Republic of the Philippines

Commission on Higher Education

DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

What is Hydroelectricity?

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the

production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the world’s total electricity and 70% of all renewable
electricity, and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years. Hydropower is
produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global
hydropower in 2013. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production
in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is
relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes
no water, unlike coal or gas plants. The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than
10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and reservoir, it is also a flexible
source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very
quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the
project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases
than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower.

Hydro power is electrical energy produced through the power of moving water. Power
obtained from the (typically gravitational) movement of water., Hydropower plants derive energy
from the force of moving water and harness this energy for useful purposes. Traditional uses
include watermills. In modern technology, hydropower moves turbines that pass on their energy
to a generator which then produces electric power. Hydropower is a type of renewable energy, and
once the power plant is constructed it produces little to no waste. Globally, hydropower contributes
more electricity than any other renewable energy type.

As the name hydropower suggests, water in lakes, rivers and other reservoirs is harnessed
or put to work to produce kinetic energy. Hydroelectric dams are built to generate electric power
by directing water through high pressure tunnels/penstocks to the turbines, which are wheels with
carved blades as spokes. The falling water spins the blades of the turbines connected to generators.
Hydropower, therefore, is influenced by both the quantity of water flowing at a certain rate
(discharge Q in cubic meter per second) and the difference in elevations at the head start and tail
end of the flow (head h in meters).
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

The History of Hydroelectric Power

The technology to take advantage of falling water and get useful mechanic energy is old.
The history of hydropower started over 2000 years ago, when water wheels were being used by
the ancient Greeks to grind grain. It was not until the Middle Ages that the technology was
spread to Europe.

Hydroelectric power was also important during the industrial revolution at the beginning
of the 1800’s and provided mechanical power for textile and machine industries.

Probably the most important year in hydropower history was in 1831 when the first
electric generator was invented by Michael Faraday. This laid the foundation for us to learn how
to generate electricity with hydropower almost half a century later, in 1878.

The first hydroelectric power plant, located in Appleton, Wisconsin, began to generate
electricity already in 1882. The power output was at about 12.5 kW. 7 years later, in 1889, the
total number of hydroelectric power plant solely in the US had reached 200.

In the 19th century these power plants got an increased amount of commercial attention
and was built rapidly in suitable areas all over the world. 1936 marks an important year – the
largest hydroelectric power plant, the Hoover Dam, was opened and generated 1345 MW
(installed capacity later increased 2080MW) from the flowing water in the Colorado River.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

During the first half of the 1900’s hydropower became the world’s most important source
of electricity.

In 2008, Three Gorges Dam in China was built. This is the largest power plant at current
date, generating 22.500 MW, adding to China’s installed hydroelectric capacity of 196.79 GW
(2009).

Hydropower is considered a mature technology contributes about 16% of global

electricity generation today and will contribute even more in the future. There’s almost 30 major
hydroelectricity projects with at least 2.000 MW capacity under development, most of which are
located in China.

The power of falling water has been used to produce electricity for over 135
years.
Some of the earliest innovations in using water power were conceived in China
during the Han Dynasty between 202 BC and 9 AD. Trip hammers powered by the
vertical-set water wheel were used to pound and hull grain, break ore, and in early
paper-making.

The availability of water power has long been closely associated with kick -
starting economic growth. When Richard Arkwright set up Cromford Mill in England’s
Derwent valley in 1771 to spin cotton and so set up one of the world’s first factory
systems, hydropower was the energy source he used.

Indeed, he was so convinced of the benefits of hydro that when he started using a
steam engine six years later, he used it to pump water into the mill pond rather than to
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

drive machinery directly. His enterprise quickly spread throughout the valley, and the
massive industrial buildings that he set up still stand – in a world heritage site.

While hydropower was quickly overwhelmed in the relatively flat English

landscape by coal-fired steam engines and, later, electricity generation – it was
hydropower that set the country’s industrial revolution running. In many regions of the
world, hydropower has played an equally major role in increasing and transforming
development.

Some of the key developments in hydropower technology happened in the first

half of the 19th century. In 1827, French engineer Benoit Fourneyron developed a
turbine capable of producing around 6 horsepower – the earliest version of the
Fourneyron reaction turbine.

In 1849, British–American engineer James Francis developed the first modern

water turbine – the Francis turbine – which remains the most widely-used water turbine
in the world today.

In the 1870s, American inventor Lester Allan Pelton developed the Pelton wheel,
an impulse water turbine, which he patented in 1880.
Into the 20th century, Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan developed the Kaplan turbine in
1913 – a propeller-type turbine with adjustable blades.

The world’s first hydroelectric project was used to power a single lamp in the
Crag side country house in Northumberland, England, in 1878. Four years later, the first
plant to serve a system of private and commercial customers was opened in Wisconsin,
USA, and within a decade, hundreds of hydropower plants were in operation.

In North America, hydropower plants were installed at Grand Rapids, Michigan

(1880), Ottawa, Ontario (1881), Dolgeville, New York (1881), and Niagara Falls, New
York (1881). They were used to supply mills and light some local buildings.
By the turn of the 20 th century the technology was spreading round the globe,
with Germany producing the first three-phase hydro-electric system in 1891, and
Australia launching the first publicly owned plant in the Southern Hemisphere in 1895.

In 1895, the world’s largest hydroelectric development of the time, the Edward
Dean Adams Power Plant, was created at Niagara Falls.

In 1905, a hydroelectric station was built on the Xindian creek near Taipei, with
an installed capacity of 500 kW. This was quickly followed by the first station in
mainland China, the Shilongba plan in the Yunnan province, which was built in 1910
and put into operation in 1912. Upon completion Shilongba had an installed capacity of
480 kW – today it is still in operation with an installed capacity of 6 MW.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

In the first half of the 20 th century, the USA and Canada led the way in
hydropower engineering. At 1,345 MW, the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River became
the world’s largest hydro-electric plant in 1936, surpassed by the Grand Coulee Dam
(1,974 MW at the time, 6,809 MW today) in Washington in 1942.

From the 1960s through to the 1980s, large hydropower developments were
carried out in Canada, the USSR, and Latin America.

Over the last few decades, Brazil and China have become world leaders in
hydropower. The Itaipu Dam, straddling Brazil and Paraguay, opened in 1984 at 12,600
MW (it has since been enlarged and uprated to 14,000 MW), and is today only eclipsed
in size by the 22,500 MW China Three Gorges Dam, which opened in 2008.

Hydropower today
Into the 21 st century, hydropower continues to catalyze growth around the world.
For example, it has played a key role in transforming Brazil into the seventh largest
country by GDP in 2012; not least through a period of very rapid economic growth
between 2000 and 2010, which saw its increase in (nominal GDP) value only outpaced
by the USA and China.

This was only possible with the massive increases in electricity output that have
been delivered by its investment in hydropower. In 2010, Brazil produced 349,000 GWh
of electricity, and by 2011 this had increased by 40 per cent to 489,000 GWh.
Remarkably, just 2 per cent of this energy came from imports, and around 80 per cent
from hydropower.

The result is a very modern fleet of very large hydropower stations – of which at
least 24 are rated at 500 MW or above. Brazil has made the most of its rich hydrological
resource to transform itself into a leader on the world stage, keep costs down and
maintain its energy independence from the rest of the world.

This is just one example of the massive stimulus to economic growth that
hydropower can provide; as we look towards the future the technology has a huge role to
play in bringing growth and prosperity to the developing world.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

KALAYAAN PUMP STORAGE POWER PLANT HISTORY

Kalayaan Pumped Storage Power Plant was built in 1982, it is the first of its kind in Southeast
Asia and the only pumped storage facility in the Philippines. Kalayaan I was upgraded from 150
MW to over 168 MW. Kalayaan II was built with a guaranteed capacity of 174.3 MW The
Kalayaan Complex serves as large peaking facility for the Luzon Grid but its primary function is
to provide frequency regulation and control. In the daytime, a period with a high demand for
power, the plant generates electricity. But at night, a period of low demand, Kalayaan pumps water
from Laguna Lake into Caliraya, an ingenious way of storing energy

• Kalayaan Power Plant - Philippines, 1999-2004

• The Project is financed by IMPSA (Argentina) under BROT (Built, Rehabilitate, Operate,
Transfer) agreement with NPC National Power Corporation.
• The Plant consists of the construction of the new Kalayaan PSP Stage II with a capacity
of 2x185 MW reversible pumping/generating units. The rehabilitation of the two existing
Caliraya and Botocan hydropower plant of 32 MW and 20 MW, respectively, is also
included in the frame of the CBK project.
• The Kalayaan pumped storage plant is the first of this type in the Philippines, built to
provide much needed peak power capacity to the Luzon electric grid. The Project makes
use of the head available between the upper Caliraya reservoir, of 83 million m3 capacity,
built in the 40's to feed a traditional hydropower plant, and Laguna de Bay, a huge natural
lagoon of brackish water. The first stage, commissioned in 1983, is equipped with two
150 MW reversible units. This project will realize the second stage, constituted by a new
penstock and powerhouse, as well as associated structures.
• In its final configuration (six stages), the project will include the following structures:
• Two intake structures on the shore of the existing Caliraya reservoir and relevant
approach channels;
• Six outdoor steel penstocks, 6.0 m diameter, 1.3 km long, with a terminal bifurcation;
• Six shaft powerhouses, equipped with 12 reversible Francis turbines, with the following
characteristics:

 Head (generating mode): between 286.5 and 278.0 m;

 Discharge (generating mode): between 62.6 and 61.4 m3/s;
 Nominal capacity (generating mode): 150 MW (185 MW for the 2nd
stage) x 12;
 Head (pumping mode): between 291.0 and 284.5 m;
 Discharge (pumping mode): between 44.8 and 48.7 m3/s;
 Nominal capacity (pumping mode): 145 MW x 12.
• Significant technical aspects of Kalayaan project are related to the high ratio between the
penstocks length and the available head. In order to achieve a satisfactory frequency
regulation, it was necessary to enlarge and optimize the penstock diameter. Detailed
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

studies have been carried out to verify the hydraulic conditions into the penstocks,
especially the bifurcations, during the hydraulic transients.
• Description of Actual Services provided by the Staff:
 Topographical and geological investigations
 Hydrological analyses and reservoir operation studies
 Quantity and cost estimates, construction planning
 Final design and preparation of complete tender documents for the civil
works
 Construction Design and Construction Supervision

KALAYAAN PUMP STORAGE POWER PLANT

(GENERAL INFORMATTION)

Type: Pumped Storage Scheme (Hydro Power Plant)

Area: Barangay San Juan, Kalayaan, Laguna, Luzon Island

River: Caliraya

Power Total Capacity (1 and 2): 684 MW (2 x 168 MW, 2 x 174 MW)

Owner: CBK Power Co Ltd

Shareholders: J-Power (50%), Sumitomo Corporation (50%)

Activity since: 1983

THE KALAYAAN PUMP STORAGE POWER PLANT (KPSPP) is the first of its kind
in Southeast Asia. Located in Kalayaan, Laguna, the plant lies along the eastern part of Laguna
Lake and is situated near Metro Manila, the largest consumption center of power in the country.
KPSPP’s main purpose is to supply peaking power to the Luzon Grid. It utilizes excess power
during times when there is low power demand to pump water from a lower reservoir (Laguna
Lake) for storage in an upper reservoir (the Caliraya Lake) at night. During times of high power
demand, the stored water in the upper reservoir is released and used to generate power as it returns
to the lower reservoir.

The Kalayaan Pumped Storage Power Project(Stage II) is an extension project for the existing
Kalayaan Pumped Storage Power Project(Stage I, 300MW), which is located approximately 60km
southeast of Manila. It aims to provide 300MW of pumped storage power generation by utilizing the head
of 289m between the existing Caliraya Reservoir and the Laguna de Bay. Its commercial operation is
scheduled to start in 1997. This project, planned to be extended still further so as to generate up to 2,000MW
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

of power, is a major project designed to meet rapidly increasing peak power demand in the Metropolitan
area.

Component of Kalayaan Pumped Storage Power Plant

THE SERVICE BUILDING Located on the right side of the powerhouse, has an area of
48.7m x 26.2m and height of 23.3m. It is composed of a steel frame structure braced by external
concrete shaped walls. The Service Building was designed to ensure the housing of the necessary
services for all the future expansion of KPSPP. At present, the building houses facilities like
offices, a warehouse, oil treatment depot, various workshops, machinery, an emergency diesel
generator, and the emergency 1 MW Pelton Turbine.

1-MW MINI – HYDRO POWER UNIT It is a Pelton turbine type small hydro unit which
can provide station service power even during the entire grid power failure so that the Kalayaan
Pump Storage Power Plant can energies the grid initially. (Black Start Function)
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

THE UPPER CANAL Upper Canal connects the Caliraya Reservoir with the intake
structure of KPSPP. It is an excavated unlined channel having a trapezoidal shape, 45 m bottom
width, and bank slope of 1.7:1 horizontal against the vertical. The canal, about 1 km long with
maximum water depth of 6.5 m.

THE CONTROL BUILDING Adjacent to the powerhouse shaft and in front of the
service building, it is a conventional reinforced concrete structure with external shaped walls
developed on the three floors plus the basement. The building houses various offices and the
TRANSCO (now NGCP) Substation Control Room.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

The KALAYAAN INTAKE is located at the end of the forebay area and consists of a
concrete gravity structure 32 m high and 115.26 m long, having crest at elevation 294 masl. Like
the upper canal and the forebay, the intake structure was built to serve KPSPP. The intake is
provided with mouth opening and equipped with trash racks, hydraulically operated wheel-
mounted gates, and a water level recording device.

THE POWER HOUSE Each Powerhouse contains two Francis vertical and synchronous
generators with a total Guaranteed Net Contracted Capacity (GNCC) of 336 MW for KPSPP I and
348.6 MW for KPSPP II. It is a vertical shaft, horse-shoe shaped structure, excavated below the
ground level. The main access is located at El.+6.50 masl, through the Ventilation Building in
which at El.+9.90 masl. are located the ventilation equipment for each unit and the elevator room.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

1-MW DIESEL GENSET Serve as an additional station service power source in case of
emergency. It can provide enough power to start Kalayaan Units during blackstart operation.

The Penstock-I is located in the excavated section of trapezoidal shaped open trench,
having a bottom width of 32.7 m. The penstock has a diameter of 6m which reduces to 5.5m. The
pipe is embedded in 6 concrete anchor blocks located at each slope change and is supported by
saddles spaced at regular intervals of around 24m.

The Penstock–II is approximately 1, 300 m long, composed of two sections: above-ground

and underground. The former section is laid on an open trench and the underground portion, which
passes beneath the National Highway, has a bifurcation at the end that feeds two pump-turbine
units. The lay-out and dimensions of the Stage-II Penstock are the same those of Stage I
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

COMPONENT ORIGINAL GUARANTEED CURRENT NET

CAPACITY (MW) NET CONTRACTED
CONTRACTED CAPACITY (MW)
CAPACITY (MW)

KPSPP - I 300.00 (2X150.00) 336.00 (2X168.00) 366.00 (2X183.00)

KPSPP - II 348.60 (2X174.30) 370.00 (2 x 185.00)

Unit Caliraya Lumot Reservoir

Reservoir

Upper Reservoir

Catchment Area Km2 92 37

High Water Level masl EL.288.00 EL. 290.00

Low Water Level (4 Units masl EL.286.00 EL. 286.00

Effective Storage Capacity 106m3 22.0 22.0

Total Storage Capacity (Approx.) 106m3 80 40

Dam

Type Upstream side Upstream side

concrete protected concrete protected
earth-filled earth-filled
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Unit Caliraya Reservoir Lumot Reservoir

Spillway

Type Gated Ogee Morning Glory

Max. discharge volume CMS >500

Diameter x Length m 4.0 x 175

Lower Reservoir

(Laguna Lake)

Total Storage 2,250 ( ave. vol. )

Upper Canal

Water Surface Width @288 masl m 67.1

Bed Width m 45.0

Bed Elevation masl EL. 281.50

Penstock Stage I Stage II

Surface Portion

(Dia. x Length x Lines) m 6 to 5.5 x 1,213 x 1 6 to 5.5 x 1,066 x 1

Tunnel Portion

(Dia. x Length x Lines) m 5.5 x 219 x 1

Bifurcation Portion

(Dia. x Length x Lines) m U1= 3.3 x 108 x 1 U3= 3.3 x 33 x 1

m U2= 3.3 x 102 x 1 U4= 3.3 x 30 x 1

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

KPSPP I KPSPP II

Pump-Turbine

Type Reversible vertical Reversible vertical

Francis type Francis type

Number unit 2 2

As turbine/As pump As turbine/As pump

Rated Input/ Output (BROT) MW 177/147 177.5/147

Rated Net Head masl 286.50/289.5 286.50/289.5

Rated Discharge m 3 /s 69.6x2/48.1x2 69.1x2/48.1x2

Nominal Speed rpm 300 300

Motor- Generator

Type 3-ph, AC, 3-ph, AC,

Synchronous Synchronous
generator-motor generator-motor

Number unit 2 2

Generator/Motor Generator/Motor

Rated Apparent Power MVA 183/159 206/179.3

Frequency Hz 60 60

Pump-Up Starting System Pony motor, SVFC SVFC and back to

and back to back back start
start

Main Transformer

Type Outdoor, 3-phase, Outdoor, 3-phase,

oil immersed oil immersed
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Number unit 2 2

Continuous Rating MVA 183 243.1

Frequency Hz 60 60
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPONENTS OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

Classification of Hydropower Plants

The classification of hydro-electric plants is based upon

 Capacity or Size

 Available head

 Nature of load

 Quantity of Water Available

Classification According to Capacity or Size

Hydro plants are classified based on their capacities, as follows:

 micro-hydro - 1 to 100 kW;

 mini-hydro - 101 kW to 10 MW; and

 large hydro - more than 10 MW.

The total untapped hydropower resource potential of the country is estimated at 13,097
MW, of which 85 percent are considered large and small hydros (11,223 MW), 14 percent (1,847
MW) are classified as mini-hydros while less than 1 percent (27 MW) are considered micro-
hydros. Some projects in Luzon are available for private financing, while 20 are undergoing
feasibility studies and 82 are in the pre-feasibility stage.

Potential sites for mini and micro-hydro projects are evenly distributed in all the regions.
The National Electrification Administration (NEA), National Power Corporation (NPC) and the
DOE have studied specific mini-hydro potential sites and have lined them up as indicative
projects. The NEA has identified about 1,000 mini-hydro potential sites for development based
on its mini-hydro program which began in the 1980s. Likewise, NPC has identified potential
sites for mini-hydro development. In 1995, the DOE conducted a water resource inventory study
to validate NEA's and NPC's identified potential sites for promotion to private investors.
Meanwhile, a study conducted by United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory (US-
NREL) likewise revealed that micro-hydro potential sites are well distributed all over the regions
(Figure 7). Local government units (LGUs), non-government organizations (NGOs), electric
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

cooperatives (ECs), and DOE's Affiliated Non-Conventional Energy Centers (ANECs) supported
the study by conducting local identification projects. Another study entitled "Micro-hydropower
Development Study for Unenergized Barangays" is a Japanese-funded project which aims to
identify at least 40 micro-hydro sites for development in Regions I, II, III and Cordillera
Autonomous Region (CAR).

Classification According to Availability of Water Head

 Low-head (less than 30 m) hydro-electric plants: ‘‘Low head’’ hydro-electric plants are
power plants which generally utilize heads of only a few meters or less. Power plants of
this type may utilize a low dam or weir to channel water, or no dam and simply use the
‘‘run of the river’’. Run of the river generating stations cannot store water, thus their
electric output varies with seasonal flows of water in a river. A large volume of water
must pass through a low head hydro plant’s turbines in order to produce a useful amount
of power. Hydro-electric facilities with a capacity of less than about 25 MW (1 MW =
1,000,000 W) are generally referred to as ‘‘small hydro’’, although hydro-electric
technology is basically the same regardless of generating capacity. Consist of a dam
across river and create a fall, the water flowing through the turbines and rejoining the
river. No surge tank required. Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbine are employed.

 Medium-head (30–300 m) hydro-electric plants: These plants consist of a large dam in a

mountainous area which creates a huge reservoir. The Grand Coulee Dam on the
Columbia River in Washington (108 m high, 1,270 mwide, and 9,450 MW) and the
Hoover Dam on the Colorado River in Arizona/ Nevada (220 m high, 380 m wide, and
2000 MW) are good examples. These dams are true engineering marvels. In fact, the
American Society of Civil Engineers as designated Hoover Dam as one of the seven civil
engineering wonders of the modern world, but the massive lakes created by these dams
are a graphic example of our ability to manipulate the environment—for better or worse.
Dams are also used for flood control, irrigation, recreation, and often are the main source
of potable water for many communities. Hydro-electric development is also possible in
areas such as Niagra Falls where natural elevation changes can be used. The river water is
usually tapped off to a forebay on one bank of the river, from the forebay the water is led
to the turbines through penstocks.

 High-head hydro-electric plants: ‘‘High head’’ power plants are the most common and
generally utilize a dam to store water at an increased elevation. The use of a dam to
impound water also provides the capability of storing water during rainy periods and
releasing it during dry periods. This results in the consistent and reliable production of
electricity, able to meet demand. Heads for this type of power plant may be greater than
1,000 m. Most large hydro-electric facilities are of the high-head variety. High-head
plants with storage are very valuable to electric utilities, because they can be quickly
adjusted to meet the electrical demand on a distribution system. A Pressure tunnel is
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

constructed between reservoir to valve house at the start of penstock to carry water from
reservoir to valve house. Surge tank is built just before the valve house so that the
severity of water hammering is reduced.

Classification According to Nature of Load

 Peak Load Plants : The peak load plants are used to supply power at the peak demand
phase. The pumped storage plants and Gas Turbine plants are this type of plants. Their
efficiency varies between 60–70%.

 Base load plants: A base load power plant is one that provides a steady flow of power
regardless of total power demand by the grid. These plants run at all times through the
year except in the case of repairs or scheduled maintenance.

Classification According to Quantity of Water Available

 Run-off river plants without poundage: These plants does not have storage or
pondages to store water; Run-off river plants without pondages uses water as it comes.
The plant can use water as and when available. Since, generation capacity of these type
of plants these plants depend on the rate of flow of water, during rainy season high flow
rate may mean some quantity of water to go as waste while during low run-off periods,
due to low flow rates, the generating capacity will be low.

 Run-off river plants with pondage: In these plants, pondage allows storage of water
during lean periods and use of this water during peak periods. Based on the size of the
storage structure provided it may be possible to cope with hour-to-hour fluctuations. This
type of plant can be used on parts of the load curve as required, and is more useful than a
plant without pondage. If pondage is provided, tail race conditions should be such that
floods do not raise tail-race water level, thus reducing the head on the plant and impairing
its effectiveness. This type of plant is comparatively more conscientious and its
generatingcapacity is unabased on available rate of flow of water.

 Reservoir plants: A reservoir plant is that which has a reservoir of such size as to accede
carrying over storage from wet season to the next dry season. Water is stored behind the
dam and is available to the plant with control as required. This type of plant has better
extent and can be used efficiently throughout the year. Its firm capacity can be expanded
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

and can be utilized either as a base load plant or as a peak load plant as required. It can
also be used on any portion of the load curve as required. Maximum hydro-electric plants
are of this type. Hydropower projects with a reservoir (storage hydropower) store water
behind a dam for times when river flow is low. Therefore power generation is more stable
and less variable than for RoR plants. The generating stations are located at the dam toe
or further downstream, connected to the reservoirthrough tunnels or pipelines. Type and
design of reservoirs are decided by the landscape and in manyparts of the world are
inundated river valleys where the reservoir is an artificial lake Reservoir hydropower
plants can have major environmental and social impacts due to the flooding of land for
the reservoir.

 Pumped Storage Hydro Power Plant: Pumped storage plants are not energy sources,
instead they are storage devices. Water is pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper
reservoir, usually during off-peak hours, while flow is reversed to generate electricity
during the daily peak load period or at other times of need. Although the losses of the
pumping process make such a plant a net energy consumer, the plant provides large-scale
energy storage system benefits. Pumped storage is the largest capacity form of grid
energy storage now readily available worldwide.

 In-stream Hydropower Scheme: Basically in-stream Hydropower functions like a RoR

scheme, but the turbine is mostly built within the dam in the riverbed. Usually the river
flow is not diverted. To optimize existing weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines
or hydrokinetic turbines can be installed. At rivers close to the sea the technologies may
operate bi-directional (tidal).

COMPONENTS OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

1. Forebay/Reservoir
2. Dam
3. Trash Rack
4. INTAKE STRUCTURE
5. SURGE TANK
6. PENSTOCK
7. Spillway
8. Power House
9. Prime movers or Hydro Turbines
10. Draft tube
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Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 Forebay: The function of forebay is to act as regulating reservoir temporarily storing

water when the load on the plant is reduced and to provide water for initial increment of
an increasing load while water in the canal is being accelerated. In many cases, the canal
itself is large enough to absorb the flow variations. In short, forebay is naturally provided
for storage of water to absorb any flow variations if exist. This can be considered as
naturally provided surge tank as it does the function of the surge tank. The forebay is
always provided with some type of outlet structure to direct water to penstock depending
upon the local conditions.

 Dam: The function of dam is to increase the height of the water level (increase in the
potential energy) behind it which ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam
also helps in increasing the working head of the power plant. Dams are generally built to
provide necessary head to the power plant.

Types of Dam

1. Arch Dam

A concrete or masonry dam, which is curved upstream so as to transmit the major part of the
water load to the abutments. Double curvature arch dam. An arch dam, which is curved vertically
as well as horizontally. A concrete or masonry dam, which is curved upstream so as to transmit
the major part of the water load to the abutments. Double curvature arch dam. An arch dam,
which is curved vertically as well as horizontally.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

1. Buttress Dam

A dam consisting of a watertight part supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series
of buttresses. A buttress dam can take many forms, such as a flat slab or a massive head
buttress. Ambursen dam. A buttress dam in which the upstream part is a relatively thin flat slab
usually made of reinforced concrete. Multiple arch dam. A buttress dam composed of a series of
arches for the upstream face.

2. Diversion Dam

A dam built to divert water from a waterway or stream into a different watercourse.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

3. Embankment Dam

Any dam constructed of excavated natural materials or of industrial waste materials. Earth dam .
An embankment dam in which more than 50 percent of the total volume is formed of compacted
earth material generally smaller than 3-inch size. Hydraulic fill dam . An embankment dam
constructed of materials, often dredged, which are conveyed and placed by suspension in flowing
water. Rockfill dam. An embankment dam in which more than 50 percent of the total volume is
composed of compacted or dumped cobbles, boulders, rock fragments, or quarried rock generally
larger than 3-inch size.

 Trash Rack: The water intake from the dam or from the forebay are provided with trash
rack. The main function of trash rack is to prevent the entry of any debris which may
damage the wicket gates and turbine runners or choke-up the nozzles of impulse turbine.
During winter season when water forms ice, to prevent the ice from clinging to the trash
racks, they are often heated electrically. Sometimes air bubbling system is provided in the
vicinity of the trash racks which brings warmer water to the surface of the trash racks.

 Intake Structure: Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the
forebay and directs it into the penstocks. There are different types of intake structures are
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

available and selection of type of intake structure depends on various local conditions.
The KALAYAAN INTAKE is located at the end of the forebay area and consists
of a concrete gravity structure 32 m high and 115.26 m long, having crest at
elevation 294 meters above sea level.

 Surge Tank: The main function of surge tank is to reduce the water hammering effect.
When there is a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock which can be due sudden
decrease in the load demand on the generator. When there is sudden decrease in the load,
the turbine gates admitting water to the turbine closes suddenly owing to the action of the
governor. This sudden rise in the pressure in the penstock will cause the positive water
hammering effect. This may lead to burst of the penstock because of high pressures.
When there is sudden increase in the load, governor valves opens and accepts more water
to the turbine. This results in creation of vacuum in the penstock resulting into the
negative water hammering effect. Therefore the penstock should have to withstand both
positive water hammering effect created due to close of governor valve and negative
water hammering effect due to opening of governor valve.In order to protect the penstock
from these water hammering effects, surge tank is used in hydroelectric power station. A
surge tank is introduced in the system between dam and the power house nearest. Surge
tank is a tank provided to absorb any water surges caused in the penstok due to sudden
loading and unloading of the generator. When the velocity of the water in the penstock
decreases due to closing of turbine valves, the water level in the surge tank increases and
fluctuating up and down till its motion is damped out by the friction. Similarly when the
water accelerates in the penstock, water is provided by the surge tank for acceleration.
Surge tank water level falls down and fluctuates up and down absorbing the surges.

Types of Surge Tank

1. Simple Surge Tank

A simple surge tank is like vertical pipe which is connected in between penstock and turbine
generator. These are constructed with greater height and supports are also provided to hold the
tank. Whenever the water flow suddenly increased the water is collected in the surge tank and
neutralize the pressure.

Top of the surge tank is opened to atmosphere If surge tank is filled completely then it overflows
to maintain the pressure neutralization.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

2. Gallery Type Surge Tank

Gallery type surge tank consists extra storage galleries in it. These storage galleries are also
called as expansion chambers. So, gallery type surge tank can also be called as expansion
chamber type surge tanks.

These expansion chambers are generally provided at below and above the surge levels. Below
surge level chambers are used to storage excess water in it and released when it is required or
there is a brief drop in pressure. Upper surge level chambers are used to absorb the excess
pressure.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

3. Inclined Surge Tank

In case of inclined surge tank, the surge tank is provide with some inclination. It is provided
when there is a limit in height of tank. By providing inclined surge tank the overflowed water
under excess pressure is entered into inclined tank and pressure destroyed.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

4. Restricted Orifice Surge Tank

Restricted orifice consists an orifice between pipeline and surge tank. This orifice is also called
as throttle so, it is also called as throttled surge tank. This throttle or orifice have very small
diameter.

If the water overflows it should enter into the surge tank through this orifice. Because of small
diameter frictional losses will developed and excess pressure in main pipe line is destroyed. This
will creates quickly a retarding or accelerating head in the conduit. To reduce the water hammer
effect, diameter of orifice should be well designed for full rejection of load by the turbine.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

5. Differential Surge Tank

In case of differential surge tank, an internal riser is fixed in the tank. This riser have very small
diameter through which water enters into the riser when it overflows. The riser also contains
annular ports at its lower end.

These ports help the flow into or out of the tank. So, the excess pressure is destroyed by internal
riser of surge tank and storage of water is done by outer tank. So, it is called as differential surge
tank.

 Penstock: Penstock is a pipe between the surge tank and the prime-mover. The structural
design of the penstock is same as for any other pipe expect it has to bear high pressure on
the inside surface during sudden decease in the load and increase in the load. Penstocks
are made of steel through reinforced concrete. Penstocks are usually equipped with the
head gates at the inlet which can be closed during the repair of the penstocks, A sufficient
water head should be provided above the penstock entrance in the forebay or surge tank
to avoid the formation of vortices which may carry air in to the penstock and resulting in
lower turbine blade efficiency.

 Spill Way: The function of spillway is to provide safety of the dam. Spillway should
have the capacity to discharge major floods without damage to the dam and at the same
time keeps the reservoir levels below some predetermined maximum level.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 Power House: A power house consists of two main parts, a sub-structure to support the
hydraulic and electrical equipment and a superstructure to house and protect this
equipment. The superstructure of most power plants is the buildings that house all the
operating equipment. The generating unit and the exciter is located in the ground floor.
The turbines which rotate on vertical axis are placed below the floor level while those
rotating on a horizontal axis are placed on the ground floor alongside of the generator.
Power house is a building provided to protect the hydraulic and electrical equipment.
Generally, the whole equipment is supported by the foundation or substructure laid for
the power house. Each Powerhouse contains two Francis vertical and synchronous
generators with a total Guaranteed Net Contracted Capacity (GNCC) of 336 MW
for KPSPP I and 348.6 MW for KPSPP II.

 Prime movers or Hydro Turbines: The main function of prime movers or hydro
turbines is to convert the kinetic energy of the water in to the mechanical energy to
produce the electric power. The prime movers which are in common use are Pelton
wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbines.

 Draft Tube: The draft tube is a part of the reaction turbine. The draft tube is a diverging
discharge passage connecting the running with tailrace. It is shaped to decelerate the flow
with a minimum loss so that the remaining kinetic energy of the water coming out of the
runner is efficiently regained by converting into suction head., thereby increasing the
total pressure difference on the runner. This regain of kinetic energy of the water coming
out from the reaction turbine is the primary function of the draft tube. The regain of static
suction head in case where the runner is located above the tail water level is the
secondary purpose of the draft tube

Different types of Draft Tubes

1. Simple Elbow Draft Tube

Low head. This is simple in design. The incoming side and outgoing side has the same cross-
section. Efficiency 60%

2. Elbow with varying cross section

Inlet circular cross-section outlet rectangular cross-section. Generally used in Kaplan

Turbines. Efficiency 70%

3. Moody Spreading Draft Tube.

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

It reduces the whirling action of water. It has one inlet and two inlets.

Efficiency 88%

4. Conical Diffuser or Divergent Draft Tube

The cone angle is less than 10 degrees. If the cone angle is more then there is a chance of
cavitation.Efficiency 90%
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

TURBINE AND POWER HOUSE

Turbines

Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbine, a device which can convert the hydraulic energy into the mechanical
energy which again converted into the electrical energy by coupling the shaft of turbine to the
generator.

The mechanism in this case is, whenever the water coming from penstock strike the circular
blades or runner with high pressure it will rotate the shaft provided at the center and it causes
generator to produce electrical power.
Generally hydraulic turbines are of two types namely

 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Impulse turbine is also called as velocity turbine. Pelton wheel turbine is example for
impulse turbine. Reaction turbine is also called as pressure turbine. Kaplan turbine and Francis
turbine come under this category.

1. Impulse Turbine

An impulse turbine is a turbine that is driven by high velocity jets of water or steam from a
nozzle directed on to vanes or buckets attached to a wheel. The resulting impulse (as described
by Newton's second law of motion) spins the turbine and removes kinetic energy from the fluid
flow.

-Pelton turbine

A Pelton turbine has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space and
impinging on the buckets of a runner. Draft tubes are not required for impulse turbine since the
runner must be located above the maximum tailwater to permit operation at atmospheric
pressure.

Cross-Flow
A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular-section nozzle
directed against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner. It resembles a "squirrel cage"
blower. The cross-flow turbine allows the water to flow through the blades twice. The first pass
is when the water flows from the outside of the blades to the inside; the second pass is from
the inside back out. A guide vane at the entrance to the turbine directs the flow to a limited
portion of the runner. The cross-flow was developed to accommodate larger water flows and
lower heads than the Pelton.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

2. Reaction Turbine

A reaction turbine is a type of turbine that develops torque by reacting to the pressure or
weight of a fluid. The operation of reaction turbines is described by Newton's third law of motion
(action and reaction are equal and opposite).

Kaplan

The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid
changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. Power is recovered
from both the hydrostatic head and from the kinetic energy of the flowing water. The design
combines features of radial and axial turbines.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Francis Turbine

A Francis turbine is a type of turbine used most frequently in medium- or large-scale

hydroelectric plants. Water enters these turbines radially meaning that it enters the turbine
perpendicular to the rotational axis. Once entering the turbine, the water always flows inwards,
towards the center. Once the water has flown through the turbine, it exits axially - parallel to the
rotational axis.

*These were the turbines used in Kalayaan Pumped Storage Power Plant

Propeller

A propeller turbine generally has a runner with three to six blades in which the water
contacts all of the blades constantly. Picture a boat propeller running in a pipe. Through the pipe,
the pressure is constant; if it isn't, the runner would be out of balance. The pitch of the blades
may be fixed or adjustable. The major components besides the runner are a scroll case, wicket
gates, and a draft tube. There are several different types of propeller turbines:

Bulb Turbine
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly in the water stream.

Kinetic

Kinetic energy turbines, also called free-flow turbines, generate electricity from the kinetic
energy present in flowing water rather than the potential energy from the head. The systems may
operate in rivers, man-made channels, tidal waters, or ocean currents. Kinetic systems utilize the
water stream's natural pathway. They do not require the diversion of water through manmade
channels, riverbeds, or pipes, although they might have applications in such conduits. Kinetic
systems do not require large civil works; however, they can use existing structures such as
bridges, tailraces and channels.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

General Arrangement of Hydropower Powerhouse

Introduction to Powerhouse
In general, a powerhouse in hydropower plant may be divided into three areas:

The main powerhouse structure, housing the generating units and having either separate or
combined generator and turbine room,Erection bay, andService areas.

1. Main powerhouse structure

The generator room is the main feature of the powerhouse about which other areas are
grouped.

It is divided into bays or blocks with one generating unit normally located in each block. The
width (upstream-downstream dimensions) of the generator room for the indoor type should
provide for a passageway or aisle with a minimum width of 10 feet between the generators and
one powerhouse wall.

Kalayaan pumped storage power plant hydro power unit

The height of the generator room is governed by the maximum clearance height required for
dismantling and/or moving major items of equipment, such as parts of generators and turbines;
location of the crane rails due to erection bay requirements; the crane clearance requirements;
and the type of roof framing.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

All clearances should be adequate to provide convenient working space but should not be
excessive.

The elevation of the turbine room floor should be established so as to provide a minimum
requirement of 3 feet of concrete over a steel spiral case, or a minimum roof thickness of 4 feet
for a semispiral concrete case.

In establishing the distance between the generator and turbine room floors, if they are not
combined, the size of equipment to be handled in the turbine room, the head room between
platforms in the turbine pit, and the generator room floor construction should be considered.

2. Erection bay

In general, the erection bay should be located at the end of the generator room, preferably
at the same floor elevation and with a length equal to at least one generator bay.

The above length should be increased sufficiently to provide adequate working room if
railroad access is provided into the erection bay at right angles to the axis of the powerhouse.
However, no additional space should be required if the access railroad enters from the end of the
powerhouse.

In cases where the elevation of the crane rail would be dependent on the requirement that a
transformer with bushings in place be brought under the crane girder, consideration should be
given to the possible advantages of revising the layout to permit bringing the transformer in at
the end of the structure, at the end of the generator room, if the generator room is at a lower
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

elevation than the erection bay, or removing bushings before moving transformer into
powerhouse.

If the height required for untanking a transformer appears to be the controlling dimension, a
study should be made of the economy of installing a hatchway and pit in the erection bay floor to
provide the required height.

3. Service area

Service areas include: offices, control and testing rooms, storage rooms, maintenance shop,
auxiliary equipment rooms, and other rooms for special uses.

For plants located at the toes of gravity dams, the space available between the generator
room and the face of the dam is a logical location for most of the features enumerated above.

However, in all cases an economic study, which should include the cost of any added length
of penstock required, should be made before deciding to increase the space between the dam and
powerhouse to accommodate these features. The offices are frequently located on upper floors,
and the control room and other service rooms on lower floors.

The most advantageous location for the maintenance shop is usually at the generator room floor
level.

Kalayaan pumped storage power plant service area

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Space allocations
Space should be provided for some or all of the following features and uses, as required:

1. Public areas: main public entrance, reception area, public rest rooms, exhibits, and elevator.

2. Employee areas: employee entrance, equipment entrance, offices, office storage, rest rooms
for office use, control room, rest rooms for control room operators, kitchen for control room
operators, repair and test room for instruments, main generator rooms, main turbine rooms,
station service or fish water units area, erection and/or service areas.

3. Shops: machine, electrical, electronic, pipe, welding, sheet metal, carpenter, and paint with
spray booth.

4. Storage and miscellaneous areas: storage battery and battery charger rooms, cable galleries,
cable spreading room under control room, telephone and carrier current equipment room, oil
storage tank room, oil purification room, storage for paints and miscellaneous lubricants, storage
rooms, locker rooms with showers and toilet facilities, first aid room, lunch room with kitchen
facilities, elevator, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning equipment rooms, and auxiliary
equipment rooms.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVATAGES OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

 ADVANTAGES

 Hydropower is fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source, meaning it won't pollute
the air like power plants that burn fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.

 Hydroelectric power is a domestic source of energy, allowing each state to produce

their own energy without being reliant on international fuel sources.

 The energy generated through hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is driven
by the sun, making it a renewable power source, making it a more reliable and
affordable source than fossil fuels that are rapidly being depleted.

 Impoundment hydropower creates reservoirs that offer a variety of recreational

opportunities, notably fishing, swimming, and boating. Most water power
installations are required to provide some public access to the reservoir to allow the
public to take advantage of these opportunities.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 Some hydropower facilities can quickly go from zero power to maximum output.
Because hydropower plants can generate power to the grid immediately, they provide
essential back-up power during major electricity outages or disruptions.

 In addition to a sustainable fuel source, hydropower efforts produce a number of

benefits, such as flood control, irrigation, and water supply.

 Hydroelectric energy is renewable. This means that we cannot use up. However,
there’s only a limited number of suitable reservoirs where hydroelectric power plants
can be built and even less places where such projects are profitable.

 GreenGenerating electricity with hydro energy is not polluting itself. The only
pollution occurs during the construction of these massive power plants.

 Hydroelectricity is very reliable energy. There are very little fluctuations in terms of
the electric power that is being by the plants, unless a different output is desired.
Countries that have large resources of hydropower use hydroelectricity as a base load
energy source. As long as there is water in the magazines electricity can be generated.
 As previously mentioned, adjusting water flow and output of electricity is easy. At
times where power consumption is low, water flow is reduced and the magazine
levels are being conserved for times when the power consumption is high.

 Compared to among others fossil fuels and nuclear energy, hydroelectricity is much
safer. There is no fuel involved (other than water that is).

Others

 No fuel required
One of the major advantages of the hydroelectric power plants is that they don’t require any
fuel for producing power. The hydroelectric power plants utilize renewable energy of water to
generating electricity.

 Cost of electricity is constant

Since no fuel is required for the hydroelectric power plants, the cost of electricity produced by
them is more or less constant. It does not depend on the cost of fuels like coal, oil and natural gas
in the international market. The country doesn’t even have to import the fuel for running the
hydroelectric power plant thus saving lots of local currency.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 No air-pollution is created
Since the hydroelectric power plants don’t burn any fuel no pollution is caused by them. It
does not emit harmful gases and particulate matter, thus keeps the surrounding atmosphere clean
and healthy for living.

 Long life
The life of hydroelectric power plants is longer than the life of thermal power plants. There are
some hydroelectric power plants that were built more than 50-100 years ago and are still running.

 Cost of generation of electricity

For the working of hydroelectric power plant very few people are required since most of the
operations are automated, thus operating costs of hydroelectric power plants are low. Further, as
the hydroelectric power plants become older, the cost of generation of electricity from it becomes
cheaper since initial capital cost invested in the plant is recovered over the long period of
operations.

 Can easily work during high peak daily loads

The daily demand of power is not constant throughout the day. The peak power occurs at
night. It is very difficult to start and stop the thermal and nuclear power plants on daily basis. The
hydroelectric power plants can be easily started and stopped without consuming much time. Water
can be collected in the dam throughout the day and this can be used to generate electricity during
peak periods.

 Irrigation of farms
Water from the dams can also be used for the irrigation of farm lands thus producing the
agriculture outputs throughout the year even in the areas where there is scanty or no rainfall.

 Water sports and gardens

In vicinity of the dams the water from reservoir can be utilized to develop public recreational
facilities like water parks for water sports and gardens.

 Prevents floods
The dams also help prevent floods in the areas adjoining the large rivers.

 DISADVANTAGES

 Environmental Consequences

The environmental consequences of hydropower are related to interventions in nature due

to damming of water, changed water flow and the construction of roads and power lines.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Hydroelectric power plants may affect fish is a complex interaction between numerous
physical and biological factors. More user interests related to exploitation of fish species, which
helps that this is a field that many have strong opinions on.

Fish habitats are shaped by physical factors such as water level, water velocity and shelter
opportunities and access to food. Draining would be completely devastating to the fish. Beyond
this, the amount of water may have different effects on the fish in a river, depending on the type
and stage of the lifecycle. Not all unregulated river systems are optimal in terms of fish
production, because of large fluctuations in flow.

 Expensive

Building power plants in general is expensive. Hydroelectric power plants are not an
exception to this. On the other hand, these plants do not require a lot of workers and maintenance
costs are usually low.

 Drought

Electricity generation and energy prices are directly related to how much water is available.
A drought could potentially affect this.

 Limited Reservoirs

We have already started using up suitable reservoirs for hydroelectric power plants. There are
currently about 30 major power plants that are expected to generate more than 2.000 MW under
construction. Only one of these projects was started in the last two years.

Hydropower vs. Thermal Generation

1. Investment, O &M Costs and Useful Life

The hydropower project is capital-intensive, because of the many structures needed to be built. In
addition, because of the required construction work, site investigation to be able to design the project
is more extensive and expensive and implementation period is longer.

The hydropower is also site specific, and therefore, the cost of access and the associated
transmission lines may be considerable.

Unlike the thermal power where fuel cost is significant, water which is the fuel for a hydro is free.
It is also renewable as this is returned to the river after its use. The operating and maintenance cost for
the hydro therefore is almost nil.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

However, this resource (rivers and lakes) is a patrimony of the nation. The exploitation therefore,
of this resource by a private individual must not be viewed as perpetual.

The economic life is also longer - 50 years compared to thermal which is between 15 to 30 years.
Over the long term therefore, hydropower is the cheapest source considering the long useful life and
the overall costs.

2. Water Availability or Hydrology Risk

As mentioned before, unlike the thermal power project where fuel cost is significant, water as
fuel for hydropower is free. However, generation output depends on the volume of water available for
the turbine. The amount varies, however, for any given time.

3. Hydropower Performance in the System

The hydropower project can be designed to serve any place in the load curve. It can either be a
base load plant, a peaking station or an intermediate load station. It is versatile enough to be able to be
operated to serve the needs of the system. Please refer to Figure 5.

There are two components of generation output associated with operation, namely, the firm
energy or on-peak energy and the secondary or off-peak energy.

The firm energy is that output which can be guaranteed (defined at 90 to 95% reliability) to meet
a certain system requirement for a specified period of time. This energy can be dispatched during that
period and, therefore, has a high value than the second type. Associated with this energy is the
dependable or guaranteed capacity which can actually displace an equivalent thermal plant capacity
during operation of the system.

The secondary, off-peak or excess energy is that output which can be generated over and above
the firm when the availability of water warrants.

This type of energy cannot be dispatched and is valued less than the firm, specifically at the cost
of the thermal fuel used by an equivalent plant when that energy was utilized by the system.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

How it works?

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine
converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors:

1. How far the water falls. The farther the water falls; the more power it has. Generally, the
distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The higher the dam, the farther
the water falls and the more power it has. Scientists would say that the power of falling
water is "directly proportional" to the distance it falls. In other words, water falling twice
as far asmuch energy.
2. Amount of water falling. More water falling through the turbine will produce more power.
The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the river.
Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is also
"directly proportional" to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water as
another river can produce twice as much energy.

Operation and Maintenance

Basic Operation

（１） Check points before starting operation Before starting operation of the power plant, operators
must check the following items, and confirm if facilities are in good condition for operation. Especially in
cases after long-term suspension of operation, they should check them carefully.


Transmission and distribution line ・ Damage of lines and poles ・ Approaching branches ・
Other obstacles
 Waterway facilities ・ Damage of structures ・ Sand sedimentation in front of the intake ・
Suspended trash at screens ・ Sand sedimentation in the settling basin and the forebay
 Turbine, generator and controller ・ Abnormalities from the outside ・ Wear of brush ・
Insulation resistance of circuits
（２） Starting operation

After checking the above items, the turbine and generator are okay for operation. The procedure of
starting operation is as follows: （Preparation）

 Close the flushing gate of the intake weir

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 Open the intake gate and take water into the waterway system. （Starting operation）
 Open the inlet valve gradually.
 If there is a guide vane, open the inlet valve fully, and then open the guide vane gradually.
 Confirm that voltage and frequency or rotating speed increase up to the regulated value.
 Turn the load switch on (parallel in)
 Control inlet valve or guide vane so that voltage and frequency are within the regulated range.

（３） Role of operators during operation

Operators must control equipment in order to supply electricity of good quality keeping equipment
normal and safe as follows:

 Control the inlet valve or guide vane so that voltage and frequency are within the regulated range.
 Check vibration and noise of equipment, and then stop operation if necessary.
 Check temperature of equipment
 Check any abnormal condition of equipment, and then stop operation and take a measure if
necessary.
 Record results of operation and condition of equipment according to fixed format.

（４） Stopping operation

In order to avoid runaway of the turbine and the generator for a long time, the procedure of stopping
operation is as follows:

 Close the inlet valve or the guide vane.

 Cut load switch off (load rejection)
 Close the inlet valve and the guide vane completely.
 Close the intake gate

Maintenance

In order to operate micro-hydro power plants in good condition for a long period, waterway
facilities, electric equipment, transmission and distribution lines should be maintained adequately.
Operators must try to observe even small troubles and prevent accidents of facilities. For this purpose,
daily patrols and periodic inspections are essential and recording and keeping of those data are also
important. Though items and frequency of patrols and inspections should be decided considering
conditions of facilities and ways of use, general maintenance of micro-hydro power plants is as follows:

Daily patrol

In order to check if there is anything strange at waterway facilities, electric equipment,

transmission and distribution lines, operators conduct daily patrols along the course that has been fixed in
advance. Operators must record results of patrols and take meaures if necessary.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

PERIODIC INSPECTION

How efficient Hydroelectric Power Plant is?

Statistics indicate that hydroelectricity is used widely in several countries. Hydroelectricity is

generated in a hydroelectric power plant. These plants have been in existence for several decades, and
they have been efficient and dependable. They are termed as the oldest known way of generating energy.
The Hoover dam is a great paradigm of the magnitude of a hydroelectric power plant. Some of the
greatest hydropower plants are also amazing tourist attractions.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Efficiency of Hydroelectric Power

A hydropower plant can provide up to 90% efficiency throughout the year. This is generally
applicable to the power plants in association with large dams. This is because, large turbines can be
installed in large dams, and these dams have a strong flow of water consistently. So, irrespective of the
seasonal changes, the annual efficiency of around 85% to 90% can be achieved. The larger the dam, the
better is the efficiency of hydroelectricity. Smaller dams generally have smaller turbines, and the intensity
of the flow of water is also not consistent, so they have a lower efficiency. Few small hydropower plants
are estimated to have an efficiency of just 50%. It can easily be stated that, hydropower generation is very
efficient, but you can understand the significance of this efficiency, only when you compare it with the
efficiency of other methods of energy generation.

Hydro vs. Solar

Solar energy is termed as the ultimate alternative source of energy, but even by using the ultra
modern methods, the efficiency of solar power is around 40%, which is far less than the hydropower
generation.

Hydro vs. Wind

The electricity generation using wind power has a very low efficiency. It is probably around 20%
to 34%, this clearly indicates the efficiency of hydroelectricity.

Hydro vs. Fossil Fuel

The hydropower generation triumphs in this case too. The fossil fuel plants generally have a
maximum efficiency of 60%, which is comparatively lower.

Hydro vs Geothermal

Hydropower generation efficiency beats geothermal plant efficiency hands down. The 16%
efficiency of geothermal power plants is no comparison with the super efficient hydropower generation.

Bonus to Hydroelectric Power Generation

It is clearly evident from the efficiency comparisons that, the efficiency of hydropower generation
is superior. In addition to the high efficiency, there are other benefits associated with it.

Totally Green

The hydroelectric power generating plants are set up only after detailed study and research. Every
aspect that might affect the environment is considered, and if the proposed plant is found to be hazardous
to the surroundings, and if there are no means of preventing the damage to the environment, the plant is
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

not constructed. Moreover, this type of power generation is pollution free when compared to the power
generation in the fossil fuel plants.

High Durability

The capital required to set up a hydroelectricity plant is high when compared to other plants, but
hydropower plants have a longer operating life. Once the plant starts operating, then the investment can
be recovered very quickly. The operating life of these plants can be increased considerably, and the
maintenance of these plants is relatively cheap. A great example of the durability of a hydropower plant is
the Hoover dam, it has been there for more than 70 years, and it still functions efficiently, and can be
considered as one of the best in the world

Most of the dams in the United States were constructed several decades ago, they use outdated
technology; if modern technology is incorporated in these plants, their efficiency will increase
substantially. Hydroelectric power generation is efficient and clean, but there are very few sites eligible to
host a hydropower plant due to environmental concerns.
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Performance of Hydroelectric Power Plant

 Gross Head, hg
Gross head is the difference between head water and tailwater elevations.

Hg = htw – hw

Where:

hg = gross head
hw = headwater elevation
htw = tailwater elevation

 Friction head loss, hf

Friction head loss is the lost by the flow in a stream or conduit due to frictional
disturbances set up by the moving fluid and its containing and by intermolecular friction.

a. Using Darcy’s Equation: b. Using Morse Equation:

𝑓𝑙𝑣 2 2𝑓𝑙𝑣 2
hf= 2𝑔𝐷 hf= 𝑔𝐷

where:

hf = friction head (in m)

f = coefficient of friction
L = total length in m
g = 9.81 m/𝑠 2
D = inside diameter

 Net head or Effective head, h:

Net head or Effective head is the difference between the gross head an the friction
headloss.

h = hg-hf

 Penstock efficiency, ep
ℎ
ep = ℎ𝑔
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

 Volume flow rate of water, Q

The volume flow rate of water is the product of the velocity and the cross-
sectional area.

Q = AV

 Water Power, Pw
Water power is the power generated from an elevated water supply by the use of
hydraulic turbines.

Pw = y Q h
where:

y = specific weight of water

y = 9.81 kn/𝑚3

 Turbine Efficiency, et
Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of the turbine power output to the water power
output.

𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
et = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑝𝑡
et = 𝑝𝑤 or Pt = y Q h et

 Electrical or Generator Efficiency, egen

Electrical or Generator Efficiency is the ratio of the generator output to the
turbine power output.
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
eg = 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑃𝑔𝑒𝑛
egen = or Pgen = Pt egen = y Q h et egen
𝑃𝑡

 Generator Speed
120𝑓
N= 𝑃
Where:
N =angular frequency, rpm
f = frequency( usually 60 hertz)
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

P = no. of poles (even number)

 Hydraulic Efficiency, eh
Hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of the utilized head to the net head.

ℎ𝑤
eh= ℎ
Where:

hw = utilized head
h = net head

 Head or Impulse Turbine (pelton)

Impulse turbine is a power-generation prime mover in which fluid under pressure
enters a stationary nozzle where its pressure (potential) energy is converted to velocity
(kinetic) energy absorbed by the rotor.

𝑃 𝑣2
h = 𝑦+2𝑔

 Head of reaction turbine (Francis and Kaplan)

Reaction Turbine is a power-generation prime mover utilizing the steady flow
principle of fluid acceleration where nozzles are mounted on the moving element.

𝑃 𝑉𝑎2 −𝑉𝑏 2
h = 𝑦+Z+ 2𝑔

 Peripheral Coefficient, ɸ
The peripheral Coefficient is the ratio of the peripheral velocity (Vp) to the velocity of
the jet (Vj).
𝑉𝑝
ɸ = 𝑉𝑗
𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑁
ɸ=
√2𝑔ℎ
where:

D=diameter of runner
N=angular speed
h=net head

Turbine type recommendation based on head

 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Net head Type of turbine

Up to 70 ft Propeller type
70 ft to 110 ft Propeller or Francis type
110 ft to 80 ft Francis type
800 ft to 1300 ft Francis type or Impulse Type
1300 ft and above Impulse type

Sample Problem:

In a hydroelectric Power Plant, 100𝑚3 /s of water flows from an elevation of 120m to a turbine,
where electric power is generated. The over-all efficiency of the turbine- generator is 80%.
Disregarding frictional losses in piping, estimate the electric power output of this plant.

Given:

Q = 100𝑚3 /s

h = 120m

w = 9.81KN/𝑚3

et = 80%

Required:

Pt = ?

Solution:

Pt = w Q h et

Pt = (9.81KN/𝑚3 ) (100𝑚3 /s) (120m) (80%)

Pt = 94, 176 KW
 Republic of the Philippines
Commission on Higher Education
DON HONORIO VENTURA TECHNOLOGICAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Bacolor, Pampanga

Reference:

https://sciencestruck.com/how-efficient-is-hydroelectric-power-generation
http://open_jicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11737046_17.pdf
http://energyinformative.org/hydroelectric-energy-pros-and-cons/
https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/general-arrangement-of-hydropower-powerhouse#index
https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/types-hydropower-turbines