Incorporating History in a Mathematics

Lesson on Pythagorean Theorem: A Lesson Study

Joanne Casanova Mary Grace Escueta

De La Salle University – Manila De La Salle University – Manila
<[email protected]> < [email protected] >

Emilyn Galsote Napoleon Montero III

De La Salle University – Manila De La Salle University – Manila
<[email protected]> <[email protected]>

Mark Joseph Quinto Levi Esteban Elipane

De La Salle University – Manila University of the Philippines – Diliman
<[email protected]> De La Salle University - Manila
<[email protected]>

INTRODUCTION

The Pythagorean Theorem is one of the topics that plays an essential part in many
fields of Mathematics. For instance, it is the basis of Trigonometry, and in its arithmetic
form, it links Geometry and Algebra (Stone, 2012). Thus, the authors came to agreement
to work on the lesson about the Pythagorean Theorem and how to deliver the topic to
promote mathematical thinking. It is believed that if the Pythagorean Theorem is taught
well, by incorporating with its historical sense, it would be a lot easier for the students to
learn the lesson as well as the other fields.

This paper intends to provide students a different perspective in terms of learning

the lesson on Pythagorean Theorem. Specifically, this study is conducted with the
following objectives: (1) to design activities that integrate history of mathematics in the
teaching of the Pythagorean Theorem; (2) to analyze how the history of mathematics
helps students think critically (3) to examine how the lesson could be improved using the
principles of Lesson Study as a tool for evaluating classroom practice.

The insights, comments and suggestions about the research lesson and actual
teaching demonstration became the fundamental basis of the results discussion and
recommendations. Hence, there is a need for a research and development system that
would open among its participants a venue for collaboration and exchange of opinions.
There is a school-based professional development framework that has been growing more
popular not just in Asia, but across the globe. This is called Lesson Study, a framework
which originated in Japan.

Lesson study: Focus and Features

Lesson study, a translation of the Japanese words jugyou (instruction or lesson)

and kenkyuu (research or study) is a professional development approach that is
continuously growing in popularity among educators nowadays (Lewis, Perry & Murata,
2006).

1
 This phenomenon features a unique style of teacher collaboration where a group
of teachers will work hand-in-hand to accomplish a cycle of lesson study. They create
and critique a lesson plan, then one of the teachers will conduct it while the others would
observe.

In detail, lesson study involves a cycle with four key features (Lewis, Perry &
Murata, 2006). The first phase is the study of curriculum and formulation of goals where
the researchers would determine the topic that will be covered by the lesson study.
Planning the lesson then commences where the teachers are expected to enumerate the
objectives of the lesson and develop the research lesson. They will write an “instructional
plan that includes long term goals, anticipated student thinking, data collection plan,
model of learning trajectory and rationale for chose approach (Lewis, Perry & Murata,
2006, p. 4”. One member of the team will then carry out the third phase, which is to
conduct the research lesson while the others will observe to collect the data. Reflection
then represents the fourth phase where a formal colloquium takes place, in which
observers will share the data collected from the lesson, and use the data to clarify student
learning, disciplinary content, lesson and unit design and broader issues in teaching-
learning. The cycle will be documented to be use for the re-planning of the lesson.

How lesson study worked for schools around the world

Educators from all around the world have begun to consider lesson study in
developing a new culture for promoting learning communities at their schools. Countries
such as Singapore, Iran, Germany, Indonesia, and China (Sarkar Arani, Fukaya &
Lassegard, 2010) have developed their own perspectives on lesson study based on their
indigenous school cultures, educational context and needs. Fang & Lee (cited in Cheng &
Yee, 2012) shares that many Asian countries have been adapting the lesson study, but it
is given different names such as learning study (Hong Kong) and action education
(China).

Cheng & Yee (2012) presented a case of lesson study in Singapore where it seeks
to identify what the teachers learned as the result of their experience in one lesson study
cycle. It was revealed in one focused group interview that the planning and critiquing of
daily lessons was done individually. Observing a lesson carried out in a classroom and
critiquing of lessons with colleagues, furthermore, allowed them to formulate hypotheses
about students’ thinking during lesson planning. The observation, on the other hand,
gives them the opportunity to test and verify their hypotheses. The group also said that
the experience brought by the lesson study inspired them to try new approaches and
activities for the class, and provided them the opportunity to evaluate and improvise the
tasks.

Challenges to implementing lesson study in the Philippines

While lesson study offers a great deal of promise and is growing popularity across
the world, its adaptation to the Philippine classrooms may pose a huge challenge to
Filipino teachers (Elipane, 2009). Several authors (Chokshi & Fernandez, 2004, Elipane,
2009 and Cheng & Yee, 2012) have enumerated a number of potential cultural and
logistical pitfalls that educators may encounter in its implementation. Planning the
research lesson, for one, can be very time-consuming (Cheng & Yee, 2012). Since the

2
participants are expected to come up with a common lesson, everybody must understand
and accept the objectives, learning activities and the processes involved prior to the
implementation. Elipane (2009) shares that for lesson study to work, there must be a good
relationship established among the members of the group so that the participants can
share comments and insights in a comfortable manner.

The Promise of Lesson Study to the Philippine Educational System

Cheng and Yee (2012) believe that lesson study is a form of professional
development because it encourages teachers to work collaboratively with each other. On
the other hand, it is also important to note that opening up classrooms for observation and
accepting criticisms are sometimes regarded as a means of evaluating the teacher, which
results to teachers having conflicting feelings about engaging in lesson study (Sarkar,
Arani, Fukaya & Lassegard, 2010). However, Lieberman (2009, cited in Cheng & Yee,
2012) argues that teachers would learn about their profession if they are open to scrutiny,
and if they would choose to think critically about their lesson plans. Yarema (2010)
further agrees and cites that lesson study gives an avenue for teachers to ask each other
about their teaching practices, thus, providing everybody in the group a chance to hear
teachers’ thinking and to offer suggestions.

By effectively addressing the concerns posed by the potential institutionalization

of Lesson Study in the Philippine educational system, interested teachers and
administrators can then move towards fulfilling the goals of the current educational
reform in the Philippines known as the K-to-12 Program. In particular, it is worth-noting
that the Mathematics curriculum in the Philippines is grounded in the theories of
Experiential and Situated Learning, Reflective Learning, Constructivism, Cooperative
Learning and Discovery and Inquiry-Based Learning (DepEd, 2013).

The Philippines K-12 and The Mathematics Curriculum

Until the end of 2011, the Philippines were the only country in Asia that had a
10-year basic education program composed of six years in the elementary level and four
years in high school. It was only in the following year that the country’s Department of
Education (DepEd) decided to make the Kindergarten and additional two years in High
School mandatory to all Filipino students, thus calling it the “K-to-12 Curriculum”. This
is to address a strict focus on the country’s pre-school education, as well as to align the
Philippines’ educational system with international standards (Andrade, 2014 and Yap,
2011).

Based on the Conceptual Framework of Mathematics Education in K-12, the main

goal of the updated curriculum is to strengthen and focus on problem solving and critical
thinking skills of the students. The skills and processes to be developed are “Knowing
and Understanding, Estimating, Computing and Solving, Visualizing and Modelling,
Representing and Communicating, Conjecturing, Reasoning, Proving and Decision
Making and Applying and Connecting”. Aside from these competencies, the Department
of Education (2013) also envisions the development of values and attitudes such as
Accuracy, Creativity, Objectivity, Perseverance and Productivity.

3
 Given what seems to be a multitude of content areas, skills and values that a
Mathematics student needs to meet, one important aspect that one should look for is a
tool that would enable an educator to develop mathematical thinking on a learner. Hence,
the authors have looked into the possible benefits of incorporating history in a
Mathematics lesson to promote critical thinking and problem solving among the students.

Incorporating History in the Mathematics classrooms

Integrating history of mathematics into classroom teaching has many benefits for
both teachers and students. The history of mathematics is full of emotional instances
whose integration into classroom teaching is capable of capturing students’ attention and
curiosity about mathematics (Barbin, 2000; Rubinstein & Schwartz, 2000; Swetz, 1984;
Thomaidis, 1991; van Maanen, 1997). In addition, a true integration of history of
mathematics into mathematics lessons stimulates students’ creativity and interest in
deepening their mathematical inderstanding (Barbin, 2000; Rubinstein & Schwartz, 2000;
van Maanen, 1997). Furthermore, integrating history of mathematics into classroom
instruction is an exciting challenge to the teachers’ knowledge and creativity (Estrada,
1993). Liu (2003) adds that using historical problems in class improves students’
understanding of Mathematics as many concepts have undergone evolution and revisions
over the centuries. Through historical problems, the students will be enabled to
understand Mathematical thinking and acknowledge its dynamic nature.

The integration of history of mathematics into school mathematics has been

shown to improve students’ and teachers’ perceptions of the subject, as well as their
attitudes and enthusiasm about it (Arcavi et al, 1982; Barbin, 2000; Ernest, 1998; Fauvel,
1991; Fauvel & van Maanen, 1997; Furinghetti, 2000; Lefort, 1990; Marshall, 2000;
McBride & Rollins, 1977; Philippou & Christou, 1998).

In this research, the authors developed an group exploration task that aims to lead
the students to a self-discovery of the proof of Pythagorean Theorem. This is anchored in
one of the earliest proofs of the theorem made by Pythagoras, which uses dissection of
quadrilaterals.

METHODOLOGY

The conduct of this research started in a class composed of twelve (12) graduate students
from De La Salle University, Manila who were taking up a course named History and
Philosophy of Mathematics (SCE547M). Prior to the implementation of the research, the
class was introduced to the concept of lesson study through discussions facilitated by the
course instructor. The researchers were oriented on its essentials, together with its
advantages and challenges. Due to time constraints imposed by the University’s
trimestral calendar, the authors only had less than 10 weeks to prepare and implement the
research lesson. Nevertheless, the team ensured that actual high school students would
participate in the conduct of the research lesson. Thus, an invitation letter was sent to the
principal of Fort Bonifacio High School, a regular public school in Metro Manila.
Nineteen Grade 9 students from the said school came to De La Salle University to sit as
participants.

4
 In line with the goal of incorporating history to develop a lesson on Pythagorean
Theorem through lesson study, the group followed certain steps to achieve a unified
effort in collaborative lesson study, which is patterned to Stigler and Hiebert’s (1999)
suggested procedures.

1. Definition of a problem
In selecting the topic of the lesson study, the group considered a topic that has a popular
link to a historical context. The group decided to teach Pythagorean Theorem because the
topic does not require much pre-requisite lesson.

2. Plan the mathematics lesson

Three weeks before the teaching demonstration, the group met once a week to talk about
the objectives to be presented in the lesson study. The decision about the coverage of the
lesson was based on the comments on how the said topic could be strongly related to the
History of Mathematics. The activities, on the other hand, were carefully planned in
consideration of time and usefulness in the teaching-learning process.

3. Teach and observe the lesson in the classroom

One member of the research team executed the lesson while the rest of the researchers do
the technical support, observers and critics of the delivery of the lesson. On deciding who
will deliver the lesson, the group considered somebody who currently teaching
Pythagorean Theorem in a high school classroom. The entire classroom demonstration,
which was conducted on the tenth meeting, lasted for about more than an hour and was
videotaped for documentation of the study. Aside from the general remarks and
suggestions, commentaries were categorized into three areas: the exploration task, the
questioning and the extent by which history was integrated in the lesson.

4. Critique and reflectively discuss the lesson after classroom observations

Following the teaching demonstration in the classroom, the class convened to discuss the
lesson on the tenth meeting in the classroom. First, the group shared how they prepared
for the lesson study. They also shared their own evaluation about the outcome of the
teaching demonstration. After the group’s turn, the observers shared their insights and
recommendations on the conduct of the research lesson.

5. Share the results

The members of the group consolidated all the inputs into a research output, which
describes the impact of lesson study in improving the lesson on Pythagorean Theorem,
which is the main focus of this paper.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Following the demonstration of the lesson on Pythagorean Theorem with the students
from Fort Bonifacio High School is the post-lesson discussion with some teachers from
De La Salle Santiago Zobel (DLSZ) and some undergraduate students from Philippine
Normal University (PNU). Most of the positive comments were about the
comprehensiveness of the lesson plan used in the demonstration. The exploration activity
catered to the student-centeredness of the classroom environment. The observers gave
affirmation to the teacher’s well-modulated voice and pleasant personality. It was through

5
this that he was able to build rapport with the students. Some insights were quoted as
follows:
“I find it interesting and at the same time, very dynamic and collaborative in
nature.”
“Yung voice and yung smile mo… Kasi from there, (given na) may edad na yung
mga bata… kasi na(kuha) mo yung rapport nila… Talagang ‘go’ sila sa ‘yo.”
“Natuwa ako sa picture.. kasi isa-isang lumalabas (yung larawan ni Pythagoras).
It adds excitement. Nakukuha mo yung attention nila. Tapos yung mga sound
effects, nakakatuwa siya.”
“You moved around. Ina-assist mo yung mga nalilito.”

The rest of the comments were consolidated and coded into several categories: the
exploration task, questioning, and integration of history.

EXPLORATION TASK

For the exploration task, the class was divided into four groups. A worksheet (see
Appendix) was provided to each group to facilitate the discovery of the Pythagorean
Theorem. It was also suggested that the students are not only asked if they are able to
finish the task or not. What is more important is for the teacher to know what the
difficulties have been. Thus, the teacher was given some recommendations to ask the
students to explain these difficulties so they get the chance to reflect on their own work
habits.

The third item in the worksheet, according to the observers, was a bit difficult to
follow due to the phrasing of the question. In fact, the three groups that did not finish did
not get through this item. The instruction given was:

Several suggestions were cited from the observers:

“…siguro pwede nating iphrase in such a way na maintindihan ng bata right

away… kasi doon pa lang, (baka pag hindi naayos) hindi na talaga maa-achieve
yung goal mo.”

The said item was also labeled by one of the observers as the ‘climax’ of the
exploration since this is where students are expected to arrive at the Pythagorean theorem
equation. In the actual demonstration, however, this item became the most difficult to
follow for the students. It was also observed that one of the groups skipped this third step
and did the fourth one right away.

There were also too much instructions cited that the nature of the activity as an
“exploration” was almost defeated. It was suggested that students could have been given

6
the materials with limited instructions, together with the nature of the task itself. It is
equally important, too, that the teacher clarifies what the students need to know about the
task before they are dispersed into their groups. A change of the nature of the activity was
then strongly suggested.

QUESTIONING

After the exploration activity, the teacher facilitated the discussion of the results
by posing several questions about the activity. He called a representative from each group
to discuss each item. It was noted as a good practice since all the groups were given a
chance to contribute to the generalization of the exploration task. The questions varied
from the lower order thinking (e.g. how do we find the area of each figure?) to the more
critical ones (e.g. why is it important to show the algebraic proof of Pythagorean
Theorem in addition to verifying it geometrically?). One area for improvement, according
to the observers, was to give the students time to pause and reflect on the question. In this
way, the teacher can avoid the bad habit of answering his own question. The said
comment is quoted below:

“..importante yung ‘wait time’, yung ‘pause time’ every time you probe students.
Kasi napansin ko, everytime you ask a question, parang after five seconds,
nagtatanong ka na agad. Sana let us give our students time to pause, think and
reflect on the questions para maka-elicit tayo ng magandang sagot.”

Following the generalizations and conclusions drawn from the students, the
teacher gave the students some figures with missing sides where the students have to find
the length of the missing side. One good observation from this part of the demonstration
was letting the students explain their work on the board. Misconceptions of students were
seen easily once they show their work on the board. The teacher was also commended for
being able to clarify misconceptions about the theorem. In particular, the common
mistake in subtracting when the length of a leg is missing given the length of the
hypotenuse and another leg, was brought up. However, the very popular misconception
on extracting two signed roots from a quadratic equation went unnoticed during the
demonstration. This was raised during the post-lesson discussion by one of the observers
as “an important mistake that needs to be corrected”.

Another observation points out that the drills on solving Pythagorean equations
were very similar. It was suggested to have more varied examples on figures such as
incorporating conversion of units of measurement. This suggestion leads the authors to
look at a theory of learning and experience developed by Ference Marton which he called
the Variation Theory. This states that learning is always directed at an object, and
learning can only be manifested by a change in the way of viewing the ‘object’. This
theory, Ronda (2012) states, “sees learning as the ability to discern different features or
aspects of what is being learned.” Coming up with different types of examples that would
show varying skills and competencies (e.g. finding missing leg when hypotenuse is
given) is one way to incorporate the said theory in the lesson. Another technique is to
give real-life problems that involve the application of Pythagorean Theorem. However,
the teacher should make sure that the students recognize when the Theorem is applicable
in the situation. Hence, it is strongly advised to ask the students if the problem calls for
the application of the theorem or not.

7
INTEGRATION OF HISTORY

One of the main goals of the lesson study was to incorporate the history of
Mathematics in developing the understanding of the Pythagorean Theorem among the
students. According to the observers, this was seen in the first part of the lesson where the
teacher introduced the proponent of the theorem and gave some background about it.

However, it became limited to that aspect of the lesson. One teacher suggested
that more emphasis be given to discuss the validity of the credit of the theorem to
Pythagoras since there were accounts that it was discovered before Pythagoras introduced
it. The research group also realized that the word problems given after the drills could
have been anchored to situtations in the ancient Greek civilization so that students can see
a historical context of its application.

GENERALIZATIONS

There are a number of insights in the completion of this study. By and large, the delivery
were lauded by the majority of the observers and there have been very helpful
suggestions on how the lesson could be improved and how the history of Mathematics
could be integrated more effectively. Thus, a number of recommendations was raised and
were worth reflecting by every teacher notably:

1. Allow students to investigate with minimal but enough instructions. In helping the
students develop mathematical thinking, the teacher should provide an exploration
activity with minimal but clear instructions that are developmentally-appropriate
for the students. Step-by-step instructions need not be given in every exploration
task to allow the students develop creativity and own the discovery of a
conjecture.
2. Solicit students’ insights about an anchor task. Students cannot be expected to
participate in the same way or rate but it is the teacher’s task to create an
environment in which all participants have the opportunity to learn and in which
the class explores issues and ideas in depth, from a variety of viewpoints. In times
where a group is not able to finish an anchor task, the teacher must know what the
struggles of the group were.
3. Lesson study presents a big help in the improvement of instruction. Although
some educators may take it as an attack to their teaching competencies because of
the chances that they would get observed and critiqued, it should be welcomed by
all teachers whose primary concern is to affect learning to students.
4. A historical approach in teaching Mathematics can develop students’
mathematical thinking and appreciation of the subject matter. The teacher can use
issues that arose in history about theorems that would serve as a point for
discussion among the students. In this way, the learners are developing logical
reasoning skills, which is an important element of mathematical thinking.
CONCLUSION

In essence, lesson study promotes interactions among members within a

community of mathematics educators opening an avenue for teachers to explicitly think

8
about their views, influences on instructional choices, and possible changes in practice.
Findings from this study indicate that engagement in lesson study poses a promise to
enhance the teaching of mathematics among teachers. Hence, its potential for use by
teachers to develop and enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics at all levels
appears worthy of further investigation. Moreover, it can also be concluded that the
extent in which the history is integrated in a Mathematics lesson could have been given
more emphasis through contextualizing the problems in ancient settings and providing
possible venues for classroom discourse on the credibility of the theorems’ proponents. .
With the right choice of aspect to be incorporated in the lesson, therefore, a historical
approach in teaching Mathematics can develop students’ mathematical thinking. The
authors also believe that conducting a lesson study in applying this strategy would come
very helpful as it provides a systematic framework in developing a chosen subject matter.

Despite the promise presented in different studies about the successful

implementation of lesson study, however, the challenge remains that lesson study
demands a lot of time for the preparation of the lesson and critiquing, not to mention the
amount of commitment that teachers have to put for the activity. This suggests that
educational institutions must develop a habit of formulating time tables to check for the
teachers’ common time. However, the greater the number of teachers, the more difficult it
would be to find a common time for convening. It is also important that the support of the
administrators and government be given so that teachers will have the much needed
resources to implement lesson study successfully. It also poses the challenge of breaking
some customary practices and attitudes among Filipino teachers when it comes to
classroom observations. Post-lesson conferences must be collaborative rather than a mere
feedback tool for the teacher who delivered the lesson. At the same time, teachers must
be encouraged to participate in lesson studies so that good more fruitful dialogues would
be established.

REFERENCES:

Andrade, J. (2014). DepEd sticks to K-to-12 education. Retrieved December 26, 2014
from http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/622866/deped-sticks-to-k-to-12-education

Arcavi, A. (June 1991). Two benefits of using history. For the Learning of Mathematics
11(11).

Cheng, L. & Yee, L. (2012). A Singaporean case of lesson study.The Mathematics

Educator, 21(2), pp. 34 – 57.

Chokshi, S. and Fernandez, C. (March 2004). Challenges to importing Japanese Lesson

Study: Concerns, Misconceptions, and Nuances. The Phi Delta Kappa International.
Retrieved December 26, 2014 from http://thorpe-te801-
syllabus.wikispaces.com/file/view/Chokshi+%26+Fernandez+-
+Lesson+Study+Challenges.pdf

Department of Education (2013). K-to-12 Curriculum Guide: Mathematics (Grade 1 to

Grade 10). Retrieved December 26, 2014 from lrmds.deped.gov.ph/download/5455

9
Elipane, L. (2009). Intimations of the Japanese lesson study towards the achievement of
competency standards for Mathematics teacher education in the Philippines. Retrieved
December 24, 2014 from
http://www.recsam.edu.my/cosmed/cosmed09/AbstractsFullPapers2009/Abstract/Mathe
matics%20Parallel%20PDF/Full%20Paper/M20.pdf

Hiebert, J. & Stigler, J. (2000). A proposal for improving classroom teaching: lessons
from the TIMSS video study. The Elementary School Journal, 101 (1), pp. 3 – 20.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and standards for

school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author, p. 4

Fried, M. N. (2001). Can mathematics education and history of mathematics coexist?

Science and Education, 10, 391-408.

Kohn, Alfie. (1993) Phi Delta Kappan, v75 n1 p8-16,18-21

Lewis, C., Perry, R. &Hurd, J. (2009). What is successful adaptation of lesson study in
the US? Journal of Educational Change, 10, pp. 365 – 391.

Lewis, C., Perry, R., Hurd, J. & O’Connell, M. P. (2006). Lesson study comes of age in
North America. Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 273 – 281.

Liu, P. (December 2003). Do Teachers Need to Incorporate the History of Mathematics

in their Teaching? The Mathematics Teacher, 96 (6) p.416.

Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives, the Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective Domain.
New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

Oteyza, K. (2012). Enhanced K-12 Basic Education Program: Opportunities and

Challenges. Philippine Institute for Developmental Studies, 12 (2). Retrieved December
26, 2014 from dirp3.pids.gov.ph/ris/eid/pidseid1202.pdf

Rock, T. & Wilson, C. (2005).Improving teaching through lesson study. Teacher

Education Quarterly. 32(1), 77 – 92.

Ronda, E. (2012). What is variation theory? Retrieved December 27, 2014 from
http://math4teaching.com/2012/08/26/what-is-variation-theory-of-learning/
SarkarArani, M., Fukaya, K. &Lassegard, J. (2010). Lesson study as professional culture
in Japanese schools: an historical perspective on elementary classroom practices.

Stone, R. (2012). The Pythagorean Theorem and Distance Formula. Retrieved December
27, 2014 from
http://www.academia.edu/1524756/Pythagorean_Theorem_and_Distance_Formula

Yarema, C. (2010). Mathematics teachers’ views of accountability testing revealed

through lesson study. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 12(1) pp. 3 - 18

10