In the 18th century, the term Civil

Engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to

military engineering. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton,
who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. The history of civil engineering is a
mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Civil Engineering exists since the
beginnings of human existence. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves
of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which
being the demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.
The earliest practices of Civil engg may have commenced between 4000 and
2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to
abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter.
During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the
development of the wheel and sailing.
The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be
considered the first instances of large structure constructions.

Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented

engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid for King Djoser located at Saqqara
Necropolis. With simple tools and mathematics he created a monument that stands
to this day. His greatest contribution to engineering was his discovery of the art of
building with shaped stones. Those who followed him carried engineering to
remarkable heights using skill and imagination.
Ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water
management system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,), the
Great Wall of China, the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka, extensive irrigation
works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures especially
aqueducts, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

Machu Picchu, Peru, built at around 1450, at the

height of the Inca Empire is considered an engineering marvel. It was built in the
Andes Mountains assisted by some of history’s most ingenious water resource
engineers. The people of Machu Picchu built a mountain top city with running water,
drainage systems, food production and stone structures so advanced that they
endured for over 500years.

A treatise on Architecture, Book called Vitruvius' De Archiectura, was

published at 1AD in Rome which gives us a look at engineering education in ancient
times. It was probably written around 15 BC by the Roman architect Vitruvius. as a
guide for building projects.
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and
construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising
to the role of master builder.
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and
mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in
the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our
understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes’ screw.
Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century
AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.
Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering
The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was opened in 1747.
The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the
Eddystone Lighthouse.
In 1818, world’s first engineering society, the Institution of Civil Engineers
was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became
its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally
recognizing civil engineering as a profession.
Its charter defined civil engineering as: “Civil engineering is the application of
physical and scientific principles. Civil engineering includes several separate
specialized sub-disciplines like structures, material science, geography, geology,
soil, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.”
What is civil engineering?

It is one of those branches of knowledge consists of a collection of general

principles or truths relating to any particular subject, and application of those
principles to practice, for some purpose The science of Civil Engg, informs us of the
general principles of mechanics and construction.

In general, it is the branch of engineering which deals with the planning,

design, construction and maintenance of the structures like buildings, roads, bridges,
canals, dams, water supply and treatment systems etc. It has a broader spectrum and
comprises of many sub-disciplines under it.

The branches of civil engineering are: structural, construction, geotechnical,

urban/town/municipal, environmental, transportation, surveying, water resource,
tunnel, earthquake, material and coastal.
Construction Engineering

Construction Engineering was founded in 1963 at

Iowa State University. At the time, the university had an architectural engineering
program, which trained students in both design and engineering of structures.

Construction engineering deals with the planning, construction, and

management of infrastructures such as highways, bridges, airports, railroads,
buildings, dams, and utilities. Construction engineering involves planning and
execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic,
environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers.

Engineers in this specialization:

o Manage and plan a construction project.
o Design the hydraulic systems and project structures.
o Survey a construction site, give a description about how would like to complete the
project and its consequences.
o Liaise with federal entities, environmental agencies and local authorities on the
implications of the construction.
o Ensure the site sanitation and cleanliness.
o Juniors are helped with appropriate information related to construction.
o Address the concerns of the workers and advise them on the subject of the
construction process.
o Solve the construction problems efficiently.
o Inform their employer about the progress in construction.
o Conduct a study on the site of construction.
o Provide quality control and quality assurance to make sure that the purposes of the
project are achieved.
o Make sure that the entire safety rules related to construction work are observed.
o Obtain the materials required for construction and check them.
Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is a field of civil engineering

that deals with the analysis and design of structures that would safely bear or resist
the loads, stresses and other forces. Structural engineers must ensure their designs
satisfy given design criteria (as per the guideline or code specified), predicated on
safety (e.g. structures must not collapse without due warning) or serviceability and
performance (e.g. building must not sway causing discomfort to the occupants).
Buildings are made to endure massive loads as well as changing climate and natural
disasters. The structural engineers are most often subjected with the structural
elements like Columns, Beams, Slabs, Trusses, Plates, Arches, Shells, Catenaries and
their behaviours under different loading and stress conditions.

Some of the common building materials are:

o Iron: Wrought iron, cast iron, steel and stainless steel.
o Concrete: Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed concrete
o Aluminium
o Masonry
o Alloy
o Composite Materials
o Timber
o Other structural materials: Carbon fibre, Fibre reinforced plastic, Roofing materials,
Mudbrick, etc.

Structural Engineers have a duty to their clients and the public to provide safe
designs. Typically, the Structural Engineer is responsible for the structural design of
the overall project, including specification of the design loads, issuance of design
documents. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use
of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.
 Role and responsibilities of structural engineers may be summarized in following
point:

o The structural Engineer is responsible for designing the structure of buildings and
houses in a way such that, it can meet all the requirements of the client within the
needed time span.
o He is also responsible for checking and examining of whether the structures and
buildings are structurally well or not.
o He must calculate and estimate the pressure, weather and stress that the component
of a house or building may face from different disasters such as earth quakes flood
etc.
o He is responsible for analyzing the basic structures and several components of
buildings and houses.
o He must be responsible enough to check out the quality of the numerous materials
such as brick, steel, timber etc. that are used for the construction of buildings.
o His responsibility is to use computer and advanced technologies for constructing the
best structure.

Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of civil

engineering which deals with the study of behavior of earth materials like soil, rocks,
underground water, etc. and their relation to design, construction and operation of
engineering projects. Sometimes, it may also be referred as soil engineering, ground
engineering or geo-technics as it is closely related to Engineering Geology.
Engineering geologists (i.e. those with a first degree in geology) and geotechnical
engineers (i.e. those with a first degree in civil engineering) work closely together to
form a comprehensive ground engineering team for the investigation, design, and
construction of major infrastructure projects.
Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil and rock mechanics to investigate
subsurface conditions and materials (i.e. displacements, stresses and strains on soil);
determine the relevant physical/mechanical and chemical properties of these
materials; evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits; assess
risks posed by site conditions; design earthworks and structure foundations; and
monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction. Geotechnical
engineering is all about analysis and design of soil stabilization systems which would
provide enough support to the structure laid on it and ultimately ensuring the safety
of people using the structure. Geotechnical design focuses on ensuring that structure
remains standing on unstable soil; establishment of safety measures to minimize the
damage to the roads, buildings, etc. due to landslides or earthquake. Beside these,
geotechnical engineers may work on projects which deal with under-water soil, such
as those affecting marinas and offshore platforms.
Talking about the geotechnical design process, it basically starts with a subsurface
investigation. In this process, geotechnical engineers first take the soil samples from
the site using sampler (i.e. test pits or bores). Then geotechnical engineers analyze
that soil sample to determine the stability, presence of air or rock pockets, and also
evaluate the chemical makeup of soil. This investigation is useful for preparing the
site for construction. If soil is not good enough it may have to be treated before
construction. With the obtained data from investigation, geotechnical engineering
professionals may design the stable footings and foundations. These structures (i.e.
footings and foundations) are made using steel, concrete or masonry to support and
distribute the weight or loading of the building. The design of such structures must
be designed taking account of people that may reside in building, ground
movements, impacts of weather, and other external forces if any. Typically more
unstable the soil at project site, more complex will be the foundation system.

Responsibilties
The basic responsibilities of a geotechnical engineer is to collect the soil samples
from the site, analyze it and design the support structures for accommodating roads,
buildings, dams, tunnels etc. They have to consider various factors like soil stress
bearing capacity, stability of soil, design load, etc. to accurately design the supporting
structures. The geotechnical engineer is responsible for establishment of earth-
support structures like concrete or steel retaining walls which would prevent earth
from collapse or caving holding the soil firmly. Temporary earth-support structures
are provided for the safety of workers during the excavation work in the site.
Before any kind of construction can begin, a geotechnical engineer must conduct a
detailed investigation of the area in question to ensure that it is safe and to determine
the best way to go about building the structure in question. A geotechnical engineer
is responsible for assessing the unique risks posed by any given area and is usually
also responsible for helping to design earthworks and foundations to use in a given
set of conditions.
Usually, geotechnical engineers don't have to perform much of the work at
construction site, as computers have offered much more effective and accurate
methods for analyzing the site. There are lot of softwares available for analyzing and
modeling site conditions. Computer modeling allows engineers to run tests and
simulations of an area based on information they gather and program into the
computer. From this mathematical modeling and simulation, they can predict things
such as slope stability and earthquake potential, which are very essential for
designing buildings or any other structures.
A geotechnical engineer must have a sound knowledge in:
o Soil properties: Void ratio, permeability, porosity, unit weight, stress bearing capacity
etc.
o Foundation and footing: Shallow foundation and deep foundation.
 o Lateral earth support structures: Gravity walls, cantilever walls, excavation shoring
etc.
o Soil sampling or testing methods
o Slope stability
o Marine geo-structures: Undersea foundations, floating-moored structures etc.

Surveying

Surveying is the branch of civil engineering which deals

with measurement of relative positions of an object on earth’s surface by measuring
the horizontal distances, elevations, directions, and angles. Surveying is typically
used to locate and measure property lines; to lay out buildings, bridges, channels,
highways, sewers, and pipelines for construction; to locate stations for launching and
tracking satellites; and to obtain topographic information for mapping and charting.
It is generally classified into two categories: Plane surveying (for smaller areas) and
Geodetic surveying (for very large areas).
The applications of surveying may be explained in following points:

1. To prepare the topographical map which shows hills, rivers, forests, valleys, etc.
2. To prepare the engineering map showing engineering details like higways, railways,
canals, dams, reservoirs, etc.
3. To prepare the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of
earthwork required.
4. To prepare the geographical and political map.
5. To prepare archeological map showing the places where ancient relics may have lied.
6. To prepare cadastrial map showing boundries of properties like houses, buildings,
fields, colonies, etc.
7. To prepare a military map showing different strategic points important for the
defence of a country.

Instruments and techniques

The most commonly used instruments in surveying are a tape or chain for
determining shorter distances,
a level to determine height or elevation differences,
and a theodolite, set on a tripod, to measure angles (horizontal and vertical),
combined with the process of triangulation. Starting from a position with known
location and elevation, the distance and angles to the unknown point are measured.
The Romans are said to have used the plane table, which consists of a drawing board
mounted on a tripod or other support and a straightedge along which lines are
drawn. It was the first device capable of recording or establishing angles. The
primary tool used by surveyors in North America from the 1600s through the end of
the 1800s was a "Gunter's chain," measuring 66 feet long, usually with 100 swiveled
links. A retractable steel tape to replace the chain was patented in 1860 by W. H.
Paine of Sheboygan, Wisconsin. The U.S. Geological Survey was formed in 1879 and
began mapping in the 1880s, relying on the chain-and-compass method of surveying.
By the early 1900s, surveyors were working with plane tables equipped with
telescopic alidades with vertical-angle arcs, allowing lines of survey to be plotted
directly from the field. Leveling instruments have been used since 1896 to set
permanent elevation benchmarks.
In surveying, measurements may be made directly, electronically, by the use of
optical instruments, by computations from known lines and angles, or by
combination methods. Instruments used for direct linear measurements include the
Gunter's chain (known also as the surveyor's chain), which is 66 ft (20 m) long and
divided into 100 links; the engineer's chain, 100 ft (30 m) long and also consisting of
100 links; the tape, usually of steel, which has largely superseded chains; and the rod.
Tapes and rods made of Invar metal (an alloy of steel and nickel) are used for very
precise work because of their low coefficient of thermal expansion. In many
situations electronic instruments, such as the geodimeter, which uses light waves,
and the tellurometer, which uses microwaves, provide a more convenient and more
accurate means of determining distance than do tapes and rods. The height of points
in relation to a datum line (usually mean sea level) is measured with a leveling
instrument consisting of a telescope fitted with a spirit level and usually mounted on
a tripod. It is used in conjunction with a leveling rod placed at the point to be
measured and sighted through the telescope.
A more modern instrument is a total station, which is a theodolite with an electronic
distance measurement device (EDM). A total station can also be used for leveling
when set to the horizontal plane. Since their introduction, total stations are fully
robotic, and can even e-mail point data to the office computer and connect to satellite
positioning systems, such as a Global Positioning System. Though real-time
kinematic GPS systems have increased the speed of surveying, they are still
horizontally accurate to only about 20 mm and vertically accurate to about 30–40
mm.
Surveys based on photographs are especially useful in rugged or inaccessible country
and for reconnaissance surveys for construction, mapping, or military purposes. In
air photographs, errors resulting from tilt of the airplane or arising from distortion of
ground relief may be corrected in part by checking against control points fixed by
ground surveys and by taking overlapping photographs and matching and
assembling the relatively undistorted central portions into a mosaic. These are
usually examined stereoscopically.
Responsibilities
One of the most important things that a surveyor does is to determine the property
boundaries. Surveys may be performed to determine the suitability of a site for given
project.
Once the surveying is complete, a report is made detailing the findings and sent to
the interested parties. In some cases, land surveyors may be asked to explain their
findings.

Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is a sub-discipline of

civil engineering which deals with the application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide the safe, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and
goods (transport).
As per American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), there are six divisions related to
tranportation engineering i.e. Highway, Air Transportation, Pipeline, Waterway,
Port, Aerospace, Coastal & Ocean and Urban Transportation out of 18 technical
divisions within the ASCE (1987).
The planning aspects of transport engineering relate to urban planning, and involve
technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of
passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring
the estimation of trip generation (how many trips for what purpose), trip distribution
(destination choice, where is the traveler going), mode choice (what mode is being
taken), and route assignment (which streets or routes are being used). More
sophisticated forecasting can include other aspects of traveler decisions, including
auto ownership, trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips together in a tour)
and the choice of residential or business location (known as land use forecasting).
Passenger trips are the focus of transport engineering because they often represent
the peak of demand on any transportation system.
Transportation engineering, as practiced by civil engineers, primarily involves
planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of transportation
facilities. The facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and even space
transportation. The design aspects of transport engg include the sizing of
transportation facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the facility has),
determining the materials and thickness used in pavement designing the geometry
(vertical and horizontal alignment) of the roadway (or track). Beside these operations
planning, logistics, network analysis, financing, and policy analysis are also
important to civil engineers, particularly to those working in highway and urban
transportation. Every country has some organization providing the guildelines and
specifiactions for design and operation of transport systems. In USA, the National
Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES) list online the safety
protocols, geometric design requirements, and signal timing.
Before making any sort of planning, the Engineer must take an account of the
database of the area or if it is appropriate, the previous system in place. This
inventory or database must include information on:

1. Population
2. Land use
3. Transportation facilities and services
4. Economic activity
5. Travel patterns and volumes
6. Regional financial resources
7. Community values and expectations
8. Laws and ordinances

These inventories help the engineer create system models to accurately forecast the
future demand or conditions.

Highway Engineering
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline which involves the design,
construction and maintenance of Highway Roads & Systems, urban streets as well as
parking facilities. Important aspects of highway engineering include overall planning
of routes, financing, environmental impact evaluation, and value engineering to
compare alternatives. Traffic engineering involves planning for the volumes of traffic
to be handled, the methods to accommodate these flows, the lighting and signing of
highways, and general layout.Older techniques include signs, signals, markings, and
tolling. Newer technologies involve intelligent transportation systems, including
advanced traveler information systems (such as variable message signs), advanced
traffic control systems (such as ramp meters), and vehicle infrastructure integration.
Similarly, pavement and roadway engineering involves setting of alignments,
planning the cuts and fills to construct the roadway, designing the base course and
pavement, and selecting the drainage system. Whereas, bridge engineering involves
the design of highway bridges, retaining walls, tunnels, and other structures.
Engineers in this specialization:
o Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, and
other vehicular facilities as well as their related pedestrian realms.
o Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the
project.
o Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high collisions for safety and capacity.
o Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system.
o Utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the
roadways themselves.
Railway Engineering
It is a branch of civil engineering concerned with the design, construction,
maintenance, and operation of railways. Railway engineering includes elements of
civil, mechanical, industrial, and electrical engineering. Railway engineers handle the
design, construction, and operation of railroads and mass transit systems that use a
fixed guideway (such as light rail or even monorails). Typical tasks would include
determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and design,
construction cost estimating, and establishment of signalling & controlling system.
Railroad engineers can also move into the specialized field of train dispatching which
focuses on train movement control.
Railway engineers also work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network by
reinvesting and revitalizing the rail system to meet future demands. In the United
States, railway engineers work with elected officials in Washington, D.C. on rail
transportation issues to make sure that the rail system meets the country's
transportation needs.

Port and Harbor Engineering

Port and harbor engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of ports,
harbors, canals, and other maritime facilities. A harbor (or haven) is a place for ships
to enter and find shelter from storms or other natural phenomena. The modern
harbor is a place where ships are built, launched, and repaired, as well as a terminal
for incoming and outgoing ships. There are four principal classes of harbors;
commercial, naval, fishery, and refuge for small craft. Harbor may be natural or
artificial.
A port is a harbor with the necessary terminal facilities to expedite the moving of
cargo and passengers at any stage of a journey. A good harbor must have a safe
anchorage and a direct channel to open water, and must be deep enough for large
ships. An efficient port must have enough room for docks, warehouses, and loading
and unloading machinery. Geographically, a port or harbor is usually limited to a
comparatively small area of usable berthing space rather than an extended coastline.
Some ports along exposed coastal areas, for example, the western coast of South
America, have little harbor area.

Airport Engineering
Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design, and construction of
terminals, runways, and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight service.
Airport engineers design and construct airports. They must account for the impacts
and demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use
the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine runway orientation,
determine the size of runway border and safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip
clearances for all gates and must designate the clear zones in the entire port.

Pipeline Engineering
Pipeline engineering embraces the design and construction of pipelines, pumping
stations, and storage facilities. Pipelines are used to transport liquids such as water,
gas, and petroleum products over great distances. Also, products such as pulverized
coal and iron ore can be transported in a water slurry.