MTH6132, Relativity

Lecture 3
Given 3rd October 2018

Hans Bantilan
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Intervals

Tick Marks
For a point p measured in the frame F : (t, x, y, z),

read out the x coordinate by projecting a line from p parallel to the t axis,

read out the t coordinate by projecting a line from p parallel to the x axis.

t t'

x'

For the same point p measured in the frame F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ),

read out the x0 coordinate by projecting a line from p parallel to the t0 axis,

read out the t0 coordinate by projecting a line from p parallel to the x0 axis.

t t'

x'

Spacetime Interval
In space-space slices, the interval of distance squared between any two points is x2 +y 2 +z 2 = x02 +y 02 +z 02 ,
with the property that it yields the same number when measured in any rotated frame. Unit intervals
(c.f. tick marks on the figure below) in different rotation frames lie on the circles obtained by the setting
the above quadratic form to a constant.

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y y'

x
x'

In time-space slices, the interval of distance squared is −t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 = −t02 + x02 + y 02 + z 02 , with
the property that it is the same number when measured in any frame. Unit intervals (c.f. tick marks on
the figure below) in different frames lie on hyperbolas obtained by setting the above quadratic form to a
constant.

t t' t''

z
x''
x'
zx

The interval of distance s between two events, p labeled by (0, 0, 0, 0) and q labeled either by (t, x, y, z)
or (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ), that is defined by the expression s = −t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 has the property that it yields
the same result regardless of the frame it is evaluated in i.e. −t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 = −t02 + x02 + y 02 + z 02 :
it is known as the spacetime interval.

Remark. Notice that we had labelled p by (0, 0, 0, 0) without loss of generality. For any other point
p1 labeled by (t1 , x1 , y1 , z1 ) and point p2 labeled by (t2 , x2 , y2 , z2 ), the spacetime interval between p1 and
p2 is simply s = −(t1 − t2 )2 + (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 = ∆t2 + ∆x2 + ∆y 2 + ∆z 2 .

The form of the spacetime interval is a consequence of 1) the relation between spatial distance to the
product of the speed and the elapsed time within the same frame, and 2) demanding that the speed of
light c is the same in different frames. The logic for how one arrives at this form can be most clearly
seen from considering a ray of light propagating from p to q in two different frames. Using (1) in the
F : (t, x,
py, z) frame, we write the spatial distance traversed by the ray of light in two equivalent ways:
ct and x2 + y 2 + z 2 , and these are equal to each other, so we have −c2 t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0. Using
(2), we can write precisely the same expression in the F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) frame because c is the same in
both frames −c2 t02 + x02 + y 02 + z 02 = 0. Writing this in geometric units c = 1 gives us the quadratic
form s = −t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 , and since (2) demands that this form remain the same in different frames,
we must find a set of transformations t → t0 , x → x0 , y → y 0 , z → z 0 between frames that preserves this
quadratic form.

Look closely at how we arrived at the Lorentz transformations

t = γt0 + γβx0 ,
x = γβt0 + γx0 ,
y = y0 ,
z = z0. (1)
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in the first lecture, and you notice that these transformations can be defined in the following way:
the Lorentz transformations are precisely the transformations under which the spacetime interval is
invariant.
To obtain (1) from first principles, i.e. from demanding that it preserves the spacetime interval, is
straightforward. Contours of constant spacetime interval −t2 + x2 + y 2 + z 2 = const. are hyperbolas,
and so are preserved by the hyperbolic rotations

t = (cosh ψ)t0 + (sinh ψ)x0 ,

x = (sinh ψ)t0 + (cosh ψ)x0 ,
y = y0 ,
z = z0 (2)

where ψ is some real number and cosh ψ = (eψ + e−ψ )/2 and sinh ψ = (eψ − e−ψ )/2 are the hyperbolic
cosine and sine functions, respectively. The identity cosh2 ψ − sinh2 ψ = 1 suffices to verify that (2)
preserves the spacetime interval −t2 +p x2 + y 2 + z 2 = −t02 + x02 + y 02 + z 02 . Determining cosh ψ and sinh ψ
in terms of the Lorentz factor γ = 1/ 1 − β 2 and the boost parameter β is easiest to see using a frame
F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) that is boosted by β with respect to frame F : (t, x, y, z). An object rest in F 0 that is
located at x0 = y 0 = z 0 = 0 has x0 = 0 for all t0 , so (2) gives us t = (cosh ψ)t0 , x = (sinh ψ)t0 . In the frame F
0
this object is boosted by β simply because p F is boosted by β with respect to F , so β = x/t =ptanh ψ. This
gives us sinh ψ = sinh(tanh β) = β/ 1 − β 2 = γβ and cosh ψ = cosh(tanh−1 β) = 1/ 1 − β 2 = γ,
−1

and we’re done.

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Examples

We need examples.

Time Dilation
Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β. A
point-like object at rest in F 0 at x0 = 0, y 0 = 0, z 0 = 0 gets from p to q in ∆t0 . How long does this take
according to someone at rest in F ?
First notice that ∆x0 = 0 since the point-like object is at rest in F 0 .
Use the Lorentz transformations
0
∆t = γ∆t0 + γβ
∆x 0
*

0
∆x = γβ∆t0 + γ
∆x 0
, (3)
*


to see that ∆x/∆t = β.

Use the invariance of the spacetime interval between points p and q to write −∆t02 + ∆x02 = −∆t2 + ∆x2
with ∆x0 = 0 to get ∆t02 = −∆t2 + (∆x/∆t)2 ∆t2 = −∆t2 + β 2 ∆t2 = −∆t2 /γ 2 , and we conclude that
∆t = γ∆t0 .

t t'
Δx
q

Δt Δt' x'

p x
Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β.
A point-like object at rest in F at x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 gets from p to q in ∆t. How long does this take
according to someone at rest in F 0 ?
First notice that ∆x = 0 since the point-like object is at rest in F .
Use the Lorentz transformations

∆t0 = γ∆t − γβ*0

∆x


∆x0 = −γβ∆t + γ*0

∆x,
 (4)

to see that ∆x0 /∆t0 = −β.

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Use the invariance of the spacetime interval between points p and q to write −∆t02 + ∆x02 = −∆t2 + ∆x2
with ∆x = 0 to get ∆t2 = −∆t02 + (∆x0 /∆t0 )2 ∆t02 = −∆t02 + (−β)2 ∆t02 = −∆t02 /γ 2 , and we conclude
that ∆t0 = γ∆t.

t t'
Δx'
q
Δt' x'
Δt

p x
Remark. We have just demonstrated time dilation: if there exists a rest frame joining two events p
and q, then these same endpoints projected onto any other frame yields a measured time that is “dilated”
by a factor of γ ≥ 1.

Length Contraction
Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β.
An extended object is at rest in F with length ∆x. What is its length in F 0 ?
First notice that ∆t0 = 0 since the object’s length is being measured in F 0 .
Use the Lorentz transformations
0
0
∆t = γ
∆t
* + γβ∆x0
0
0
∆x = γβ
∆t* + γ∆x0 , (5)
to see that ∆t/∆x = β.
Use the invariance of the spacetime interval between points a and b to write −∆t02 + ∆x02 = −∆t2 + ∆x2
with ∆t0 = 0 to get ∆x02 = −(∆t/∆x)2 ∆x2 + ∆x2 = −β 2 ∆x2 + ∆x2 = ∆x2 /γ 2 , and we conclude that
∆x0 = ∆x/γ.

t t'

b x'
Δx' Δt
a
Δx x
Example. F : (t, x, y, z) and F 0 : (t0 , x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) are in standard configuration with boost parameter β.
An extended object is at rest in F 0 with length ∆x0 . What is its length in F ?
First notice that ∆t = 0 since the object’s length is being measured in F .
Use the Lorentz transformations

∆t0 = γ*−0 γβ∆x

∆t


∆x0 = −γβ *+0 γ∆x,

∆t
 (6)
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to see that ∆t0 /∆x0 = −β.

Use the invariance of the spacetime interval between points a and b to write −∆t02 + ∆x02 = −∆t2 + ∆x2
with ∆t = 0 to get ∆x2 = −(∆t0 /∆x0 )2 ∆x02 + ∆x02 = −(−β)2 ∆x02 + ∆x02 = ∆x02 /γ 2 , and we conclude
that ∆x = ∆x0 /γ.

t t'

x'
Δx'
Δt'
a Δx b x
Remark. We have just demonstrated length contraction: if an extended object has endpoints p
and q in its rest frame, in any other frame it will have different endpoints a and b which yield a measured
length that is “contracted” by a factor of 1/γ ≤ 1.
Remark. Notice that the apparent opposition between “dilation” in time and “contraction” in length
is only because of the difference in the way we measure elapsed time and spatial length. The Lorentz
transformations act on time and space in a symmetric way.