Belarus

Belarus officially the Republic of Belarus formerly known by

its Russian name Byelorussia or Belorussiais a landlocked country in Eastern
Europe[7] bordered by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west,
and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital and most populous city is Minsk. Over
40% of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested. Its major economic sectors
are service industries and manufacturing.[8] Until the 20th century, different states at various
times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including the Principality of Polotsk (11th
to 14th centuries), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,
and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the 1917 Russian Revolution, Belarus declared
independence as the Belarusian People's Republic, which was conquered by Soviet Russia.
The Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet
Union in 1922 and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Byelorussian SSR).
Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland after the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. Much of
the borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939, when some lands of the Second Polish
Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland, and were finalized after World
War II.[9][10][11] During WWII, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a third of its
population and more than half of its economic resources.[12] The republic was redeveloped in the
post-war years. In 1945 the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations,
along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
The parliament of the republic proclaimed the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and
during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on 25
August 1991.[14] Alexander Lukashenko has served as the country's first president since 1994.
Belarus has been labeled "Europe's last dictatorship" by some Western journalists,[15][16] on
account of Lukashenko's self-described authoritarian style of government. Lukashenko
continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of
the economy. Elections under Lukashenko's rule have been widely criticized as unfair; and
according to many countries and organizations, political opposition has been violently
suppressed. Belarus is also the last country in Europe using the death
penalty.[20][21][22] Belarus's Democracy Index rating is the lowest in Europe, the country is
labelled as "not free" by Freedom House, as "repressed" in the Index of Economic Freedom,
and is rated as by far the worst country for press freedom in Europe in the 2013–14 Press
Freedom Indexpublished by Reporters Without Borders, which ranks Belarus 157th out of 180
nations. In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming
the Union State. Over 70% of Belarus's population of 9.49 million resides in urban areas.
More than 80% of the population is ethnic Belarusian, with sizable minorities
of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two
official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The Constitution of Belarus does not declare any
official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
The second-most widespread religion, Roman Catholicism, has a much smaller following;
nevertheless, Belarus celebrates both Orthodox and Catholic versions of Christmas and
Easter as national holidays.[24] Belarus is a member of the United Nations since its founding,
the Commonwealth of Independent States, CSTO, EEU, and the Non-Aligned Movement.
Belarus has shown no aspirations for joining the European Union but nevertheless maintains
a bilateral relationship with the organisation, and likewise participates in two EU projects:
the Eastern Partnership and the Baku Initiative.

Etymology
The name Belarus is closely related with the term Belaya Rus', i.e., White Rus'. There are several
claims to the origin of the name White Rus'.[25] An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name
used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been
populated mostly by Slavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which
was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts.[26]
An alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic
population.[25][27] A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by
the Tatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk and Mogilev) had been referred to as "White Rus'".[25]
The name Rus is often conflated with its Latin forms Russia and Ruthenia, thus Belarus is often
referred to as White Russia or White Ruthenia. The name first appeared
in Germanand Latin medieval literature; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the
imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at "Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto" in
1381.[28] In some languages, including German, Afrikaans and Dutch, the country is generally called
"White Russia" to this day (Weißrussland and Wit-Rusland respectively).[29][30]
The Latin term "Alba Russia" was used again by Pope Pius VI in 1783 to recognize the Society of
Jesus there, exclaiming "Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo,
approbo."[31] The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by
Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian Royal
Court.[32] During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used "White Rus" to describe the lands added
from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[33]

Stamp with the Cross of St. Euphrosyne from 1992

The term Belorussia (Russian: Белору́ссия, the latter part similar but spelled and stressed
differently from Росси́я, Russia) first rose in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian Tsar
was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as Russia or the Russian Empire was formed by
three parts of Russia—the Great, Little, and White.[34] This asserted that the territories are all Russian
and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the
Russian people.[35]
After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term "White Russia" caused some confusion, as it was
also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks.[36] During the period of the
Byelorussian SSR, the term Byelorussia was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In
western Belarus under Polish control, Byelorussia became commonly used in the regions
of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period. The term Byelorussia (its names in other
languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991,
when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR decreed by law that the new independent
republic should be called Republic of Belarus (Республика Беларусь spelled in Russian), and that
its abridged form should be "Belarus". The law decreed that all the forms of the new term should be
transliterated into other languages from their Belarusian language forms. The use of Byelorussian
SSR and any abbreviations thereof were allowed from 1991 to 1993.[38] Conservative forces in the
newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991
draft of the Constitution of Belarus.
Accordingly, the name Byelorussia was replaced by Belarus in English.[40] Likewise, the
adjective Belorussian or Byelorussian was replaced by Belarusian in English. Belarusian is closer to
the original Belarusian term of bielaruski.[40] Belarusian intelligentsia in the Stalin era attempted to
change the name from Byelorussia to a form of Krivia because of the supposed connection with
Russia.[41] Some nationalists object to the name for the same reason. Several local newspapers kept
the old name of the country in Russian in their names, for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v
Byelorussii, which is the localized publication of a popular Russian newspaper. Also, those who wish
for Belarus to be reunited with Russia continue to use Belorussia.
History
Early history
From 5000 to 2000 BC, Bandkeramik cultures predominated. In addition, remains from the Dnieper-
Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine.[45] Cimmerians and other pastoralists
roamed through the area by 1,000 BC, and by 500 AD, Slavs had taken up residence, which was
circumscribed by the Scythians who roamed its outskirts. Invaders from Asia, among whom were
the Huns and Avars, swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic
presence.[46]

Rus' principalities before the Mongol and Lithuanian invasions

The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Baltic tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th
century, the area was taken over by Slavic tribes. The takeover was partially due to the lack of
military coordination of the Balts but the gradual assimilation of the Balts into Slavic culture was
peaceful in nature.[47]
In the 9th century the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus', a vast East Slavic
state ruled by the Rurikid dynasty. Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise, the state
split into independent principalities.[48] Many early Rus' principalities were virtually razed or severely
affected by a major Mongol invasion in the 13th century, but the lands of modern Belarus avoided
the brunt of the invasion and were eventually joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[49]

A map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th century. Belarus was fully within its borders.

There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy
of Polotsk and Lithuania for decades. For example, the Chronicle of Novgorod informs about
"Izyaslav had been set to be Knyaz in Luki and covered Novgorod from the Lithuanians" in 1198
when Luki is situated on the east from Polotsk.
Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political and ethno-cultural
unification of Belarusian lands.[51] Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine of them were settled by
a population that would eventually become Belarusian people.[52] During this time, the Duchy was
involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic
Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the
northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe.[53]
The Muscovites, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to
incorporate the lands of Kievan Rus', specifically the territories of modern Belarus, Russia
and Ukraine.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in
a personal union through a marriage of their rulers.[55] This union set in motion the developments that
eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569 by
the Union of Lublin.

Modern Belarusian lands on a Tobias Lotter map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 1780. Area occupied after
the First Partition of Poland marked in green.

The Lithuanian nobles were forced to go for rapprochement because of the threat coming from Muscovy.
To strengthen the independence in the format of the union, three editions of the Statutes of
Lithuania were issued in the 16th century. The third Article of the Statute establishes that all lands of
Grand Duchy of Lithuania will be eternally in Grand Duchy of Lithuania and never enter as a part of
other states. It allowed to own the land within Grand Duchy of Lithuania only to own families. Anyone
from outside Duchy would be honored with property only own it after swearing to Grand Duke of
Lithuania. These articles were aimed to defend the rights of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania nobility
against Polish, Prussian and other aristocracy of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
In the years following the union, the process of gradual Polonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians
gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became
dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language—with the Ruthenian language
being banned from administrative use.[56] However, the Ruthenian peasants, continued to speak their
own language and remained faithful to the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church. Statutes were initially only
issued in Ruthenian language and later also in Polish. Around 1840 the Statutes were banned by the
Russian tsar following the November Uprising. Modern Ukrainian lands used it until 1860s.
Russian Empire
The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the Third Partition of Poland by Imperial
Russia, Prussia, and Austria.[57] The Belarusian territories acquired by the Russian Empire under the
reign of Catherine II[58] were included into the Belarusian Governorate(Russian: Белорусское генерал-
губернаторство) in 1796 and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I.[59]
Under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed. Policies
of Polonization[60] changed by Russification,[61] which included the return to Orthodox Christianity of
Belorusian Uniates. Belarusian language was banned in schools while in neighboring Samogitia primary
school education with Samogitian literacy was allowed.[62]
In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I prohibited use of the Belarusian language in public
schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications and tried to pressure those who had converted to
Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure
exploded in a revolt, led by Konstanty Kalinowski. After the failed revolt, the Russian government
reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted
by the Russian government until 1905.[63]
During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under
German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic.[64][65] Immediately
afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and
Soviet Russia.[66] The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a government in exile ever
since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile.

Human Rights
Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style".[103] Western countries have
described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western
powers of trying to oust Lukashenko.[121] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership
since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional
referendum and parliament by-elections.[122]
The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its persecution of non-
governmental organisations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition
politicians.[19][18] In a testimony to the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,
former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus as one of the world's six
"outposts of tyranny".[123] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from
reality".[124] The Viasna Human Rights Centre lists 11 political prisoners[125]currently detained in Belarus.
Among them is the human rights activist Ales Bialiatski, Vice President of International Federation for
Human Rights and head of Viasna.
Lukashenko announced a new law in 2014 that will prohibit kolkhoz workers (around 9% of total work
force) from leaving their jobs at will—a change of job and living location will require permission from
governors. The law was compared with serfdom by Lukashenko himself.[127][128] Similar regulations were
introduced for the forestry industry in 2012.
Industry
In 2014 the share of manufacturing in GDP was 37%, more than two thirds of this amount falls on
manufacturing industries. The number of people employed in industry is 32.7% of the working
population. The growth rate is much lower than for the economy as a whole – about 1.9% in 2014.
At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Belarus was one of the world's most
industrially developed states by percentage of GDP as well as the richest CIS member-state. In
2015, 39.3% of Belarusians were employed by state-controlled companies, 57.2% were employed
by private companies (in which the government has a 21.1% stake) and 3.5% were employed by
foreign companies.[162] The country relies on Russia for various imports, including
petroleum.[163][164] Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts,
including meat.[165] In 1994, Belarus's main exports included heavy machinery (especially tractors),
agricultural products, and energy products.[166] Economically, Belarus involved itself in the
CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia.
In the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged due to decreases in imports, investment, and
demand for Belarusian products from its trading partners.[167] GDP only began to rise in
1996;[168] the country was the fastest-recovering former Soviet republic in the terms of its
economy.[169] In 2006, GDP amounted to US$83.1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars
(estimate), or about $8,100 per capital. In 2005, GDP increased by 9.9%; the inflation rate averaged
9.5%.Since the disintegration of the Soviet Union, under Lukashenko's leadership, Belarus has
maintained government control over key industries and eschewed the large-scale privatizations
seen in other former Soviet republics.
In 2006, Belarus's largest trading partner was Russia, accounting for nearly half of total trade, with
the European Union the next largest trading partner, with nearly a third of foreign trad As of 2015,
38% of Belarusian exported goods go to Russia and 56% of imported goods come from Russia. A
new currency, the new Belarusian ruble (ISO 4217 code: BYN) was introduced in July 2016,
replacing the Belarusian ruble in a rate of 1:10,000 (10,000 old rubles = 1 new ruble). From 1 July
until 31 December 2016, the old and new currencies will be in parallel circulation and series 2000
notes and coins can be exchanged for series 2009 from 1 January 2017 to 31 December
2021.] This redenomination can be considered an effort to fight the high inflation rate.
The banking system of Belarus consists of two levels: Central Bank (National Bank of the Republic
of Belarus) and 25 commercial banks. On 23 May 2011, the Belarusian ruble depreciated 56%
against the United States dollar. The depreciation was even steeper on the black market and
financial collapse seemed imminent as citizens rushed to exchange their rubles for dollars, euros,
durable goods, and canned goods.] On 1 June 2011, Belarus requested an economic rescue package
from the International Monetary Fund.

Languages
Belarus's two official languages are Russian and Belarusian; Russian is the most common language used
at home, used by 70% of the population, while Belarusian, the official first language, is spoken at home
by 23%.Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish. Belarusian, although not as widely
used as Russian, is the mother tongue of 53.2% of the population, whereas Russian is the mother tongue
of only 41.5%.
Religion
According to the census of as of November 2011, 58.9% of all Belarusians adhere to some kind of
religion; out of those, Eastern Orthodoxy (Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church)
makes up about 82%.[193] Roman Catholicism is practiced mostly in the western regions, and there
are also different denominations of Protestantism. Minorities also practice Greek Catholicism,
Judaism, Islam and Neopaganism. Overall, 48.3% of the population is Orthodox Christian, 41.1% is
not religious, 7.1% is Catholic and 3.3% follows other religions.
Belarus's Catholic minority is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially
around Hrodna, is made up of a mixture of Belarusians and the
country's Polish and Lithuanian minorities.[196] In a statement to the media regarding Belarusian-
Vatican ties, President Lukashenko stated that Orthodox and Catholic believers are the "two main
confessions in our country".
Belarus was once a major center of European Jews, with 10% of the population being Jewish. But
since the mid-20th century, the number of Jews has been reduced by the Holocaust, deportation,
and emigration, so that today it is a very small minority of less than one percent.The Lipka Tatars,
numbering over 15,000, are predominantly Muslims. According to Article 16 of the Constitution,
Belarus has no official religion. While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article,
religious organizations deemed harmful to the government or social order can be prohibited.

Culture
Arts and Literature
The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Slavianski Bazaar in
Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several
state holidays, such as Independence Day and Victory Day, draw big crowds and often include
displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk. The government's
Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside
the country.
Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th-century religious scripture, such as the 12th-century
poetry of Cyril of Turaw.
By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. It was
published in Prague and Vilnius sometime between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed
in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe. The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late
19th century; one prominent writer was Yanka Kupala. Many Belarusian writers of the time, such
as Uładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak, Yakub Kolas, Źmitrok Biadula, and Maksim Haretski, wrote
for Nasha Niva, a Belarusian-language paper published that was previously published in Vilnius but
now is published in Minsk. After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government
took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. At first, a policy of "Belarusianization" was followed in the
newly formed Byelorussian SSR. This policy was reversed in the 1930s, and the majority of prominent
Belarusian intellectuals and nationalist advocates were either exiled or killed in Stalinist purges.[205] The free
development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939. Several poets
and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus and would not return until the 1960s.
The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil
Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich. An influential author who devoted his work to awakening the awareness
of the catastrophes the country has suffered, was Ales Adamovich. He was named by Svetlana Alexievich, the
Belarusian winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature 2015, as "her main teacher, who helped her to find a path
of her own".
Music in belaruslargely comprises a rich tradition of folk and religious music. The country's folk
music traditions can be traced back to the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 19th
century, Polish composer Stanisław Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while
living in Minsk. During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poet Vintsent Dunin-
Martsinkyevich and created the opera Sialanka (Peasant Woman). At the end of the 19th century,
major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The ballet Nightingale by M.
Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at
the National Academic Vialiki Ballet Theatre in Minsk.
After the Second World War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those
who took up arms in defense of the homeland. During this period, Anatoly Bogatyrev, creator of the
opera In Polesye Virgin Forest, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers. The National
Academic Theatre of Ballet in Minsk was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top
ballet company in the world. Rock music has become increasingly popular in recent years, though
the Belarusian government has attempted to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio in
favor of traditional Belarusian music. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision
Song Contest.
Marc Chagall was born in Liozna (near Vitebsk) in 1887. He spent the World War I years in Soviet
Belarus, becoming one of the country's most distinguished artists and a member of the
modernist avant-garde and was a founder of the Vitebsk Arts College.

Dress
The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus' period. Due to the cool climate,
clothes were designed to preserve body heat and were usually made from flax or wool. They were
decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians,
Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design
patterns. One ornamental pattern common in early dresses currently decorates the hoist of
the Belarusian national flag, adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995.

BELARUS FLAG
Croatia
Croatia is a country at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, on the Adriatic Sea. It
borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the southeast, sharing a maritime border with Italy. Its
capital, Zagreb, forms one of the country's primary subdivisions, along with twenty counties.
Croatia has an area of 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and a population of
4.28 million, most of whom are Roman Catholics. Inhabited since the Paleolithic Age,
the Croats arrived in the area in the 6th century and organised the territory into two duchies by the
9th century. Croatia was first internationally recognized as an independent state on 7 June 879
during the reign of duke Branimir. Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the
status of a kingdom, which retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries. During the succession
crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102.
In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the
Croatian throne. In October 1918, in the final days of World War I, the State of Slovenes, Croats and
Serbs, independent from Austria-Hungary, was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918 it
was merged into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Following the Axis invasion of
Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of the Croatian territory was incorporated into the Nazi-backed
client-statewhich led to the development of a resistance movement and the creation of the Federal
State of Croatia which after the war become a founding member and a federal constituent of
the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence,
which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of
Independence was fought successfully for four years following the declaration.
The sovereign state of Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system and
a developed country with a very high standard of living. It is a member of the European Union (EU),
the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a
founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean. As an active participant in the UN
peacekeeping forces, Croatia has contributed troops to the NATO-led mission in Afghanistan and
took a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2008–2009 term. Since 2000,
the Croatian government has constantly invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and
facilities along the Pan-European corridors.
Croatia's economy is dominated by service and industrial sectors and agriculture. Tourism is a
significant source of revenue, with Croatia ranked among the top 20 most popular tourist
destinations in the world. The state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government
expenditure. The European Union is Croatia's most important trading partner. Croatia provides
a social security, universal health care system, and a tuition-free primary and secondary education,
while supporting culture through numerous public institutions and corporate investments
in media and publishing.

History
The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of
Neanderthals dating to the middle Palaeolithic period have been unearthed in northern Croatia,
with the most famous and the best presented site in Krapina.[16]Remnants of several Neolithic and
Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions of the country.[17] The largest proportion of the sites
is in the river valleys of northern Croatia, and the most significant cultures whose presence was
discovered include Baden, Starčevo, and Vučedol cultures.The Iron Age left traces of the early
Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture. Much later, the region was settled
by Illyrians and Liburnians, while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands
of Hvar,[21] Korčula, and Vis.[22] In 9 AD the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman
Empire. Emperor Diocletian had a large palace built in Split to which he retired after his abdication
in AD 305.[23]
During the 5th century, the last de jure Western emperor last Western Roman Emperor Julius
Nepos ruled his small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy to go into exile in 475.[24] The period
ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the first half of the 7th century and destruction of almost all
Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands and
mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.[25]
The ethnogenesis of Croats is uncertain and there are several competing theories, Slavic and
Iranian being the most frequently put forward. The most widely accepted of these, the Slavic theory,
proposes migration of White Croats from the territory of White Croatia during the Migrati
Period.Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Iranian origin, based on Tanaia
Tablets containing Greek inscription of given names Χορούαθος, Χοροάθος,
and Χορόαθος(Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation
as anthroponyms of Croatian people.

Croatia is located in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders
Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the
southeast, and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and
longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is
a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land
by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.[103]
The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square
kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It
is the 127th largest country in the world.[104] Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric
Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with
Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south[104] to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire
southwest border. Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48
of which are permanently inhabited. The largest islands are Cres and Krk,[104] each of them having
an area of around 405 square kilometres (156 square miles). The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko
Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed
by major rivers such as Danube, Drava, Kupa, and Sava. The Danube, Europe's second longest river,
runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Vojvodina.
The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains
and forested highlands. Natural resources found in the country in quantities significant enough for
production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica,
mica, clays, salt, and hydropower. Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially
prominent in the Dinaric Alps. There are a number of deep caves in Croatia, 49 of which are deeper
than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 of them deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m
(3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls
connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their
distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.

Politics
The Republic of Croatia is a unitary state using a parliamentary system of governance. With the
collapse of the ruling communist party in SFR Yugoslavia, Croatia organized its first multi-party
elections and adopted its present constitution in 1990.[112] It declared independence on 8 October
1991 which led to the break-up of Yugoslavia and countries international recognition by the United
Nations in 1992.[80][86] Under its 1990 Constitution, Croatia operated a semi-presidential
system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system.[113]Government powers in Croatia
are divided into legislative, executive and judiciary powers.[114]

Inside Croatian Parliament − Sabor

The President of the Republic (Croatian: Predsjednik Republike) is the head of state, directly elected
to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms. In addition to
being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of
appointing the prime minister with the consent of the parliament, and has some influence on
foreign policy.[114] The most recent presidential elections were held on 11 January 2015,
when Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović won. She took the oath of office on 15 February
2015.[115] The Government is headed by the Prime Minister, who has four deputy prime ministers
and 16 ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity.[116] As the executive branch, it is
responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and
internal policies of the republic. The Government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb. Since 19
October 2016, Croatian Prime Minister has been Andrej Plenković.
A unicameral parliament (Sabor) holds legislative power. A second chamber, the House of Counties,
set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution, was abolished in 2001. The number of Sabor
members can vary from 100 to 160; they are all elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.
Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 181 countries. As of 2017, Croatia maintains
a network of 54 embassies, 28 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions abroad.
Furthermore, there are 52 foreign embassies and 69 consulates in the Republic of Croatia in
addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, International Organization for Migration, Organization for Security and Co-operation
in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal
for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees, and UNICEF.] In 2009, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
European Integration employed 1,381 personnel and expended 648.2 million kuna
(€86.4 million). Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with
neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian
economy and Croatia itself.

Flag hoisting ceremony at Ministry of Defence marking Croatian accession to the NATO in 2009

Since 2003, Croatian foreign policy has focused on achieving the strategic goal of becoming
a member state of the European Union(EU).[132][133] In December 2011, Croatia completed the EU
accession negotiations and signed an EU accession treaty on 9 December 2011.[134][135] Croatia
joined the European Union on 1 July 2013 marking the end of a process started in 2001 by signing
of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement and Croatian application for the EU membership in
2003.[136] A recurring obstacle to the negotiations was Croatia's ICTY co-operation record and
Slovenian blocking of the negotiations because of Croatia–Slovenia border disputes.[137][138] The
latter should be resolved through an Arbitration Agreement of 4 November 2009, approved by
national parliaments and a referendum in Slovenia.,[139] but due to the events during arbitration
Croatia does not accept results. As of 2019, Croatia has unsolved border issues with all
neighbouring former Yugoslav countries (Slovenia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro).
Another strategic Croatian foreign policy goal for the 2000s was NATO membership. Croatia was
included in the Partnership for Peace in 2000, invited to NATO membership in 2008 and formally
joined the alliance on 1 April 2009. Croatia became a member of the United Nations Security
Council for the 2008–2009 term, assuming presidency in December 2008. The country is preparing
to join the Schengen Area.

Military
The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of the Air Force, Army, and Navy branches in addition to
the Education and Training Command and Support Command. The CAF is headed by the General
Staff, which reports to the Defence Minister, who in turn reports to the President of Croatia.
According to the constitution, the President is commander-in-chief of the armed forces and in case
of immediate threat during wartime he issues orders directly to the General Staff.[145]
Following the 1991–95 war defence spending and CAF size have been in constant decline. As of
2005 military spending was an estimated 2.39% of the country's GDP, which placed Croatia 64th in
a ranking of all countries.[104] Since 2005 the budget was kept below 2% of GDP, down from the
record high of 11.1% in 1994.[146] Traditionally relying on a large number of conscripts, CAF also
went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation in
the years prior to Croatia's accession to NATO in April 2009. According to a presidential decree
issued in 2006 the CAF is set to employ 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and
2,000 voluntary conscripts between the ages of 18 and 30 in peacetime.[145] Compulsory
conscription was abolished in January 2008.[104] Until 2008 military service was compulsory for
men at age 18 and conscripts served six-month tours of duty, reduced in 2001 from the earlier
scheme of nine-month conscription tours. Conscientious objectors could instead opt for an eight-
month civilian service.[147] As of April 2011the Croatian military had 120 members stationed in
foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces, including 95
serving as part of the UNDOF in the Golan Heights.[148] As of 2011 an additional 350 troops serve as
part of the NATO-led ISAFforce in Afghanistan and another 20 with the KFOR in Kosovo.[149][150]
Croatia also has a significant military industry sector which exported around US$120 million worth
of military equipment and armament in 2010.[151] Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by
CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M-84D battle tank
designed by the Đuro Đaković factory. Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are also locally
produced and successfully marketed to other countries.

Economy
Croatia is classified as a high-income economy by the United Nations.[154] International Monetary
Fund data projects that Croatian nominal GDP stands at $54.758 billion, or $13,271 per capita for
2017, while purchasing power parity GDP stands at $102.113 billion, or $24,748 per
capita.[155] According to Eurostat, Croatian PPS GDP per capita stood at 62% of the EU average in
2017.[156]
Real GDP growth in 2007 was 6.0 per cent.[157] The average net salary of a Croatian worker in
January 2017 was 5,895 HRK per month (roughly 800 EUR), and the average gross salary was 7,911
HRK per month.[158] As of December 2018, the unemployment rate dropped to 9.6% from 12.2% in
December 2017. The number of unemployed persons was 148.919 thousand. Unemployment Rate
in Croatia in years 1996-2018 averaged 17.38%, reaching an all-time high of 23.60% in January
2002 and a record low of 8.40% in September 2018.[159] In 2010, economic output was dominated
by the service sector which accounted for 66% of GDP, followed by the industrial sector with 27.2%
and agriculture accounting for 6.8% of GDP.[160] According to 2004 data, 2.7% of the workforce
were employed in agriculture, 32.8% by industry and 64.5% in services.[104][161] The industrial
sector is dominated by shipbuilding, food processing, pharmaceuticals, information technology,
biochemical and timber industry. In 2010, Croatian exports were valued at 64.9 billion kuna
(€8.65 billion) with 110.3 billion kuna (€14.7 billion) worth of imports. The largest trading
partner is the rest of the European Union.[162] More than half of Croatia's trade is with other
European Union member states.[163]

Paklinski Islands, located on the southwest coast of the island of Hvar

Privatization and the drive toward a market economy had barely begun under the new Croatian
Government when war broke out in 1991. As a result of the war, the economic infrastructure
sustained massive damage, particularly the revenue-rich tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, the
GDP fell 40.5%. The Croatian state still controls a significant part of the economy, with government
expenditures accounting for as much as 40% of GDP.[164] A backlogged judiciary system, combined
with inefficient public administration, especially on issues of land ownership and corruption, are
particular concerns. In the 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index, published by Transparency
International, the country is ranked 60th with a score of 48, where zero denotes "highly corrupt"
and 100 "very clean".[165] In June 2013, the national debt stood at 59.5% of the nation's GDP.[166]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Croatia

Zlatni Rat beach on the Island of Brač is one of the foremost spots of tourism in Croatia.

Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of Croatian GDP. Annual
tourist industry income for 2017 was estimated at €9.5 billion.[167] Its positive effects are felt
throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail
business, processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment. The industry is
considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country's external trade
imbalance.[168] Since the end of the Croatian War of Independence, the tourist industry has grown
rapidly, recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers, with more than 11 million tourists each year
The most numerous are tourists from Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, and Poland as well as
Croatia itself. Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averaged 4.9 days in 2011.
The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast. Opatija was the first
holiday resort. It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it had
become one of the most significant European health resorts. Later a number of resorts sprang up
along the coast and islands, offering services catering to both mass tourism and various niche
markets. The most significant are nautical tourism, as there are numerous marinas with more than
16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on appeal of medieval coastal cities and numerous
cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offer agrotourism, mountain resorts,
and spas. Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.
Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag
beaches. Croatia is ranked as the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world. About 15% of
these visitors, or over one million per year, are involved with naturism, an industry for which
Croatia is world-famous. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist
resorts.
Religion
Croatia has no official religion. Freedom of religion is a right defined by the Constitution which also
defines all religious communities as equal before the law and separated from the state.
According to the 2011 census, 91.36% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics
make up the largest group, accounting for 86.28% of the population, after which follows Eastern
Orthodoxy (4.44%), Protestantism (0.34%) and other Christian (0.30%). The largest religion after
Christianity is Islam (1.47%). 4.57% of the population describe themselves as non-religious.
In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2005, 67% of the population of Croatia responded that "they
believe there is a God.] In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question "Is religion an
important part of your daily life?".[ However, only 24% of the population attends religious services
regularly.

Culture
Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres. It
has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east—ever since the schism
between the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire—and also
from Mitteleuropa and Mediterranean culture.[243] The Illyrian movement was the most significant
period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of the
Croatian language and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise
to a number of historical figures.[45]
The Ministry of Culture is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural and natural heritage and
overseeing its development. Further activities supporting the development of culture are
undertaken at the local government level.[244] The UNESCO's World Heritage List includes ten sites
in Croatia. The country is also rich with intangible culture and holds fifteen of UNESCO's World's
intangible culture masterpieces, ranking fourth in the world.[245] A global cultural contribution from
Croatia is the necktie, derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th-century Croatian
mercenaries in France.[246][247]

Trakošćan Castle is one of the best preserved historic buildings in the country.[248]

Croatia has 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres and 52 amateur theatres
visited by more than 1.54 million viewers per year. The professional theatres employ 1,195 artists.
There are 46 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs in the country, attracting an annual
attendance of 317 thousand. There are 166 cinemas with attendance exceeding
4.814 million.[249] Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.7 million people in 2016.
Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries in the country, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state
archives.[250]
In 2010, 7,348 books and brochures were published, along with 2,676 magazines and 267
newspapers. There are also 135 radio stations and 25 TV stations operating in the country. In the
past five years, film production in Croatia produced up to five feature films and 10 to 51 short films,
with an additional 76 to 112 TV films. As of 2009, there are 784 amateur cultural and artistic
associations and more than 10 thousand cultural, educational and artistic events held
annually.[103] The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the
industry's centrepiece event—Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair.[251]
Croatia is categorised as having established a very high level of human development in the Human
Development Index, with a high degree of equality in HDI achievements between women and
men.[9] It promotes disability rights.[252] Recognition of same-sex unions in Croatia has gradually
improved over the past decade, culminating in registered civil unions in July 2014, granting same-
sex couples equal inheritance rights, tax deductions and limited adoption rights.[253] However, in
December 2013 Croatians voted in a constitutional referendum and approved changes to
constitution to define marriage as a union between a man and a woman.[254]
Arts and literature
Main articles: Croatian art, Architecture of Croatia, and Croatian literature

1st-century Pula Arena was the sixth largest amphitheatre in the Roman Empire

Historical nucleus of Split with the 4th-century Diocletian's Palace was inscribed on the UNESCO list of World
Heritage Sites in 1979
Ivan Gundulić, the most prominent Croatian Baroquepoet

Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is
visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and in the central regions, architecture found
along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence.[255] Large squares named after
culture heroes, well-groomed parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of these orderly towns
and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek
(Tvrđa), Varaždin and Karlovac.[256][257] Subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in
contemporary architecture.[258] Along the coast, the architecture is Mediterranean with a strong
Venetian and Renaissance influence in major urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da
Sebenico and Niccolò Fiorentino such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik. The oldest preserved
examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most
representative among them being Church of St. Donatus in Zadar.[259][260]
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks in Croatia, there is a long history of
artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of the Trogir
Cathedral was made by Radovan, representing the most important monument
of Romanesquesculpture from Medieval Croatia. The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the
Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder of Croatia was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–
Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during
the Baroque and Rococo. The 19th and the 20th centuries brought about affirmation of numerous
Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj
Strossmayer.[261] Croatian artists of the period achieving worldwide renown were Vlaho
Bukovac and Ivan Meštrović.[259]
The Baška tablet, a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to
1100, is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian.[262] The beginning of more vigorous
development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić. Besides
Marulić, Renaissance playwright Marin Držić, Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić, Croatian national
revival poet Ivan Mažuranić, novelist, playwright and poet August Šenoa, children's writer Ivana
Brlić-Mažuranić, writer and journalist Marija Jurić Zagorka, poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš,
poet Antun Branko Šimić, expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža, poet Tin Ujević and
novelist and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian
literature.
Croatia Flag