CEEN 043
Behavior & Properties of Engineering Materials
Behavior and Properties of Metals
Structural Steels and Reinforcing Steels
Dr. Christopher M. Foley
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering
References
Young, J.F., Mindess, S., Gray, R.J. and Bentur, R.J. (1998) The
Science and Technology of Civil Engineering Materials,
Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 384 pp.
ASTM American Society for Testing of Materials.
Dexter, R.J., Graeser , M.D., Galambos, T.V., Bartlett, F.M.,
Jelinek, J.J., Schmidt, B.J. (2001) Updating Standard Shape
Material Properties Database for Design and Reliability,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
Nawy, E.G. (2000) Prestressed Concrete Design: A Fundamental
Approach, 3rd Edition , Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 931 pp.
Objectives of Lecture
Provide an introduction to steel materials used in
structural steel members, non-prestressed
reinforcement, and prestressed reinforcement.
Provide an introduction the chemical compositions of
steels commonly used in civil engineering structures.
Introduce the student to strengthening measures used
in steels used for civil engineering structures.
Provide an introduction to pertinent steel material
characteristics sought via material testing.
1
Primary Uses for Steel
There are two main application areas where steel
material is used in civil engineering structures:
• Structural Steel Shapes (AISC):
Wide Flange (W) Shapes
Structural Tube and Pipe
T-Shapes (WT)
Angles, bars, plates
• Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (ACI):
Deformed bars, smooth wire.
• Prestressed Reinforcement (ACI, PCI, PTI):
Stranded Wire (tendons)
Basic Manufacturing Processes
Steel for civil engineering structures is formed using
two basic operations:
• Rolling
• Forming or Drawing
Temperature at which these operations are carried out
can be used to further classify structural steel members:
• Hot Rolling (AISC)
W-, L-, S-, M-, C-, MC- Shapes
• Cold Forming (AISI) or Cold Drawing (PCI)
Steel Decking, Steel Studs, Prestressing Steel
The final composition of the steel is dependent upon the
temperature at forming, extent of material strain during
forming, and cooling rate after forming.
Basic Chemical Composition
At its most fundamental level, steel is an alloy of iron
(Fe) and Carbon (C).
There are other alloying elements added to change the
characteristics of the steels.
By definition, steel has a carbon content less than 2.0 %.
Sructural steel normally has a carbon content that is
less than 0.3%.
Steels can be classified in terms of chemical composition:
• plain carbon (C, Mn restricted; no alloying for
strength)
• low alloy (C restricted; Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo for strength)
2
Strengthening Mechanisms
Steel is a popular structural material because it has
relatively predictable strength and ductility.
Metals yield through a shear mechanism at the micro-
scopic level. Plastic flow requires the following:
1. dislocations must form in the materials’
microstructure;
2. the disclocations must move through the
microstructure.
Structural steels can be strengthened through:
1. Alloying - introduction of interstitial atoms
2. Work/Strain Hardening - generation of dislocations
3. Heat Treatment - generation of grain boundaries.
Alloying in Steels
Alloying of steel introduces the following mechanisms,
which affect the microstructure of steel:
1. Solid-solution strengthening and increase in
corrosion resistance (addition of C, Cr, Mn, Ni,
Cu, Si).
2. Formation of a carbide (C + another electro-
positive element) to gain additional hardness
and elevated temperature strength (Ti, V, Mo).
3. Formation of a second phase during cooling to
promote machineability (Pb, S, P).
Addition of S and P adversely affect the steel. Thus,
just like concrete: increased workability (higher slump)
comes through addition of detrimental element (water).
Work (Strain) Hardening
Cold working is defined as plastic deformation imparted
below the re-crystallization temperature.
Cold working
generates complex
networks of disloca-
tions, which make
subsequent
dislocations difficult
to generate.
3
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment can be defined as operation(s) that
involve heating/cooling in the solid state to produce
desireable conditions or properties (Young, et al 1998).
Heat treatment seeks to produce a mixture of;
• ferrite (α)
• cementite
to give the proper combination of properties.
Mechanical Properties
Although metals have the least variability of all structural
materials, there is still variability in mechanical properties.
The histograms below illustrate typical variability in
structural steel.
Mechanical Properties (continued)
Stress-Strain Behavior:
A stress-strain (tenstion) test is the most popular test to
determine mechanical properties of steel material.
4
Mechanical Properties (continued)
Fracture Energy or Toughness:
The toughness measure is often used in the selection of
steels for service where loading or environmental
conditions may result in brittle fracture.
Material toughness can be estimated several ways:
• The area under the stress-strain curve can be used.
This method is NOT representative of material
behavior under brittle fracture conditions.
• Impact testing (Charpy V-Notch) can be used. These
tests are empirical.
• Fracture mechanics theory can be used to determine
the energy required to propogate a crack.
Mechanical Properties (continued)
Weldability:
Weldability is the capacity of a metal to be joined via
welding and perform satisfactorily in service.
Mechanical Properties (continued)
The weldability of steel material is most often quantified
using carbon-equivalence.
(1)
High CE numbers indicate a reduction in weldability.
Welding can have a strong negative influence on fatigue
performance of structures. Care must be used when
creating welded structures.
5
Classification of Steels
Structural steels are classified on the basis of strength and
chemical composition.
• Structural Carbon Steels (ASTM A-36M)
• High-Strength Low-Alloy (ASTM A-441/A
through A992)
• High-Yield Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy
(ASTM A-514M)
Steel used as reinforcement (i.e. in concrete) is available
in many forms:
• Plain and Deformed Bars
• Wire for Welded Wire Fabric
• Bar, Wire, and Strand
Classification (continued)
Typical Chemical Compositions - Structural Steels
ASTM Cb V V (alone)
Design. C (alone) Cu Mn Mo P S Si (alone) V+Cb + N
A36 0.25- 0.6- 0.04 0.05 0.15-
0.29 1.2 0.40
0.005- 0.01- 0.02-
A572 0.23 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.40
0.05 0.15 0.15
N-0.015
0.5-
A992 0.23 0.05 0.60 1.50 0.15 0.035 0.045 0.40 0.11 0.15
N > 0.012
There is an additional requirement for
large W-Shapes (for A992 only)
Classification (continued)
Mechanical Properties - Structural Steels
ASTM Yield Tensile
Design. Strength Strength Elongation
A36 36 ksi 58-80 ksi 20-23%
50 ksi 65 ksi
A572 (grade 50) 18% in 8 inches
(min.) (min.)
65 ksi
A992 50-65 ksi 0.85 18% in 8 inches
(min.)
6
Classification (continued)
Concrete reinforcement comes in the following forms.
Welded Wire Fabric
Deformed Reinforcing Bars (Re-Bars) or Mesh
7-Wire
Prestressing
Strand
Standard Strand Compacted Strand
Classification (continued)
Typical Steels for Concrete Reinforcement
Type of Yield Strength Tensile Strength
Reinforcement Grade (minimum) (minimum)
40 ksi 40 ksi 70 ksi
Bars
50 ksi 50 ksi 90 ksi
(ASTM A-615)
60 ksi 60 ksi 100 ksi
Steel Wire for
Smooth (ASTM A-82) 70 ksi 80 ksi
Welded Wire Deformed (ASTM A -496) 70 ksi 80 ksi
Fabric
Prestressing Bars Plain 128 ksi 150 ksi
(ASTM A-722) Deformed 120 ksi 150 ksi
7-Wire Strand 250 ksi 250 ksi
(ASTM A-416) 270 ksi 270 ksi
