History Of Geometry

GEOMETRY
 Derived from the Greek words geô, “earth”, and metrein, “to measure”.
 It is an accurate description of the works of the earliest geometers, who were
concerned with problems such as measuring the size of fields and laying out
accurate right angles for the corners of buildings.
 A branch of mathematics that deals with shapes and sizes. Geometry may be
thought of as the science of space.

 HISTORY OF GEOMETRY

ANCIENT GREEK GEOMETRY

 Thales of Miletus
 One of the seven pre-Socratic Sages.
 Thales is credited with several simple but important theorems, including the proof
that an angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. (Thales Theorem)
 First to demonstrate the truth of a geometric relation-ship by showing that it
followed in a logical, orderly fashion from a set of universally accepted statements,
called postulates or axioms.
 Pythagoras of Samos
 Considered the first true mathematician.
 Emphasized the study of mathematics as a means to understanding all relationships
in the natural world.
 Pythagorean Theorem
 Hippocrates of Chios
 Wrote the first "Elements of Geometry“.
 Includes geometric solutions to quadratic equations and early methods of
integration.
 Squaring the circle & the lune.
 Hippocrates was also the first to show that the ratio of the areas of two circles
was equal to the ratio of the squares of their radii.
 Plato
 "The Academy“ (387 BC-529 AD)
 Emphasized the idea of 'proof' and insisted on accurate definitions and clear
hypotheses.
 Theaetetus of Athens
 Creator of Solid Geometry
 Study the octahedron and the icosahedron
 Construct all five regular solids.
 His work formed Book X and XIII of Euclid’s “Elements”.
 Eudoxus of Cnidus
 Developed a theory of proportion.
 Did early work on integration using his method of exhaustion by which he
determined the area of circles and the volumes of pyramids and cones. (1st seed of
Calculus)
 Menaechmus
 Discovered the conic sections
 First to show that ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas are obtained by cutting a cone
in a plane not parallel to the base.
 Euclid of Alexandria
  13 Book treatise "The Elements“
 A collection of the theorems of Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Theaetetus, Eudoxus and
other predecessors into a logically connected whole.
 Archimedes of Syracuse
 Greatest of Greek mathematicians.
 The volume of a sphere is two-thirds the volume of its circumscribed cylinder
 Accurate approximations to pi and square roots.
 Apollonius of Perga
 The Great Geometer
 "Conics" - 8 Books
 Determined the center of curvature and the evolute of the ellipse, parabola, &
hyperbola.
 Construct the circle which is tangent to three objects (points, lines or circles).
 Hipparchus of Rhodes
 Used and documented the foundations of trigonometry.
 Published several books of trigonometric tables & the methods for calculating
them.
 Divide circles into 360 degrees (each degree divided into 60 min.)
 Heron of Alexandria
 "Metrica" (3 Books) which gives methods for computing areas and volumes
 Heron’s formula – a formula in finding the area of a triangle given a, b, and c.
 Menelaus of Alexandria
 Developed spherical geometry in his only surviving work "Sphaerica" (3 Books).
 "Menelaus's Theorem“- about how a straight line cuts the three sides of a triangle
in proportions whose product is (-1).
 Claudius Ptolemy
 "Almagest" (13 Books) - geocentric theory of planetary motion
 "Ptolemy's Theorem", states that for a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, the
product of its diagonals is equal to the sum of the products of its opposite sides.
 Pappus of Alexandria
 Last of the great Greek geometers
 "Synagoge“: arithmetic, mean proportionals, geometrical paradoxes, regular
polyhedra, the spiral and quadratrix
 "Pappus' Theorem" - forms the basis of modern projective geometry
 Hypatia of Alexandria
 1st woman to make a substantial contribution to the development of mathematics
 Wrote an eleven part commentary on Ptolemy's Almagest, and a new version of
Euclid's Elements.

THE MIDDLE AGES

 Advances in geometry were made largely by Muslims in the Middle East and North
Africa and Hindus in India.
 Most of the works of Greek mathematics were scattered or lost.
 Some were translated and studied by the Muslims and Hindus.
 Aryabhata, an Indian mathematician, rediscovered the formula for the area of an
isosceles triangle.
 Aryabhata determined the value of pi with remarkable accuracy to four decimal
places, setting it equal to 62832/20000 or 3.1416.
 During the 12th and 13th centuries Elements was translated from Greek and Arabic
into Latin and the modern European languages, and geometry was added to the
curriculum of monastery schools.
 17TH & 18TH CENTURY TO MODERN GEOMETRY
 Rene Descartes
 La Geometrie (1637 Manuscript) – applied algebra to geometry and created analytic
geometry.
 Believed science and mathematics could explain and predict events in the physical
world.
 Developed the Cartesian coordinate system for graphing equations and geometric
shapes.
 Girard Desargues
 Invented perspective geometry.
 Published his famous “Desargues’ Theorem” for two triangles in perspective, which
later evolved into projective geometry.
 Pierre de Fermat
 Recognized as an independent co-creator of analytic geometry
 Developed a method for determining maxima, minima and tangents to curved lines
foreshadowing calculus.
 Blaise Pascal
 Co-inventor of modern projective geometry
 Proved many projective geometry theorems, the earliest including "Pascal's mystic
hexagon" (1639).
 Giovanni Saccheri
 Italian Jesuit who did important early work on non-euclidean geometry
 Leonhard Euler
 Greatest modern mathematician
 Founded mathematical analysis, and invented mathematical functions, differential
equations, and the calculus of variations.
 Euler, Monge, and Gauss are considered the three fathers of differential geometry.
 “Euler’s Formula” (𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos x + i sin x) & “Euler’s Identity” (𝑒 iπ+ 1 = 0)
 In 1766, Euler became almost totally blind.
 He published over 800 papers and books, and his collected works fill 25,000 pages
in 79 volumes.
 Gaspard Monge
 Considered the father of both descriptive geometry & differential geometry
 Introduced the concept of lines of curvature on a surface in 3-space.
 Carl Friedrich Gauss
 Contributed to many areas of math, including probability theory, algebra, and
geometry
 Proved that every polynomial has at least one root, or solution (the fundamental
theory of algebra)
 Nikolai Lobachevsky
 Published the first account of non-Euclidean geometry to appear in print.
 Instead of trying to prove Euclid’s 5th axiom, he studied the concept of a geometry
in which that axiom may not be true.
 Janos Bolyai
 A pioneer of non-Euclidean geometry
 He left more than 20000 pages of mathematical manuscripts, which are now in a
Hungarian library.
 Jean-Victor Poncelet
 One of the founders of modern projective geometry
 Coined the term “projective geometry”
  Hermann Grassmann
 Creator of vector analysis and the vector interior (dot) and exterior (cross)
products
 He invented what is now called the n-dimensional exterior algebra in differential
geometry.
 Arthur Cayley
 An amateur mathematician who unified Euclidean, non-Euclidean, projective, and
metrical geometry.
 Introduced algebraic invariance, and the abstract groups of matrices and
quaternions
 Bernhard Riemann
 Next great developer of differential geometry
 Developed geodesic coordinate systems and curvature tensors in n-dimensions.
 Felix Klein
 Connections between geometry and group theory.
 "Erlanger Programm" (1872) - synthesized geometry as the study of invariants
under groups of transformations
 "Klein Bottle"
 David Hilbert
 "Grundlagen der Geometrie“ - put geometry in a formal axiomatic setting based on
21 axioms.
 Tried to establish a consistent basis for all of mathematics, but later
mathematicians showed that this was impossible.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS

Since participation in games and gambling is as old as mankind, it seems as if the
idea of probability should be almost as old. But, the realization that one could predict an
outcome to a certain degree of accuracy was unconceivable until the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. This idea that one could determine the chance of a future event
was prompted from the necessity to achieve a predictable balance between risks taken and
the potential for gain. In order to make a profit, underwriters were in need of dependable
guidelines by which a profit could be expected, while the gambler was interested in
predicting the possibility of gain.
The Word statistics have been derived from Latin word “Status” or the Italian word
“Statista”, meaning of these words is “Political State” or a Government. Shakespeare used
a word Statist is his drama Hamlet (1602). In the past, the statistics was used by rulers.
The application of statistics was very limited but rulers and kings needed information
about lands, agriculture,commerce, population of their states to assess their military
potential, their wealth, taxationand other aspects of government.

Gottfried Achenwall used the word statistik at a German University in 1749 which
means that political science of different countries. In 1771 W. Hooper (Englishman) used
the word statisticsin his translation of Elements of Universal Erudition written by Baron
B.F Bieford, in his bookstatistics has been defined as the science that teaches us what is
the political arrangement of all the modern states of the known world. There is a big gap
between the old statistics and the modern statistics, but old statistics also used as a part
of the present statistics.
 During the 18th century the English writer have used the word statistics in their
works, so statistics has developed gradually during last few centuries. A lot of work has
been done in the end of the nineteenth century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, William S Gosset was developed

the methods for decision making based on small set of data. During the 20th century
several statistician are active in developing new methods, theories and application
of statistics. Now these days the availability of electronics computers is certainly a major
factor in the modern development of statistics.

Early beginnings

450 BC Hippias of Elis uses the average value of the length of a king’s reign (the mean) to
work out the date of the first Olympic Games, some 300 years before his time.

431 BC Attackers besieging Plataea in the Peloponnesian war calculate the height of the
wall by counting the number of bricks. The count was repeated several times by different
soldiers. The most frequent value (the mode) was taken to be the most likely. Multiplying it
by the height of one brick allowed them to calculate the length of the ladders needed to
scale the walls.

400 BC In the Indian epic the Mahabharata, King Rtuparna estimates the number of fruit
and leaves (2095 fruit and 50 000000 leaves) on two great branches of a vibhitaka tree by
counting the number on a single twig, then multiplying by the number of twigs. The
estimate is found to be very close to the actual number. This is the first recorded
example of sampling – “but this knowledge is kept secret”, says the account.

AD 7 Census by Quirinus, governor of the Roman province of Judea, is mentioned in Luke’s

Gospel as causing Joseph and Mary to travel to Bethlehem to be taxed.

AD 2 Chinese census under the Han dynasty finds 57.67million people in 12.36million
households – the first census from which data survives, and still considered by scholars to
have been accurate.

840 Islamic mathematician Al-Kindi uses frequency analysis – the most common symbols in
a coded message will stand for the most common letters – to break secret codes. Al-Kindi
also introduces Arabic numerals to Europe.

10th century The earliest known graph, in a commentary on a book by Cicero, shows the
movements of the planets through the zodiac. It is apparently intended for use in
monastery schools.

1069 Domesday Book: survey for William the Conqueror of farms, villages and livestock in
his new kingdom – the start of official statistics in England.

1150 Trial of the Pyx, an annual test of the purity of coins from the Royal Mint, begins.
Coins are drawn at random, in fixed proportions to the number minted. It continues to this
day.

1303 A Chinese diagram entitled “The Old Method Chart of the Seven Multiplying
Squares” shows the binomial coefficients up to the eighth power – the numbers that are
fundamental to the mathematics of probability, and that appeared five hundred years
later in the west as Pascal’s triangle.

1346 Giovanni Villani’s Nuova Cronica gives statistical information on the population and
trade of Florence.
Mathematical Foundations

1560 Gerolamo Cardano calculates probabilities of different dice throws for gamblers.
1570 Astronomer Tycho Brahe uses the arithmetic mean to reduce errors in his estimates
of the locations of stars and planets.
1644 Michael van Langren draws the first known graph of statistical data that shows the
size of possible errors. It is of different estimates of the distance between Toledo and
Rome.
1654 Pascal and Fermat correspond about dividing stakes in gambling games and together
create the mathematical theory of probability.
1657 Huygens’s On Reasoning in Games of Chance is the first book on probability theory.
He also invented the pendulum clock.
1663 John Graunt uses parish records to estimate the population of London.
1693 Edmund Halley prepares the first mortality tables statistically relating death rates
to age – the foundation of life insurance. He also drew a stylised map of the path of a solar
eclipse over England – one of the first data visualisation maps.
1713 Jacob Bernoulli’s Ars conjectandi derives the law of large numbers – the more often
you repeat an experiment, the more accurately you can predict the result.
1728 Voltaire and his mathematician friend de la Condamine spot that a Paris bond lottery
is offering more in prize money than the total cost of the tickets; they corner the market
and win themselves a fortune.
1749 Gottfried Achenwall coins the word “statistics” (in German, Statistik); he means the
information you need to run a nation state.
1757 Casanova becomes a trustee of, and may have had a hand in devising, the French
national lottery.
1761 The Rev. Thomas Bayes proves Bayes’ theorem – the cornerstone of conditional
probability and the testing of beliefs and hypotheses.
1786 William Playfair introduces graphs and bar charts to show economic data.
1789 Gilbert White and other clergymen-naturalists keep records of temperatures, dates
of first snowdrops and cuckoos, etc; the data is later useful for study of climate change.
1790 First US census, taken by men on horseback directed by Thomas Jefferson, counts
3.9 million Americans.
1791 First use of the word “statistics” in English, by Sir John Sinclair in his Statistical
Account of Scotland.
1805 Adrien-Marie Legendre introduces the method of least squares for fitting a curve to
a given set of observations.
1808 Gauss, with contributions from Laplace, derives the normal distribution – the bell-
shaped curve fundamental to the study of variation and error.
1833 The British Association for the Advancement of Science sets up a statistics section.
Thomas Malthus, who analysed population growth, and Charles Babbage are members. It
later becomes the Royal Statistical Society
1835 Belgian Adolphe Quetelet’s Treatise on Man introduces social science statistics and
the concept of the “average man” – his height, body mass index, and earnings.
1839: The American Statistical Association is formed. Alexander Graham Bell, Andrew
Carnegie and President Martin Van Buren will become members.
1840 William Farr sets up the official system for recording causes of death in England and
Wales. This allows epidemics to be tracked and diseases compared – the start of medical
statistics.
1849 Charles Babbage designs his “difference engine”, embodying the ideas of data
handling and the modern computer. Ada Lovelace, Lord Byron’s niece, writes the world’s
first computer program for it.
1854 John Snow’s “cholera map” pins down the source of an outbreak as a water pump in
Broad Street, London, beginning the modern study of epidemics.
1859 Florence Nightingale uses statistics of Crimean War casualties to influence public
opinion and the War Office. She shows casualties month by month on a circular chart she
devises, the “Nightingale rose”, forerunner of the pie chart. She is the first woman
member of the Royal Statistical Society and the first overseas member of the American
Statistical Association.
1868 Minard’s graphic diagram of Napoleon’s March on Moscow shows on one diagram the
distance covered, the number of men still alive at each kilometre of the march, and the
temperatures they encountered on the way
1877 Francis Galton, Darwin’s cousin, describes regression to the mean. In 1888 he
introduces the concept of correlation. At a “Guess the weight of an Ox” contest in Devon
he describes the “Wisdom of Crowds” – that the average of many uninformed guesses is
close to the correct value.
1886 Philanthropist Charles Booth begins his survey of the London poor, to produce his
“poverty map of London”. Areas were coloured black, for the poorest, through to yellow
for the upper-middle class and wealthy
1894 Karl Pearson introduces the term “standard deviation”. If errors are normally
distributed, 68% of samples will lie within one standard deviation of the mean. Later he
develops chi-squared tests for whether two variables are independent of each other
1898 Von Bortkiewicz’s data on deaths of soldiers in the Prussian army from horse kicks
shows that apparently rare events follow a predictable pattern, the Poisson distribution.
1900 Louis Bachelier shows that fluctuations in stock market prices behave in the same
way as the random Brownian motion of molecules – the start of financial mathematics.
1908 William Sealy Gosset, chief brewer for Guinness in Dublin, describes the t-test. It
uses a small number of samples to ensure that every brew tastes equally good.
1911 Herman Hollerith, inventor of punch-card devices used to analyse data in US
censuses, merges his company to form what will become IBM, pioneers of machines to
handle business data and of early computers.
1916 During the First World War car designer Frederick Lanchester develops statistical
laws to predict the outcomes of aerial battles: if you double their size land armies are only
twice as strong, but air forces are four times as powerful.
1924 Walter Shewhart invents the control chart to aid industrial production and
management
1935 George Zipf finds that many phenomena – river lengths, city populations – obey a
power law so that the largest is twice the size of the second largest, three times the size
of the third, and so on.
1935 R. A. Fisher revolutionises modern statistics. His Design of Experiments gives ways
of deciding which results of scientific experiments are significant and which are not.
1937 Jerzy Neyman introduces confidence intervals in statistical testing. His work leads
to modern scientific sampling.
1940-45 Alan Turing at Bletchley Park cracks the German wartime Enigma code, using
advanced Bayesian statistics and Colossus, the first programmable electronic computer.
1944 The German tank problem: the Allies desperately need to know how many Panther
tanks they will face in France on D-Day. Statistical analysis of the serial numbers on
gearboxes from captured tanks indicates how many of each are being produced.
Statisticians predict 270 a month; reports from intelligence sources predict many fewer.
The total turned out to be 276. Statistics had outperformed spies.
1946 Cox’s theorem derives the axioms of probability from simple logical assumptions.
1948 Claude Shannon introduces information theory and the “bit” – fundamental to the
digital age.
1948-53 The Kinsey Report gathers objective data on human sexual behaviour. A large-
scale survey of 5000 men and, later, 5000 women, it causes outrage.
1950 Richard Doll and Bradford Hill establish the link between cigarette smoking and lung
cancer. Despite fierce opposition the result is conclusively proved, to huge public health
benefit.
1950s Genichi Taguchi’s statistical methods to improve the quality of automobile and
electronics components revolutionise Japanese industry, which far overtakes western
European rivals.
1958 The Kaplan–Meier estimator gives doctors a simple statistical way of judging which
treatments work best. It has saved millions of lives.
1972 David Cox’s proportional hazard model and the concept of partial likelihood.
1977 John Tukey introduces the box-plot or box-and-whisker diagram, which shows the
quartiles, medians and spread of data in a single image.
1979 Bradley Efron introduces bootstrapping, a simple way to estimate the distribution of
almost any sample of data.
1982 Edward Tufte self-publishes The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, setting
new standards for graphic visualisation of data.
1988 Margaret Thatcher becomes the first world leader to call for action on climate
change.
1993 The statistical programming language “R” is released, now a standard statistical tool.
1997 The term “Big Data” first appears in print.
2002 The amount of information stored digitally surpasses non-digital
2002 Paul DePodesta uses statistics – “sabermetrics” – to transform the fortunes of the
Oakland Athletics baseball team; the film Moneyball tells the story.
2004 Launch of Significance magazine.
2008 Hal Varian, chief economist at Google, says that statistics will be “the sexy
profession of the next ten years”
2012 The Large Hadron Collider confirms existence of a Higgs boson-like particle with
probability of five standard deviations – around one chance in 3.5 million that all they are
seeing is coincidence
2012 Nate Silver, statistician, successfully predicts the result in all 50 states in the US
Presidential election. He becomes a media star.

Statistics is about gathering data and working out what the numbers can tell us. From the
earliest farmer estimating whether he had enough grain to last the winter to the
scientists of the Large Hadron Collider confirming the probable existence of new
particles, people have always been making inferences from data. Statistical tools like the
mean or average summarise data, and standard deviations measure how much variation
there is within a set of numbers. Frequency distributions - the patterns within the
numbers or the shapes they make when drawn on a graph - can help predict future events.
Knowing how sure or how uncertain your estimates are is a key part of statistics. Today
vast amounts of digital data are transforming the world and the way we live in it.
Statistical methods and theories are used everywhere, from health, science and business
to managing traffic and studying sustainability and climate change. No sensible decision is
made without analysing the data. The way we handle that data and draw conclusions from it
uses methods whose origins and progress are charted here.
 HISTORY OF ALGEBRA

What is algebra?

>> comes from the arabic word “al-jabru” means restoration.

>> the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols;

Timeline of the development of algebra

1800 BC Egyptian Algebra

Greek Algebra 600 BC Babyonian Algebra
Diophantine Algebra 250 AD
600 AD Hindu’s Contributions
Arabic Algebra 800 AD
European Algebra
Development of Modern1500 AD th
Approaches in Algebra 19 Century

Father of Algebra >> Diophantus

Father of Modern Algebra>> Viete

STAGES OF ALGEBRA

The development of algebra progressed through 3 stages:

• Rhetorical – no use of symbols, verbal only

• Syncopated – abbreviated words

• Symbolic – use of symbols, used today

1. Rhetorical

• 1650 BCE-200 CE

• Early Babylonian and Egyptian algebras were both rhetorical

• In Greece, the wording was more geometric but was still rhetorical.

• The Chinese also started with rhetorical algebra and used it longer.

2. Syncopated
 200 CE-1500 CE
 Started with Diophantus who used syncopated algebra in his Arithmetica (250 CE) and
lasted until 17th Century BCE.
 However, in most parts of the world other than Greece and India, rhetorical algebra
persisted for a longer period (in W. Europe until 15 th Century CE).
3. Symbolic
 Began to develop around 1500 but did not fully replace rhetorical and syncopated algebra
until the 17th century
 Symbols evolved many times as mathematicians strived for compact and efficient notation
  Over time the symbols became more useable and standardized

Advance Algebra

 Polynomial FunctioNS
Function- is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the
property that each input is related to exactly one output.

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)

-Swiss mathematician and physicist. Born on April 15, 1707 in Basel, Switzerland. His father Paul
Euler was a pastor of the Reformed Church. His mother, Marguerite Brucker was a pastor’s
daughter. He has two young sisters, namely, Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena.

-Johann Bernoulli (friend of Euler’s father) who was a renowned European mathematician and
recognized Euler’s exceptional skills and persuaded him to discontinue young theology and shift to
Mathematics.

-January 7, 1734: Euler married Katharina Gsell. After almost 40 years of marriage, the latter
died (1773). After 3 years of her death, Euler married her half-sister, Salome Abigail Gsell.

1766: He suffered a cataract in his left eye leaving him almost completely blind.

1771: He lost his home in a fire in St. Petersburg.

Contributions:

-Introduction of the concept of functions. He pioneered in writing f(x) to signify the function “f”
applied to the argument “x”.

-He defined the contemporary notation for the trigonometric functions.

-The letter “e”, for the base of the natural logarithm (known as the Euler’s number) and “i” to
signify the imaginary unit.

To honor his stupendous achievements, he was marked on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc
banknote and on several Russian, Swiss and German postage stamps. Even the asteroid ‘2002 Euler’
was named after him. He is also venerated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints and
he was a committed Christian and a strong believer of the bible.

 SequenCE-In the 12th century, Leonardo Fibonacci wrote in Liber Abaci of a simple
numerical sequence that is the foundation for an incredible mathematical relationship
behind Phi.

-This sequence was known as early as the 6th century AD by Indian mathematicians but it was
Fibonacci who introduced it to the West after his travels throughout the Mediterranean World and
North Africa.

-Starting with 0 and 1, each new number in the sequence is simply the sum of the two before it.

Example: How many pairs of rabbits are created by one pair in one year?

Fibonacci-Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano in Italian since he was born in Pisa, Italy, the city
with the famous leaning tower, about 1175 AD. Leonardo of Pisa is known as Fibonacci, short for
“filius Bonacci”, which was used in the title of his book Libar Abaci which means “the son of
Bonaccio”. His father was Guglielmo Bonaccio. Fi-Bonacci is like the English names of Robin-son and
John-son.
 -He grew up with a North African education under the Moors and later travelled extensively
around the Mediterranean coast. He would have met many merchants and learned of their system of
doing arithmetic.

 Conic SectionS-The conic sections are the non-degenerate curves generated by the
intersections of a plane with a cone. For a plane which is not perpendicular to the axis and
which intersects only a single nape which is one pieces of the cone, the curve produced is
either an ellipse or parabola. The curve produced by a plane intersecting both napes is a
hyperbola.
Menaechmus (Greek, 375-325 BC)-Born on Alopeconnesus, Asia Minor (also known as Turkey
today). A pupil of Plato and Exodus in an attempt to solve the famous problem duplicating
the cube.

-Credits for discovering the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola---sections of cone-produced by

intersections of a plane with the surface of a cone-devices.

-He became the tutor of Alexander the Great.

-Also, aside from Menaechmus, Euclid (325-265 BC) and Appollonius of Perga (262-190 BC) also
studied conic sections.

Linear Algebra

*4000 years ago people of Babylon knew how to solve a simple 2×2 system of linear equations with
two unknowns.

*200 BC - Chiese published the "Nine Chapters of Mathematical Art".

*17th Century - power and progress of Linear Algebra came to fruition.

- Leibnitz (he studied determinants/values connected to a square matrix)

- Lagrange (Lagrange multipliers)

*50 years later - Cramer presented his ideas of solving systems of linear equations based on
determinants.

- Euler (his works dealt with the concept of unique solutions and square matrices)

*18th Century - Gauss introduced a procedure to be used in solving systems of liner equation
("Gaussian Elimanation")

*1848 - Sylvester introduced the term "matrix'

(Matrix is a latin word for womb, an array of numbers)

*1855 - Cayley (his works dealt with matrix algebra/matrix multiplication, introduced identity
matrix and inverse of a square matrix, represents matrix as "A".)

*19th Century - Linear Algebra was heavily connected with Physics issues.

*End of World War II - development of computers/linear algebra in computers

Abstract Algebra

What is abstract algebra?

-is also called modern algebra

- is the study of algebraic structures (groups, fields, rings, modules, vector etc.)
  Ash (1998) includes the following areas in his definition of abstract algebra: logic and
foundations, counting, elementary number theory, informal set theory, linear algebra, and
the theory of linear operators.

The Origins of Abstract Algebra

Major themes include:

 Solving of systems of linear equations, which led to linear algebra

 Arithmetical investigations of quadratic and higher degree forms and diophantine equations,
that directly produced the notions of a ring and ideal.

 Attempts to find formulae for solutions of general polynomial equations of higher degree
that resulted in discovery of groups as abstract manifestations of symmetry

I. EARLY GROUP THEORY

 There were several threads in the early development of group theory, in modern language
loosely corresponding to number theory, theory of equations, and geometry.

 Leonhard Euler

-considered algebraic operations on numbers modulo an integer,

modular arithmetic, in his generalization of Fermat's little theorem
- worked on number theory

 Joseph-Louis Lagrange

-introduced Lagrange resolvents.

-A common foundation for the theory of equations on the basis of the group
of permutations was found by mathematician Lagrange.

 Evariste Galois
-is the first to use the words group (groupe in French) and primitive in their modern
meanings.
-Galois also contributed to the theory of modular equations and to that of elliptic
functions.
-is honored as the first mathematician linking group theory and field theory, with
the theory that is now called Galois theory.

 Arthur Cayley
-realized that a group need not be a permutation group (or even finite), and may
instead consist of matrices, whose algebraic properties, such as multiplication and
inverses, he systematically investigated in succeeding years

II. MODERN ALGEBRA

These developments of the last quarter of the 19th century and the first quarter of 20th
century were systematically exposed in Bartel van der Waerden’s Moderne algebra, the two-
volume monograph published in 1930–1931 that forever changed for the mathematical world the
meaning of the word algebra from the theory of equations to the theory of algebraic structures.

Basic algebraic structures

 Fields

Niels Henrik Abel and Évariste Galois

 -they used the concept of field in their work on the solvability of polynomial equations with
rational coefficients of degree five or higher.

Heinrich M. Weber

-gave the first clear definition of an abstract field.

Emil Artin

- developed the relationship between groups and fields in great detail from 1928 through
1942.

 A field is a set F that is a commutative group with respect to two compatible operations,
addition and multiplication (the latter excluding zero), with "compatible" being formalized
by distributivity, and the caveat that the additive and the multiplicative identities are
distinct (0 ≠ 1)

 Familiar examples of fields are the rational numbers (fractions a/b where a and b are
positive or negative whole numbers), the real numbers (rational andirrational numbers), and
the complex numbers (numbers of the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers
and i2 = −1).

 Rings

Richard Dedekind

-he introduced the terms "ideal" and "module" and studied their properties. But Dedekind
did not use the term "ring" and did not define the concept of a ring in a general setting.

David Hilbert

-coined the term "Zahlring" (number ring).

Adolf Fraenkel

-gave the first axiomatic definition of a ring

Emmy Noether

-gave the modern axiomatic definition of (commutative) ring

 A ring is an algebraic structure with operations that generalize the arithmetic operations
of addition and multiplication. Briefly, a ring is an abelian group with a second binary
operation that is associative, is distributive over the abelian group operation and has an
identity element.

 As an algebraic structure, every field is a ring, but not every ring is a field. The most
important difference is that fields allow for division (though not division by zero), while a
ring need not possess multiplicative inverses.

 Groups

 The word group often refers to a group of operations, possibly preserving the symmetry of
some object or an arrangement of like objects.

 A group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set of elements together with

an operation that combines any two elements to form a third element

 One of the most familiar examples of a group is the set of integers together with
the addition operation; the addition of any two integers forms another integer.