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PTRT2323 Chapter 3-6

This document discusses gas well deliverability and wellbore performance. It covers analytical and empirical methods for modeling gas reservoir deliverability using theories based on pressure and pressure square approaches. Empirical models like Forchheimer and backpressure models are also discussed. The document also discusses wellbore outflow performance and pressure losses through the wellbore as fluids flow from the reservoir to the surface. Relationships to estimate pressure drop are based on the mechanical energy equation for fluid flow. Understanding wellbore flow performance and deliverability modeling is important for optimizing well and reservoir productivity.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
461 views52 pages

PTRT2323 Chapter 3-6

This document discusses gas well deliverability and wellbore performance. It covers analytical and empirical methods for modeling gas reservoir deliverability using theories based on pressure and pressure square approaches. Empirical models like Forchheimer and backpressure models are also discussed. The document also discusses wellbore outflow performance and pressure losses through the wellbore as fluids flow from the reservoir to the surface. Relationships to estimate pressure drop are based on the mechanical energy equation for fluid flow. Understanding wellbore flow performance and deliverability modeling is important for optimizing well and reservoir productivity.

Uploaded by

Sig Baha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PTRT 2323- Natural Gas Production

Chapter 3:
Gas Reservoir Deliverability
(Well Inflow Performance)
Gas production rate
Gas Well Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR)
Analytical method (based on theory)
Empirical Method (based on experience/experiment)
Production System
Understanding the principles of fluid flow through the production system is
important in estimating the performance of wells and optimizing well and reservoir
productivity. In the most general sense, the production system is the system that
transports reservoir fluids from the subsurface reservoir to the surface, processes
and treats the fluids, and prepares the fluids for storage and transfer to a purchaser.
The basic elements of the production system include the reservoir; wellbore;
tubular goods and associated equipment; surface wellhead, flowlines, and
processing equipment; and artificial lift equipment.
 The reservoir is the source of fluids for the production system. It furnishes the
primary energy for the production system.
 The wellbore serves as the conduit for access to the reservoir from the surface.
The cased wellbore houses the tubing and associated subsurface production
equipment, such as packers.
 The tubing serves as the primary conduit for fluid flow from the reservoir to the
surface; fluids may also be transported through the tubing-casing annulus.
 The wellhead, flowlines, and processing equipment represent the surface
mechanical equipment required to control and process reservoir fluids at the
surface and prepare them for transfer to a purchaser. Surface equipment includes
the wellhead equipment and associated valving, chokes, manifolds, flowlines,
separators, treatment equipment, metering devices, and storage vessels.
Deliverability Testing
Reducing the size of the well bore or increasing the pressure of the system into
which the well must produce, increases the resistance to flow and therefore
reduces the Deliverability of the well. The Deliverability Test allows prediction of
flow rates for different line and reservoir pressures.
Deliverability testing goes under several names such as "Back-Pressure Testing",
"4-Point Testing" , "Open Flow Potential Testing", and "AOF Testing". The terms
"Open Flow Potential" and "Absolute Open Flow" refer to the theoretical
maximum flow rate from the reservoir. A "Deliverability Test" usually requires the
well to be produced at several rates.
Gas Deliverability - Analytical
At pressures < 2000 psia

Pressure square approach

At pressures > 3000 psia


Compressed gases behave like liquids

Pressure approach
Example Problem 3.1

1 acre = 43560 ft2


Solution
Theoretical Deliverability.xls
Gas Deliverability - Empirical

Forchheimer model

Backpressure model
Rawlins and Schellhardt

A, B, C, and n are empirical constants that can


be determined based
on test points. The value of n is usually
between 0.5 and 1.
Forchheimer model Backpressure model

Pressure square approach


Example Problem 3.2

Empirical Deliverability.xls
Inflow Performance Relationship(IPR) Curve
Theoretical

5000
4500
Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure

p - Approach
4000
p2 - Approach
3500
3000
(psia)

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Gas Production Rate (Mscf/d)
Empirical

5000
Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure 4500 Forchheimer
4000 Backpressure
3500
(psia)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
pwf (psia) q (Mscf/d)
Forchheimer Backpressure Gas Production Rate (Mscf/d)
15 1704 1709
239 1701 1706
464 1693 1698
688 1679 1683
913 1660 1663
1137 1634 1637
1362 1603 1605
Absolute Open Flow
Early estimates of gas well performance were conducted by opening the
well to the atmosphere and then measuring the flow rate. Such “open
flow” practices were wasteful of gas, sometimes dangerous to
personnel and equipment, and possibly damaging to the reservoir. They
also provided limited information to estimate productive capacity under
varying flow conditions. The idea, however, did leave the industry with
the concept of absolute open flow (AOF). AOF is a common indicator of
well productivity and refers to the maximum rate at which a well could
flow against a theoretical atmospheric backpressure at the reservoir.
PTRT 2323- Natural Gas Production

Chapter 4:
Wellbore Performance
(Well Outflow Performance)
Single-Phase Liquid Flow
Multiphase Flow
Intro
The pressure drop experienced in lifting reservoir fluids to the surface is one of the
main factors affecting well deliverability. As much as 80% of the total pressure loss in
a flowing well may occur in lifting the reservoir fluid to the surface. Wellbore flow
performance relates to estimating the pressure-rate relationship in the wellbore as
the reservoir fluids move to the surface through the tubulars.
The flow path through the wellbore may include flow through perforations, a
screen and liner, and packers before entering the tubing for flow to the surface. The
tubing may contain completion equipment that acts as flow restrictions, such as
•Profile nipples
•Sliding sleeves
•Subsurface flow-control devices
In addition, the tubing string may be composed of multiple tubing diameters or
allow for tubing/annulus flow to the surface. At the surface, the fluid must pass
through wellhead valves, surface chokes, and through the flowline consisting of
surface piping, valves, and fittings to the surface-processing equipment. The
pressure drop experienced as the fluid moves from the reservoir sandface to the
surface is a function of the mechanical configuration of the wellbore, the properties
of the fluids, and the producing rate.
Well Outflow Performance
• The achievable oil production rate from a well is determined by wellhead
pressure and the flow performance of production string, that is, tubing, casing.
• The flow performance of production string depends on geometries of the
production string and properties of fluids being produced. The fluids in oil wells
include oil, water, gas, and sand.
• Wellbore performance analysis involves establishing a relationship between
tubular size, wellhead and bottom-hole pressure, fluid properties, and fluid
production rate.
• Understanding wellbore flow performance is vitally important to production
engineers for designing oil well equipment and optimizing well production
conditions.
• Petroleum can be produced through tubing, casing, or both in a well depending
on which flow path has better performance. Producing through tubing is a
better option in most cases. The traditional term outflow performance
relationship (OPR) or tubing performance relationship (TPR) is used (other
terms such as vertical lift performance (VLP) or vertical flow performance (VFP)
have been used). However, the mathematical models are also valid for casing
flow and casing-tubing annular flow as long as hydraulic diameter is used.
Pressure loss through the wellbore
The flow path through the wellbore may include flow through perforations, a
screen and liner, and packers before entering the tubing for flow to the
surface. The tubing may contain completion equipment that acts as flow
restrictions. In addition, the tubing string may be composed of multiple
tubing diameters or allow for tubing/annulus flow to the surface. At the
surface, the fluid must pass through wellhead valves, surface chokes, and
through the flowline consisting of surface piping, valves, and fittings to the
surface-processing equipment. The pressure drop experienced as the fluid
moves from the reservoir sandface to the surface is a function of the
mechanical configuration of the wellbore, the properties of the fluids, and the
producing rate.
Relationships to estimate this pressure drop in the wellbore are based on the
mechanical energy equation for flow between two points in a system as

For most practical applications, there is no work done by or on the fluid


and the kinetic energy correction factor is assumed to be one.
We are interested in the determination of TPR and pressure traverse along the
well string. Tubing Performance Relationship (TPR) is defined as a relation
between tubing size, fluid properties, fluid flow rate, wellhead pressure, and
bottom hole pressure. In most engineering analyses, it is desired to know the
bottom hole pressure at a given wellhead pressure and flow rate in a gas well.
There are two theoretical approaches:
1. Single-Phase Flow: assumes only a single phase is flowing (gas only or oil only)
2. Mist Flow: assumes multiple phases (up to four: water, oil, gas, sand) are
flowing through the tube due to high velocity. When natural gas flows to the
surface in a producing gas well, the gas carries liquids to the surface if the
velocity of the gas is high enough. A high gas velocity results in a mist flow
pattern in which liquids are finely dispersed in the gas. Consequently, a low
volume of liquid is present in the tubing or production conduit, resulting in a
pressure drop caused by gravity acting on the flowing fluids.

Methods to estimate the pressure drop in tubulars for single-phase liquid,


single-phase vapor, and multiphase flow are based on this fundamental
relationship:
Single-Phase Gas Flow
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy) governs gas
flow in tubing.

The effect of kinetic energy change is negligible due to the fact that
the variation in tubing diameter is insignificant in most gas wells. With
no shaft work device installed along the tubing string, the first law of
thermodynamics yields the following mechanical balance equation:
Average Temperature and Compressibility Factor Method

In US unit notations (q in Mscf/d)

Moody factor (fully turbulent flow)


Guo (fully turbulent flow)
Problem

AverageTZ.xls
Cullender and Smith Method

The integrant denoted with symbol I, is

Example Problem 4.2


Solve the problem in Example Problem 4.1 with the Cullender and Smith
Method. Cullender-Smith.xls
Multiple-Phase Gas Flow
Gas well deliqufication, also referred to as "gas well dewatering", is the
general term for technologies used to remove water or condensates
build-up from producing gas wells. When natural gas flows to the
surface in a producing gas well, the gas carries liquids to the surface if
the velocity of the gas is high enough. A high gas velocity results in a
mist flow pattern in which liquids are finely dispersed in the gas.
Consequently, a low volume of liquid is present in the tubing or
production conduit, resulting in a pressure drop caused by gravity
acting on the flowing fluids. As the gas velocity in the production tubing
drops with time, the velocity of the liquids carried by the gas declines
even faster. Flow patterns of liquids on the walls of the conduit cause
liquid to accumulate in the bottom of the well, which can either slow or
stop gas production altogether.
The TPR equations presented in the previous section are not valid for
multiphase gas wells. To analyze TPR of multiphase gas wells, a gas-oil-
water-solid four-phase flow model is presented in this section. It is
warned that the four-phase flow model is valid only for gas wells
producing multiphase fluid with gas being the main component.
Specifically, the model can be used with good accuracy when mist flow
exists in the wellbore. When the flow velocity drops to below a critical
velocity at which the liquid droplets cannot be carried up to surface by
gas, annular flow or even slug flow may develop in the well. TPR
equations for annular flow and slug flow are available from literature of
oil well performance.
The gas-oil-water-solid four-phase flow model was first presented by Gu o
(2001) for coal-bed methane production wells. Guo formulated the
governing equation assuming homogeneous mixture of the four phases,
which may exist in misting flow. According to Guo, Sun, and Ghalambor
(2004) the following equation can be used for calculating pressure P (in
lbf/ft2) at depth L:
Example Problem 4.3
Solve the problem in Example Problem 4.1 for bottom hole pressure
with the following additional data:
• Condensate Gas Ratio (CGR): 0.02 bbl/Mscf
• Water Cut (WC): 50%
• Oil gravity: 60 0API
• Water-specific gravity: 1.03
• Sand production: 0.1 ft3/d
• Sand-specific gravity: 2.65
Solution
This example problem is solved with the spreadsheet program
MistFlow.xls. Table 4-3 shows the appearance of the spreadsheet
for the data input and results sections. It indicates a flowing
bottom hole pressure of 1,103 psia.
Class Assignment
4-1 Suppose 3 MMscf/d of 0.75 specific gravity gas are produced through a 3 1/2-
in (di = 3 in) tubing string set to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of 8,000 ft.
At tubing head, the pressure is 1,000 psia and the temperature is 120 0F; the
bottom hole temperature is 180 0F. The relative roughness of the tubing is about
0.0006. Calculate the flowing bottom hole pressure with three methods:
a) the average temperature and compressibility factor method;
b) the Cullender and Smith method; and
c) the fourphase flow method. Make comments on your results.
• Condensate Gas Ratio (CGR): 0.02 bbl/Mscf
• Water Cut (WC): 40%
• Oil gravity: 45 API
• Water-specific gravity: 1.03
• Sand production: 0.1 ft3/d
• Sand-specific gravity: 2.35

4-2 Solve Problem 4-1 for gas production through a K-55, 17 lb/ft, 5 1/2-in casing.
4-3 Suppose 2 MMscf/d of 0.65 specific gravity gas are produced through a 2
7/8-in (2.259-in ID) tubing string set to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of
5,000 ft. Tubing head pressure is 300 psia and the temperature is 100 0F; the
bottom hole temperature is 150 0F. The relative roughness of the tubing is about
0.0006. Calculate the flowing bottom pressure with the average temperature and
compressibility factor method.
PTRT 2323- Natural Gas Production

Chapter 5:
Choke Performance

Subsonic and Sonic Flow


Temperature at Choke
Intro
Multiphase flow occurs in almost all producing oil and gas/condensate
wells. Every flowing well has some devices to control the flow rate for
maintaining sufficient back pressure to prevent formation damage
(sand production), to protect surface equipments, to prevent water/gas
coning, to stabilize the flow rate and to produce the reservoir at the
most efficient possible rate.
• Chokes are one of the most important flow controllers in oil and gas
producing wells.
• Accurate modeling of choke performance and selection of optimum
choke size is vitally important for a petroleum engineer in
production from reservoirs due to high sensitivity of oil and gas
production to choke size.
• Flow through a surface choke can be described as either critical or
sub-critical. Critical flow occurs when the velocity through the choke
is greater than the sonic velocity of the fluid.
• Chokes are classified as nozzle-type and orifice-type with fixed (or
adjustable) diameters.
Sonic and Subsonic Flow
• Pressure drop across well chokes is usually very significant. There is no
universal equation for predicting pressure drop across the chokes for all types
of production fluids.
• Subsonic or sonic flow is based on the gas fraction in the fluid and flow
regimes;
• When the fluid flow velocity in a choke reaches the traveling velocity of sound
in the fluid under the in situ condition, the flow is called sonic flow;
• Whether or not a sonic flow exists at a choke depends on a downstream to
upstream pressure ratio. If this pressure ratio is less than a critical pressure
ratio, sonic (critical) flow exists. If this pressure ratio is greater or equal to the
critical pressure ratio, subsonic (subcritical) flow exists.

The value of the k is 1.4 for air and 1.28 for


natural gas. Thus, the critical pressure ratio
is 0.528 for air and 0.549 for natural gas.

k = Cp/Cv
Subsonic Flow
Sonic Flow

Ideal gas

Temperature at Choke
(a)

(b)

(c)
DryGasUpChoke.xls
Assignment 6
PTRT 2323- Natural Gas Production

Chapter 6:
Well Deliverability
Nodal Analysis with bottom hole
Nodal Analysis with well head
Nodal Analysis
• Fluid properties change with the location-dependent pressure and
temperature in the gas production system. To simulate the fluid flow in the
system, it is necessary to "break“ the system into discrete nodes that separate
system elements. Fluid properties at the elements are evaluated locally.
• The system analysis for determination of fluid production rate and pressure at
a specified node is called Nodal analysis.
• Nodal analysis is performed on the principle of pressure continuity, that is,
there is only one unique pressure value at a given node no matter whether the
pressure is evaluated from the performance of upstream equipment or
downstream equipment.
• The performance curve (pressure rate relation) of upstream equipment is
called inflow performance curve; the performance curve of downstream
equipment is called outflow performance curve. The intersection of the two
performance curves defines the operating point, i.e., operating flow rate and
pressure, at the specified node.
• For the convenience of using pressure data measured normally at either
bottom hole or wellhead, Nodal analysis is usually conducted using the bottom
hole or wellhead as the solution node.
Bottom hole Node
When the bottom hole is used as a solution node in Nodal analysis,
• inflow performance is the well IPR
• outflow performance is the TPR
the tubing shoe is set to the top of the pay zone.

IPR is constructed from

TPR is constructed from

then the operating flow rate qsc and pressure pwf at the bottom hole node can be
determined graphically by plotting the equations and finding the intersection point.
The operating point can also be solved numerically by combining the
equations. The intersection can be calculated from

which can be solved with a numerical technique such as the Newton-Raphson


iteration for gas flow rate qsc.
Example Problem 6.1
Suppose that a vertical well produces 0.71 specific gravity gas through a 2 7/8-in tubing
set to the top of a gas reservoir at a depth of 10,000 ft. At tubing head, the pressure is
800 psia and the temperature is 150 F, the bottom hole temperature is 200 F. The
relative roughness of tubing is about 0.0006. Calculate the expected gas production rate
of the well using the following data for IPR:
Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia
IPR model parameter C: 0.01 Mscf/d-psi2n
IPR model parameter n: 0.8
Solution
This example problem is solved with the spreadsheet program BottomHoleNodal.xls. The
spreadsheet for the data input and result sections indicates that the expected gas flow
rate is 1,478 Mscf/d at a bottom hole pressure of 1,050 psia. The inflow and outflow
performance curves plotted in Figure 6-1 confirm this operating point.
Wellhead Node
When the wellhead is used as a solution node in Nodal analysis,
• inflow performance curve is the Wellhead Performance Relationship (WPR)
that is obtained by transforming the IPR to wellhead through TPR.
• outflow performance curve is the wellhead Choke Performance
Relationship(CPR)
WPR is constructed from

CPR is constructed from

Nodal analysis with wellhead being a solution node is carried out by plotting the WPR
and CPR curves and finding the solution at the intersection point of the two curves.
The operating point can also be solved numerically by combining the equations.
The intersection can be calculated from

which can be solved with a numerical technique for gas flow rate qsc.
Example Problem 6.2
Use the following given data to estimate gas production rate of the well:
Gas-specific gravity: 0.71
Tubing inside diameter: 2.259 in
Tubing wall relative roughness: 0.0006
Measured depth at tubing shoe: 10,000 ft
Inclination angle: 0°
Wellhead choke size: 16 1/64 in
Flowline diameter: 2 in
Gas-specific heat ratio: 1.3
Gas viscosity at wellhead: 0.01 cp
Wellhead temperature: 150 oF
Bottom hole temperature: 200 0F
Reservoir pressure: 2,000 psia
C-constant in backpressure IPR model: 0.01 Mscf/dpsi2n
n-exponent in backpressure IPR model: 0.8
Solution:
This example problem is solved with the spreadsheet program WellheadNodal.xls. The
spreadsheet for the data input and result sections indicates that the expected gas flow
rate is 1,478 Mscf/d at a bottom hole pressure of 1,050 psia. The inflow and outflow
performance curves plotted in to confirm this operating point.
Problem
I have a flowing vertical gas well. Is it worth my while to change the tubing from
2 3/8" to 2 7/8"? How much increased production will I get?
Data
Unit system: Field units (ft, lb, degrees F, etc)
Gas gravity: 0.65 (0% N2, CO2, H2S)
Tubing A : 2.375 in OD (1.995 in ID, 4.7lb/ft)
Tubing B : 2.875 in OD (2.441 in ID, 6.5lb/ft)
Tubing depth: 6350 ft
Flow path: Tubing
Casing: 5.250 in OD, 4.886 in ID
PBTD: 6500ft
Perforations: Top 3445ft, bottom 3543 ft (MPP = 3494ft)
Temperature: 77F (wellhead), 158F (sandface)
Reservoir pressure: 5000 psi
Reservoir parameters: C = 4.0e-7, n = 1)
Flowing Wellhead Pressure: 500 psi
Well Deliverability
 Both the IPR and the TPR or VFP (vertical flow performance) relate the
wellbore flowing pressure to the surface production rate.
 The IPR represents what the reservoir can deliver to the bottomhole and the
TPR (or VFP) represents what the well can deliver to the surface.
 Combined, the intersection of the IPR with the VFP yields the well
deliverability, an expression of what a well will actually produce for a given
operating condition. The role of a petroleum production engineer is to
maximize the well deliverability in a cost-effective manner. Understanding
and measuring the variables that control these relationships (well diagnosis)
becomes imperative.

Combining IPR with TPR identifies the


operating point.
Improving deliverability

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