
Services: 30,534 ft /h 8000 lb/h
INDIRECT MASS FLOWMETERS Total: 20,000 lb/h
3 3
(67,340 ft /h) Total: 77,367 ft /h Total: 20,000 lb/h
As is shown in Figure 2.12a, mass flow can also be obtained
as the product of volumetric flow and density. In the case of The energy content of steam is a function of its enthalpy.
measuring the mass flow of steam, one can also measure its When steam is purchased for heating or to drive turbines, it
volumetric flow and multiply it by density, which is obtained is usually paid for on the basis of enthalpy. Therefore, by
indirectly from the measurements of steam pressure and tem- measuring the pressure, temperature, and volumetric flow of
perature. This technique is commonly used in the monitoring steam, one can calculate the mass flow or heat flow of steam.
of steam distribution and determining steam losses caused The heat content of the steam drops, and some of the
by leakage, poor insulation, and so on. steam is also lost, as it travels from the boiler to the various
users. This is the result of
Calculating the Mass Flow of Steam • Insufficient thermal insulation of pipes
• Leaking joints on valves, pipes and other equipment
Water at atmospheric pressure boils at 212°F. The boiling tem-
• Long line lengths
perature of water is affected by pressure and, as the pressure
drops, the boiling point decreases; as it rises, the boiling point
Example*
increases. This pressure-temperature relationship is as follows:
The steam distribution example given in Table 2.12g and
Pressure Boiling Point, °F (°C) Figure 2.12h is that of a textile factory. From Table 2.12g, one
14.696 psia 212 (100) can observe that, when measured by volumetric flowmeters
50 psia 281 (138) only (which disregard the effects of the drop in steam pressure
100 psia 328 (164)
as it travels through the distribution pipe lines), the total steam
consumption appeared to be 9% greater than the volumetric
200 psia 382 (194)
flow of the steam as it left the boiler. On the other hand, if
400 psia 445 (229) the measurements at the individual users are corrected for the
800 psia 518 (270) drops in the pressure and temperatures at the users (and if no
steam loss occurs due to leakage or condensation), this error
The boiling temperature of water at any given pressure is can be eliminated through mass flow calculation.
called the saturation temperature, and the steam produced at Such calculations have the additional advantage of being
these temperatures is referred to as saturated steam. If the able to provide the plant operator with information not only
steam temperature is increased over the saturation tempera- on mass flow but also on heat flow or total consumption of
ture, it is referred to as superheated steam, and the temperature both mass and heat. In addition, such monitoring packages
difference between the saturation and the actual temperature can keep records of pressure, temperature, specific volume,
is referred to as degrees of superheat. So, for example, if 100 and enthalpy variations.
psia steam is at 428°F, it has 100° of superheat.
CONCLUSION
Steam Density and Accounting
The most successful mass flowmeters have been described
If the steam temperature and pressure are known, the internal
in the previous section (Section 2.11), but the devices covered
energy, which is called enthalpy, is also known, as provided
in this section also have their applications. For example,
by the steam tables in the appendix of this handbook. From the integrated ultrasonic or magnetic flowmeter/radiation
the steam tables, it is seen that the density of steam is also densitometer package is the best solution for mass flow
a function of only its temperature and pressure. Therefore, measurement of large slurry streams, in size ranges of 12 in.
by measuring the temperature and pressure of steam, its den-
sity can be calculated, and if the volumetric flow of the steam
is known, its mass flow can be calculated as the product of * This is an example of an application of computer-type mass flowmeters,
the two. used with permission of Kessler-Ellis Products.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

242 Flow Measurement

Boiler producing
20000 lb per hour
at 160 psia and 480°F

density 0.297 lb/ft3

volume 67340 ft3 density 0.289 lb/ft3
volume 13841 ft3
Weaving area
consumes 4000 lb/hr
pressure 152 psia
temperature 460°F

density 0.28 lb/ft3

volume 14286 ft3
Spinning area
consumes 4000 lb/hr
pressure 144 psia
temperature 440°F

density 0.272 lb/ft3

volume 14706 ft3
Finishing area
consumes 4000 lb/hr
pressure 136 psia
temperature 420°F

density 0.262 lb/ft3

volume 30534 ft3
Services area
consumes 8000 lb/hr
pressure 128 psia
temperature 400°F

FIG. 2.12h
Plant steam balance example.

(300 mm) and above. Also, the flow computer approach sees Bibliography
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 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 243

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© 2003 by Béla Lipták