White Paper Key Variables Needed For PFDavg Calculation Feb 2018 Rev2.1
White Paper Key Variables Needed For PFDavg Calculation Feb 2018 Rev2.1
The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Iwan van Beurden, CFSE
Dr. William M. Goble, CFSE
exida
Sellersville, PA 18960, USA
[email protected]
Version 2.1, February 2018
Abstract
In performance based functional safety standards, safety instrumented function (SIF) designs
are verified using specified metrics. A key metric for SIF designs deployed in low demand
applications in the process industries is called average Probability of Failure on Demand
(PFDavg). As the result of numerous studies of many field failure and proof test reports, several
variables have been identified as key to a realistic PFDavg calculation. Most simplified
equations including the informative section in IEC 61508, Part 6 do not include several key
variables. It is shown that exclusion of these parameters can result in an optimistic PFDavg
metric calculation which may result in an unsafe design.
This paper identifies the key variables that need to be included in any PFDavg calculation and
provides, for the most common low demand architecture (1oo1), some simplified equations
showing the impact of these key variables. A specific example of a 1oo1 architecture is twice
analyzed – once with several key variables omitted and once with all key variables included. A
comparison of the results of the two calculations shows that with key variables omitted the
calculated PFDavg supports safety integrity level (SIL) 2 whereas with all key variables included
the calculated PFDavg barely supports SIL 1!
Introduction
IEC 61511, the functional safety standard for the process industries, is “performance” based.
Rather than having specific designs and a long list of specific rules that become obsolete, the
IEC 61511 standard allows any design to be implemented. The standard allows the design to
use old products or new technology. The standard allows innovation and good engineering
practices. However, any design must be verified with documented performance metrics which
must match risk reduction requirements in the form of SIL. In order to verify that a design
meets the needed risk reduction, the designer must check three performance criteria [1].
exida calls these “the three barriers.”
The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
The achieved SIL level of the SIF is the minimum of:
Barrier 1 ‐ SIL level based on Systematic Capability (SC) of each device used in a SIF.
SC is a measure of design quality that shows sufficient protection against
systematic design faults. SC is achieved either by choosing a certified
part with SC to the given SIL level or greater or by completing a prior use
justification to the given SIL level or greater. The lowest SC for any
device in the SIF determines the SIL level for the SIF with respect to SC.
Barrier 2 ‐ SIL level based on minimum architecture constraints (SILac) for each
element (subsystem) in a SIF. There are many different tables that can
be used to establish architecture constraints; one in IEC 61511, and two
alternatives are in IEC 61508 (Route 1H or Route 2H). The lowest SILac
for any SIF subsystem determines the SIL level for the SIF with respect to
SILac.
Barrier 3 ‐ SIL level based on a PFH (high demand), or a PFDavg (low demand) for
the entire SIF.
All three of these design barriers must achieve or exceed the target SIL level. The worst case
(lowest) SIL determines the SIL level for the SIF. Additionally, when RRF is specified the designer
must ensure that 1/PFDavg exceeds the required risk reduction factor (RRF).
Barrier Three: PFDavg Calculation
PFDavg calculation is an extremely important part of safety engineering in low demand
applications as it is probably the most difficult of the three barriers to meet if realistic
assumptions are made and if realistic failure rates are used (e.g., failure rates from
www.SILSafeData.com). Target levels for PFDavg are defined in IEC 61508 for each of 4 levels
of SIL. The highest safety is achieved in SIL 4 and the lowest in SIL 1. Table 1 shows that PFDavg
for a given SIF will correspond to an equivalent SIL level within an order of magnitude range.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
PFDavg
Safety Integrity Level
Low Demand Mode of Operation
4 ≥ 10‐5 to < 10‐4
3 ≥ 10‐4 to < 10‐3
2 ≥ 10‐3 to < 10‐2
1 ≥ 10‐2 to < 10‐1
Table 1: SIL Level related to PFDavg
How can realistic values of PFDavg be calculated and what variables need to be taken into
account when computing PFDavg?
PFDavg Key Variables
As a result of research into hundreds of sets of field failure data and proof test results, a
number of things have been observed which may significantly impact a PFDavg. exida has
compiled a list comprised of nine variables that must be considered in order to calculate a
realistic and safe PFDavg.
1. Failure rates of each device including failure modes and any diagnostic
coverage from automatic diagnostics, λDD, λDU (attributes of the
equipment chosen).
2. Mission Time, MT – the time period a set of equipment will be operated
before overhaul or replacement (assignable by end user practices).
3. Proof Test Intervals, TI (assignable by end user practices).
4. Proof Test Effectiveness, Cpt (an attribute of proof test method).
5. Mean Time to Restore, MTTR (an attribute of end user practices) which
includes DTI, Diagnostic Test Interval (an attribute of the device).
6. Proof Test Duration, PTD (an attribute of end user practices).
7. Probability of Initial Failure, PIF (an attribute of end user practices).
8. Site Safety Index, SSI (an attribute of end user practices).
9. Redundancy of devices including common cause failures (an attribute of
SIF design).
Many of these variables are not commonly recognized and therefore not included in PFDavg
calculations, yet these variables may impact the result by a SIL level or more.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Failure Rates, λDD, λDU
Failure rates, in particular the dangerous failure rates, come from a variety of sources [2, 3, 4].
Most manufacturers provide a third party FMEDA prediction that has been verified by fault
injection testing and field failure analysis [5, 6].
When automatic diagnostics are designed into a device or subsystem, FMEDA analysis can
distinguish between those failures detected and those undetected by the automatic
diagnostics. The total dangerous failure rate, is partitioned into two subcategories: ,
Dangerous Detected and , Dangerous Undetected.
This partitioning of λD into λDD and λDU is important because λDD and λDU contribute differently
to PFDavg. In the event that there are no automatic diagnostics, λDD equals 0 and λDU equals λD.
Mission Time, MT
Mission Time is a period of time during which a set of equipment operates. This is an original
reliability engineering term that is used to define the probability calculation period. Most end
users choose a MT of 5, 10, 15, or 20 years which corresponds to the end of life for the process
equipment or a period of time between each major shutdown and overhaul/replacement of all
equipment. Any SIF device that reaches the end of its useful life during the MT is assumed to
be replaced or completely overhauled and tested prior to or at the end of the device’s useful
life.
Assuming no automatic diagnostics and no proof testing during the MT, and given a dangerous
failure rate and value for MT, an approximation for probability of failure on demand as a
function of time, PFD(t), for a simplex (non‐redundant) system can be shown to be:
PFD(t) = λDU * MT.
Under these conditions, the PFDavg is:
PFDavg = λDU * MT/2. (1)
Proof Test Intervals, TI
First, the impact of ideal proof testing is explored. In most industrial applications where a
Safety Instrumented System (SIS) is present, it is possible to design the SIF which comprise the
SIS so that each SIF can be manually proof tested to see if it is working or not. The purpose of a
proof test is to detect failures attributable to λDU because failure attributable to λDD will be
identified by the automatic diagnostics if these are present. Again assume no automatic
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
diagnostics. If it is assumed that the proof test is 100% effective and requires no bypass time,
this is called a perfect proof test. Now this assumption is quite unrealistic but is useful in
showing the development of simplified equations to calculate PFDavg. At the end of a perfect
proof test, it is assumed that no SIF failures are present. This means that the probability of
failure at the conclusion of the proof test is ideally zero. PFD(t) with perfect proof testing looks
like a repeating saw tooth as shown in Figure 1.
PFD (t)
Perfect Proof Test Impact
Mission Time Interval
Figure 1: PFD(t) showing multiple identical cycles with a perfect proof test.
The book Safety Instrumented System Design – Techniques and Design Verification [7], Chapter
4 explains the derivation of this plot in great detail and provides the equation for PFDavg as:
∗ . (2)
The MT is no longer a variable in this situation because the PFDavg of each of the proof test
cycles is the same as the PFDavg of the first cycle as a result of perfect proof testing restoring
the SIF to “as good as new” at the conclusion of each proof test. This equation for PFDavg is, of
course, very idealistic and unrealistic, but it is an appropriate place to start the development of
more realistic models and equations.
Proof Test Effectiveness, CPT
What happens in a real proof test? It can clearly be shown via detailed analysis of devices and
examples that no real proof test is perfect [7, Chapter 12]. There are many examples of failures
in products that cannot be detected by proof testing. An obvious example is a proof test
performed by putting a blocking device on an actuator and checking to see if the actuator /
valve assembly attempts to move. This does show that a portion of the subsystem is working
but the test gives no indication of the health of many parts including the valve seat. Did the
valve actually seal? This test cannot tell and is clearly not perfect.
What happens to PFD(t) when one performs an imperfect proof test? At the end of the proof
test it is known that the probability of failure is reduced but it is not zero because not all
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
failures are detected. Probability of failure is reduced to some value above zero. The
probability of failure will increase after each proof test. This continues for the entire MT of the
SIF. Figure 2 shows PFD(t) for an imperfect proof test.
PFD (t)
CPT
Figure 2: PFD(t)with imperfect proof testing.
Figure 3 shows the PFDavg for the entire MT consisting of six proof test intervals. Comparing
the PFDavg of the first test interval with the overall PFDavg clearly shows a larger PFDavg for
the entire MT. This difference is due to proof test effectiveness.
PFD (t)
PFDavg
PFDavg First TI CPT
Mission Time Interval
Figure 3: PFD(t) with imperfect proof testing showing PFDavg over the MT.
Proof test effectiveness can be expressed in a simplified approximate equation. The proof test
effectiveness, , is a number between 0‐100% which indicates the portion of the λDU
detected by the manual proof test. The first term of the new equation approximating PFDavg
uses the ideal formula for PFDavg multiplied by CPT as those failures are detected by the proof
test. The second term of the new equation shows failures not detected by the proof test (1‐CPT)
averaged over the MT.
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ (3)
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Mean Time To Restore, MTTR
MTTR, as applied to a SIF, accounts for all the time that the process is in operation and is
unprotected by the SIF. This includes the time the SIF spends in dangerous failure before the
failure is detected and identified, and all the time required to then return the SIF to its correct
functionality so that it once again provides process protection. MTTR is usually divided into the
mean time to detect the failure (MDT) and the mean time to repair the failure (MRT). MTTR
may be different for detected and undetected failures and is usually designated with
appropriate subscripts. Specifically,
For SIF failures detected by automatic diagnostics which do not result in an automatic
shutdown of the process being protected by the SIF, the impacts of MTTRDD on PFDavg must be
accounted for. MDTDD is defined in IEC 61508 as DTI/2. DTI is a parameter which indicates the
worst case time for the automatic diagnostics in a device to complete one full diagnostic scan.
Occasionally a device has a significant DTI (e.g. 8 hours). When that happens the DTI must be
added to the MRTDD. However, most devices have a DTI specification of less than one hour and
some devices have high speed diagnostics which operate is less than one second. Therefore DTI
is usually negligible and neglected. Then the impact on PFDavg of MTTRDD is
∗
∗ (4)
For SIF failures detected during manual proof testing, MDTDU is approximately TI/2 and this has
already been accounted for in Equation 3. However, to derive Equation 3 it was assumed that
undetected failures were found and repaired with the process shutdown. When a SIF is
bypassed (process is operating) during a proof test, the PFDavg is also impacted by MRTDU and
the impact is given by
∗ (5)
When the impacts of Equations 4 and 5 are added to Equation 3 the result is
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ (6)
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Proof Test Duration, PTD
PTD was not included in Equation (6) because the terms in Equation 6 apply to contributions to
PFDavg caused of the presence of a dangerous failure. PTD does not impact PFDavg if the
process is shutdown while the proof test is conducted. However, PTD must be accounted for
when the SIF is on bypass during proof testing and the process continues to operate without
the benefit of SIF protection. The effects of PTD when the SIF is on bypass are addressed
separately in this section.
A SIF is likely to be put on bypass when the proof testing will (or might) cause a false trip of the
process unit. What happens to PFD(t) during that bypass time? When a SIF is put on bypass it
will not respond to a demand. The PFD(t) during the duration of the proof test period equals 1.
This will cause the PFD(t) function to look like Figure 4, where PFD(t) is 1 for the duration of the
proof test and then returns to the expected level.
1
Proof Test starts. Proof Test complete,
Safety function put bypass is removed.
into bypass.
PFD
Dangerous Failure
occurs
Mission Time
Figure 4: PFD(t)during a proof test bypass.
An additional term for the contribution to PFDavg of PTD can be easily developed if proof
testing is performed during plant operation. The time the SIF spends on bypass during the
proof test, PTD, occurs once every proof test interval, TI. If MT = k*TI, then there will be (k‐1)
proof tests during the SIF MT as a proof test will likely not be performed just before an
overhaul. Therefore, the PFDavg attributable to the PTD will be
PFDavg ≈ (k‐1) * PTD / MT = ((k‐1)/k) * PTD/TI
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
However, approximating (k‐1)/k by 1 is conservative. Therefore, the contribution to PFDavg
due to PTD is given more simply by:
PFDavg ≈ PTD/TI (7)
Equation (7) can now be added to Equation 6 to create an equation that accounts for all
variables so far considered:
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ .
(8)
Probability of Initial Failure, PIF
Due to the potential for human error or damage during commissioning or when complete
commissioning testing cannot be performed after installation, there is a probability that an
installed device will not work when the SIF initially is placed in operation. If this happens,
PFD(t) is 1 at least until the first proof test. Now, if the initial failure is not discovered during
commissioning testing, it may or may not be discovered during subsequent proof tests. In cases
where the failure is not detected during subsequent proof testing, the initially failed SIF
remains failed for the duration of its useful life!
The reader may feel that the probability of such an occurrence is negligibly small. However,
that may not be correct. An extensive study of detailed proof test data [8, 9] where the proof
test could detect the initial failure showed that there was clearly a PIF in some types of devices.
Three independent data sets of pressure relief valves predicted an initial failure probability of
approximately 1% – 1.6%! This accounted for the majority of failures observed in the
population of proof test data.
The contribution of PIF to the approximate PFDavg calculation for a 1oo1 architecture requires
only a small modification to Equation 8, and results in Equation 9, giving a conservative
approximation for PFDavg, including six important variables, as follows:
PFDavg ≈ PIF + (1 – PIF) [λDD * MRTDD + CPT * λDU * (TI/2 + MRTDU) + (1 ‐ CPT) * λDU * MT/2 +
PTD/TI] (9)
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Site Safety Index, SSI
In 1998, during a detailed study of field returns [10] at Moore Products, it was discovered that
the return rate for identical modules differed by a factor of 4 (4X) from one site to another.
Some failures were due to systematic problems where untrained people were damaging
equipment during the proof test process. However when those failures were removed from
the data, there was still roughly a 2X difference in failure rate for the same device from site to
site.
Since the 1998 study, several other field failure studies from a number of different sources,
primarily end users in the process industries, have indicated there is also a difference in failure
rates for the same product from site to site. Typically the ratio is between 1.2X and 3X
difference depending on product type.
Therefore it can be concluded that random failures can be divided into two categories. There
are random failures attributed to a product and random failures that are site specific. These
seem to be related to procedures, training, and other variables that some have called the
“safety culture.” exida defines this variable as the “Site Safety Index (SSI)” [11, 13, 14].
Several factors have been identified thus far which impact the SSI. These include the quality of:
1. Commissioning Test
2. Safety Validation Test
3. Proof Test Procedures
4. Proof Test Documentation
5. Failure Diagnostic and Repair Procedures
6. Device Useful Life Tracking and Replacement Process
7. SIS Modification Procedures
8. SIS Decommissioning Procedures
9. And others
SSI can be evaluated using a set of questions and a scoring system [12, 13]. The SSI model has
five levels as shown in Table 2.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Table 2: Five levels of Site Safety Index from exSILentia
Level Description
Perfect ‐ Repairs are always correctly completed. Testing is always performed correctly
and on schedule, equipment is always replaced before the end of useful life,
equipment is always selected according to the specified environmental limits and
SSI 4 process compatible materials, electrical power supplies are clean of transients and
isolated, pneumatic supplies and hydraulic fluids are always kept clean, etc. This level
is generally considered to be extremely difficult to achieve, but possible in some
organizations.
Excellent ‐Repairs are correctly completed. Testing is performed correctly and on
schedule, equipment is normally selected based on the specified environmental limits
and a good analysis of the process chemistry and compatible materials. Electrical
SSI 3
power supplies are normally clean of transients and isolated, pneumatic supplies and
hydraulic fluids are mostly kept clean, etc. Equipment is replaced before the end of
useful life, etc.
Good ‐Repairs are usually correctly completed. Testing is performed correctly and
SSI 2
mostly on schedule. Most equipment is replaced before the end of useful life, etc.
Medium ‐ Many repairs are correctly completed. Testing is performed and mostly on
SSI 1
schedule, some equipment is replaced before end of useful life, etc.
Weak ‐ Repairs are not always done. Testing is not performed; equipment is not
SSI 0
replaced until failure, etc.
PIF, failure rates, probability of successful repair, probability of successful proof test, and
probability of performing a proof test on schedule are all impacted by SSI because of the
stochastic nature of those probabilities.
Redundancy/Common Cause
Redundancy has been used for many decades as a technique to improve both safety and
availability of engineering systems. Appendix D in [7] shows various redundant architectures
and PFDavg modeling techniques for those architectures. The detailed equations are beyond
the scope of this paper. However, once redundancy is included, it is necessary to account for
common cause failures. This is usually accomplished by use of β factors as described in IEC
61508 and IEC 61511. Equation 9 in this paper does not contain a common cause variable as it
would not apply to a 1oo1 architecture.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
Key Variables Summary
All of the variables listed need to be considered when calculating PFDavg for a SIF. These are
contained in Table 3 along with indications of the source and applicability.
Table 3. Summary of Key Variables for PFDavg Calculations
Variable
Description Source Applicability
Number
1 Failure rates, λDD and λDU Manufacturer Always
2 Mission Time, MT End User Always
3 Proof Test Intervals, IT End User Always
4 Proof Test Effectiveness, CPT End User Always
For failures due to λDD, if
automatic diagnostics
do not trigger an
automatic process
5 Mean Time to Restore, MTTR End User shutdown
For failures due to λDU, if
proof testing is
performed with process
operating
Insignificant unless DTI
5A Diagnostic Test Interval Manufacturer is greater than one hour
which does happen.
If proof test performed
6 Proof Test Duration, PTD End User
with process operating
If equipment not 100%
7 Probability of Initial Failure, PIF End User
tested after installation
8 Site Safety Index, SSI End User Always
System
9 Redundancy / Common Cause HFT ≥1
Designer
The impact of not using realistic variables
To evaluate the impact on PFDavg of not using all important variables, consider the example of
a high level protection SIF. The proposed design has a SIL 2 target. The design uses a single SC
2 certified level transmitter, an SC 3 certified safety logic solver, and a single remote actuated
valve. The actuated valve consists of a solenoid valve, a scotch yoke actuator and a ball valve all
certified to SC 3. Using certified parts eliminates any need to perform prior use analysis for
safety integrity purposes.
SIF Analysis with Optimistic Key Variable Values and Assumptions
The exSILentia tool accounts for all critical variables. For the first example using exSILentia,
idealistic/optimistic variables and assumptions are used to show the impact of neglecting all
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
variables. The assumptions result in a model where only variables 1, 2, 3 and 5 listed in Table 3
are accounted for. MT is 5 years; the proof test interval is 1 year for the sensor and final
elements, and 5 years for the logic solver; MTTRDD is approximately MRTDD which is assumed to
be 8 hours. Variables 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 were omitted from the calculations as follows. A proof
test effectiveness of 100% is assumed which is the equivalent of omitting CPT as a variable. It is
also assumed that the proof test is performed with the process offline which sets MRTDU and
PTD to 0 in the calculations effectively omitting those variables. PIF is assumed to be 0 and SSI
is set equal to 4. Finally, there is no redundancy so no common cause β factors apply.
Figure 7: exSILentia Screen shot showing results of idealistic assumptions
Figure 7 illustrates the output from the analysis. From Figure 7, it is evident that the SIF
systematic capability meets SIL 2. Further it can be seen that the architecture constraints meet
SIL 2. Finally, in this example, the PFDavg was computed as 6.82x10‐3. This value meets SIL 2
with a Risk Reduction Factor (RRF) of 147. Therefore, the entire design meets SIL level 2
requirements for all three barriers (all indicated by red circles).
The pie chart on the left side of Figure 7 (indicated by an arrow) shows how much each SIF
subsystem contributed to the PFDavg. The figure shows that final elements were the main
contributor. The exSILentia tool also calculates the Mean Time to Fail Spuriously (MTTFS), which
is boxed in blue. This number indicates how often a false trip will occur, so large numbers are
the goal in order to avoid costly false trips.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
SIF Analysis with Realistic Key Variable Values and Assumptions
But what if more realistic variables and assumptions were entered for the same SIF? In this
more realistic scenario a mission time of 25 years is used. A proof test interval of 1 year for the
sensor and final element, as well as 5 years for the logic solver is used. Proof test coverage is
reduced to 90% for the sensor and 70% for final element. MRTDD is given a value of 48 hours
which is more realistic. The proof testing is assumed to be performed with the process
operating and the SIF on bypass. MRTDU is equal to 48 hours and a PDT of 2 hours is included.
PIF is still 0. A Site Safety Index of SSI 2 is used for the sensor and final elements, and SSI 3 for
the logic solver. This second calculation considers eight of the nine key variables. Redundancy
is not included as the architecture is 1oo1.
Figure 8: exSILentia screen shot with more realistic variables and assumptions considered
Figure 8 illustrates the output from the second analysis. The same design was re‐analyzed but
this time eight variables were included along with more realistic assumptions. What happened
to the PFDavg? For the set of idealistic values and assumptions the PFDavg was 6.82x10‐3. The
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
calculated PFDavg for this new analysis drops to a value of 5.76x10‐2! The RRF, which was
previously at a value of 147, now drops to 17! This barely meets the requirements for SIL level
1.
Why are these values so different? Sensitivity analysis indicates that CPT is a significant variable.
SSI is significant. The impact of PTD is not that significant in this case, but it sometimes can be.
Failure rates, redundancy, and proof test intervals are all well‐known variables covered in IEC
61508, Part 6 equations. Proof test effectiveness is now a required variable for PFDavg
calculations in IEC 61511. Other variables, including MT and especially Site Safety Index, are
largely overlooked. All of the variables need to be taken into account to ensure a safe design.
Notation
CPT proof test effectiveness also call proof test coverage
MDT mean time to detect
MT mission time
MTTFS mean time to fail spurious
MTTR mean time to restore
MRT mean time to repair
nX n times
PFDavg average probability of failure on demand
PFD(t) probability of failure on demand as a function of time
PIF probability of initial failure
PTD proof test duration
RRF risk reduction factor
SC systematic capability
SIF safety instrumented function(s)
SIL safety integrity level(s)
SILac SIL based on architectural constraints
SIS safety instrumented system(s); a SIS consists of one or more SIF
SSI Site Safety Index
TI proof test interval
1oo1 1‐out‐of‐1 architecture; non‐redundant architecture; single channel architecture
λ D constant failure rate for dangerous failures = λDD + λDU
λDD constant failure rate for dangerous detected failures
λDU constant failure rate for dangerous undetected failures
References
1. Three Steps in SIF Design Verification, White Paper, exida. Sellersville, PA
www.exida.com, June 2014.
2. SINTEF, OREDA Offshore and Onshore Reliability Data Handbook, Vol 1. ‐ Topside
Equipment and Vol. 2 ‐ Subsea Equipment, 6th Ed, OREDA Participants, 2015.
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The Key Variables Needed for PFDavg Calculation
3. Safety Equipment Reliability Handbook 4th Edition, exida. Sellersville, PA
www.exida.com, 2015.
4. Bukowski, J. V. and Stewart, L. L., Explaining the Differences in Mechanical Failure Rates:
exida FMEDA Predictions and OREDA Estimations, White Paper, exida. Sellersville, PA
www.exida.com, July 2015.
5. Goble, W. M., and Brombacher, A. C., "Using a Failure Modes, Effects and Diagnostic
Analysis (FMEDA) to Measure Diagnostic Coverage in Programmable Electronic
Systems," Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Vol. 66, No. 2, November 1999.
6. Grebe, J.C., and Goble, W. M., FMEDA – Accurate Product Failure Metrics, White Paper,
exida. Sellersville, PA www.exida.com, V1.2, October 2009.
7. van Beurden, I. and Goble, W. M., Safety Instrumented System Design – Techniques and
design Verification, ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC, 2018.
8. Bukowski, J. V., "Results of Statistical Analysis of Pressure Relief Valve Proof Test Data
Designed to Validate a Mechanical Parts Failure Database," Technical Report,
September, exida, Sellersville, PA, 2007.
9. Bukowski, J. V., and Goble, W. M., "Analysis of Pressure Relief Valve Proof Test Data,"
AIChE Journal Process Safety Progress, March 2009.
10. van Beurden, I.J.W.R.J., Reliability Analysis of Quadlog, Field failure research and study
of the reliability information flow, Moore Products Co., Spring House, PA, USA, February
1998.
11. Bukowski, J. V. and Goble, W. M., "A Proposed Framework for Incorporating the Effects
of End‐User Practices in the Computation of PFDavg," exida white paper, January 2014.
12. Bukowski, J. V., Gross, R., and van Beurden, I., "Product Failure Rates vs Total Failure
Rates at Specific Sites: Implications for Safety," Proceedings AIChE 11th Annual Global
Conference on Process Safety ‐ Process Plant Safety Symposium, Austin, TX, April 2015.
13. Bukowski, J. V. and Chastain‐Knight, D., Assessing Safety Culture via the Site Safety
IndexTM, Proceedings AIChE 12th Annual Global Congress on Process Safety ‐
ProcessPlant Safety Symposium, Houston, TX, April 2016.
14. Bukowski, J. V. and Stewart, L.L., Quantifying the Impacts of Human Factors on
Functional Safety, Proceedings AIChE 12th Annual Global Congress on Process Safety ‐
Process Plant Safety Symposium, Houston, TX, April 2016.
Revision History
Revision 0.1 Initial Draft September 17, 2015 Micah Stutzman, W. Goble
Revision 1 First Release October 1, 2015
Revision 1.1 Updated SSI terminology October 7, 2015 TES and WMG
Revision 1.2 Updated references, conditions September 2016 WMG
Revision 2.0 Addition of Notation Section, New derivation of PFDavg,
Changes to terminology to match terminology from IEC 61508,
Updated references April 2017 JVB
Revision 2.1 Added DTI, changed reference to new ISA book Feb 2018 WMG
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