SOLUTION

In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is
dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

COMPONENTS OF A SOLUTION

a)SOLUTE-A substance dissolved in fluid, forming a solution

b)SOVENT-(from the Latin solvere, "loosen") is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous
solute, resulting in a solution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Common uses for
organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as a paint thinner (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish
removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in
detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical synthesis. The use of inorganic solvents (other than
water) is typically limited to research chemistry and some technological processes.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

Usually, the substance present in a greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids, or solids.
The solution has the same physical state as the solvent.
GAS

If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under all given set of conditions. An example for a gaseous solution is air
(oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen). Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases
form rather trivial solutions. In part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures.

LIQUID

If the solvent is a liquid, gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Examples are:

1)Gas in liquid:

a)Oxygen in water.

b)Carbon dioxide in water is a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction
(formation of ions). Note also that the visible bubbles in carbonated water are not the dissolved gas, but only an
effervescence; the dissolved gas itself is not visible since it is dissolved on a molecular level.

2)Liquid in liquid:
a)The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant.
(Homogenization of solutions)

b)Alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water.

c)Petroleum is a solution of various hydrocarbons.

3)Solid in liquid:

a)Sucrose (table sugar) in water

b)Sodium chloride or any other salt in water forms an electrolyte: When dissolving, salt dissociates into ions.

Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous: colloids, suspensions, emulsions
are not considered solutions.
Body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many different solutes. They are electrolytes
since they contain solute ions (e.g. potassium and sodium). Furthermore, they contain solute molecules like
sugar and urea. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are also essential components of blood chemistry, where significant
changes in their concentrations can be a sign of illness or injury.

SOLID

If the solvent is a solid, gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved.

1)Gas in solid:

a)Hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium; this is studied as a means of hydrogen
storage.

2)Liquid in solid:
a)mercury in gold, forming an amalgam

b)Hexane in paraffin wax

3)Solid in solid

a)Steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron atoms.

b)Alloys like bronze and many others.

c)Polymers containing plasticizers.

SOLUBILITY

The ability of one compound to dissolve in another compound is called solubility. When a liquid is able to
completely dissolve in another liquid the two liquids are miscible. Two substances that can never mix to form a
solution are called immiscible.

All solutions have a positive entropy of mixing. The interactions between different molecules or ions may be
energetically favored or not. If interactions are unfavorable, then the free energy decreases with increasing
solute concentration. At some point the energy loss outweighs the entropy gain, and no more solute particles
can be dissolved; the solution is said to be saturated. However, the point at which a solution can become
saturated can change significantly with different environmental factors, such as temperature, pressure, and
contamination. For some solute-solvent combinations a supersaturated solution can be prepared by raising the
solubility (for example by increasing the temperature) to dissolve more solute, and then lowering it (for
example by cooling).

Usually, the greater the temperature of the solvent, the more of a given solid solute it can dissolve. However,
most gases and some compounds exhibit solubilities that decrease with increased temperature. Such behavior is
a result of an exothermic enthalpy of solution. Some surfactants exhibit this behaviour. The solubility of liquids
in liquids is generally less temperature-sensitive than that of solids or gases.

PROPERTIES

The physical properties of compounds such as melting point and boiling point change when other compounds
are added. Together they are called colligative properties. There are several ways to quantify the amount of one
compound dissolved in the other compounds collectively called concentration. Examples include molarity, mole
fraction, and parts per million (PPM).

The properties of ideal solutions can be calculated by the linear combination of the properties of its components.
If both solute and solvent exist in equal quantities (such as in a 50% ethanol, 50% water solution), the concepts
of "solute" and "solvent" become less relevant, but the substance that is more often used as a solvent is normally
designated as the solvent (in this example, water).

LIQUID SOLUTIONS

In principle, all types of liquids can behave as solvents: liquid noble gases, molten metals, molten salts, molten
covalent networks, and molecular liquids. In the practice of chemistry and biochemistry, most solvents are
molecular liquids. They can be classified into polar and non-polar, according to whether their molecules possess
a permanent electric dipole moment. Another distinction is whether their molecules are able to form hydrogen
bonds (protic and aprotic solvents). Water, the most commonly used solvent, is both polar and sustains
hydrogen bonds.

Water is a good solvent because the molecules are polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds.

Salts dissolve in polar solvents, forming positive and negative ions that are attracted to the negative and positive
ends of the solvent molecule, respectively. If the solvent is water, hydration occurs when the charged solute ions
become surrounded by water molecules. A standard example is aqueous saltwater. Such solutions are called
electrolytes.

For non-ionic solutes, the general rule is: like dissolves like.
Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents, forming polar bonds or hydrogen bonds. As an example, all alcoholic
beverages are aqueous solutions of ethanol. On the other hand, non-polar solutes dissolve better in non-polar
solvents. Examples are hydrocarbons such as oil and grease that easily mix with each other, while being
incompatible with water.

An example for the immiscibility of oil and water is a leak of petroleum from a damaged tanker, that does not
dissolve in the ocean water but rather floats on the surface.

SOLVATION

Solvation, also sometimes called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of molecules of a
solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. As ions dissolve in a solvent they spread out and become surrounded
by solvent molecules.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SOLVATION,DISSOLUTION,AND SOLUBILITY

By an IUPAC definition, solvation is an interaction of a solute with the solvent, which leads to stabilization of
the solute species in the solution. One may also refer to the solvated state, whereby an ion in a solution is
complexed by solvent molecules. The concept of the solvation interaction can also be applied to an insoluble
material, for example, solvation of functional groups on a surface of ion-exchange resin.

Solvation is, in concept, distinct from dissolution and solubility. Dissolution is a kinetic process, and is
quantified by its rate. Solubility quantifies the dynamic equilibrium state achieved when the rate of dissolution
equals the rate of precipitation.

The consideration of the units makes the distinction clearer. Complexation can be described by coordination
number and the complex stability constants. The typical unit for dissolution rate is mol/s. The unit for solubility
can be mol/kg.

SOLVENTS AND INTERMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS

Polar solvents are those with a molecular structure that contains dipoles. Such compounds are often found to
have a high dielectric constant. The polar molecules of these solvents can solvate ions because they can orient
the appropriate partially-charged portion of the molecule towards the ion in response to electrostatic attraction.
This stabilizes the system and creates a solvation shell (or hydration shell in the case of water). Water is the
most common and well-studied polar solvent, but others exist, such as acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide,
methanol, propylene carbonate, ammonia, ethanol, and acetone. These solvents can be used to dissolve
inorganic compounds such as salts.
Solvation involves different types of intermolecular interactions: hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole, and dipole-
dipole attractions or van der Waals forces. The hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole, and dipole-dipole interactions
occur only in polar solvents. Ion-ion interactions occur only in ionic solvents. The solvation process will be
thermodynamically favored only if the overall Gibbs energy of the solution is decreased, compared to the Gibbs
energy of the separated solvent and solid (or gas or liquid). This means that the change in enthalpy minus the
change in entropy (multiplied by the absolute temperature) is a negative value, or that the Gibbs free energy of
the system decreases.

The conductivity of a solution depends on the solvation of its ions.

THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS

For solvation to occur, energy is required to release individual ions from the crystal lattices in which they are
present. This is necessary to break the attractions the ions have with each other and is equal to the solid's lattice
free energy (the energy released at the formation of the lattice as the ions bonded with each other). The energy
for this comes from the energy released when ions of the lattice associate with molecules of the solvent. Energy
released in this form is called the free energy of solvation.
The enthalpy of solution is the solution enthalpy minus the enthalpy of the separate systems, whereas the
entropy is the corresponding difference in entropy. Most gases have a negative enthalpy of solution. A negative
enthalpy of solution means that the solute is less soluble at high temperatures.

Although early thinking was that a higher ratio of a cation's ion charge to the size, or the charge density,
resulted in more solvation, this does not stand up to scrutiny for ions like iron(III) or lanthanides and actinides,
which are readily hydrolyzed to form insoluble (hydrous) oxides. As solids, these are, it is apparent, not
solvated.

Enthalpy of solvation can help explain why solvation occurs with some ionic lattices but not with others. The
difference in energy between that which is necessary to release an ion from its lattice and the energy given off
when it combines with a solvent molecule is called the enthalpy change of solution. A negative value for the
enthalpy change of solution corresponds to an ion that is likely to dissolve, whereas a high positive value means
that solvation will not occur. It is possible that an ion will dissolve even if it has a positive enthalpy value. The
extra energy required comes from the increase in entropy that results when the ion dissolves. The introduction
of entropy makes it harder to determine by calculation alone whether a substance will dissolve or not. A
quantitative measure for solvation power of solvents is given by donor numbers.

Note that "solvation does not mean a reaction takes place". Adding NaCl(s) to water, for example, will create
only a solution of sodium and chloride ions; you would have solvation of only the salt's ions. Adding the weak
base ammonia to water, on the other hand, would create a reaction in this example.
DISSOLUTION

Dissolution is the process by which a solid or liquid forms a solution in a solvent. In solids this can be
explained as the breakdown of the crystal lattice into individual ions, atoms or molecules and their transport into
the solvent. Dissolution testing is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for optimization of formulation
and quality control.

IONIC COMPOUNDS

For ionic compounds, dissolution takes place when the compounds ionizes This most commonly occurs in polar
solvents, such as water or ammonia.

NaCl(s) ---> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

In a colloidal dispersed system, ion dissolution arises, where the dispersed particles exist in equilibrium with
their saturated counter part, i.e.
NaCl(s) ---> Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

The ability of an ion to preferentially dissolve (as a result of unequal activities) is classified as the Potential
Determining Ion. This in turn results in the remaining particle possessing either a net positive/negative surface
charge.

POLAR COMPOUNDS

Other compounds experience dissolution simply as a breakdown of their crystal lattice, and due to their polarity,
or non-polarity, mix perfectly with the solvent. but ht==d

RATE OF DISSOCIATION

The rate of dissolution depends on:

nature of the solvent and solute

a)temperature (and to a small degree pressure)

b)degree of undersaturation

c)presence of mixing

d)interfacial surface area

e)presence of inhibitors (e.g., a substance adsorbed on the surface).

Dissolution rates vary by orders of magnitude between different systems. Usually, substances exhibiting low solubility,
exhibit low dissolution rates and vice versa.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are
expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical
formula.

The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the
solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and
pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.

Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example,
complex-forming anions (ligands) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a
common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. To a lesser extent, solubility will
depend on the ionic strength of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility
equilibrium.

For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range
of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of
gold in high-temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude higher when the redox potential
is controlled using a highly-oxidizing Fe3O4-Fe2O3 redox buffer than with a moderately-oxidizing Ni-NiO
buffer.

Solubility (metastable) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking,
on the specific or molar surface area of the solute). For quantification, see the equation in the article on
solubility equilibrium. For highly defective crystals, solubility may increase with the increasing degree of
disorder. Both of these effects occur because of the dependence of solubility constant on the Gibbs energy of
the crystal. The last two effects, although often difficult to measure, are of practical importance.For example,
they provide the driving force for precipitate aging (the crystal size spontaneously increasing with time).
TEMPERATURE

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY:

The solubility of solutes is dependent on temperature. When a solid dissolves in a liquid, a change in the
physical state of the solid analogous to melting takes place. Heat is required to break the bonds holding the
molecules in the solid together. At the same time, heat is given off during the formation of new solute -- solvent
bonds.

CASE I: DECREASE IN SOLUBILITY WITH TEMPERATURE:

If the heat given off in the dissolving process is greater than the heat required to break apart the solid, the net
dissolving reaction is exothermic (energy given off). The addition of more heat (increases temperature) inhibits
the dissolving reaction since excess heat is already being produced by the reaction. This situation is not very
common where an increase in temperature produces a decrease in solubility.

CASE II: INCREASE IN SOLUBILITY WITH TEMPERATURE:

If the heat given off in the dissolving reaction is less than the heat required to break apart the solid, the net
dissolving reaction is endothermic (energy required). The addition of more heat facilitates the dissolving
reaction by providing energy to break bonds in the solid. This is the most common situation where an increase
in temperature produces an increase in solubility for solids.

The use of first-aid instant cold packs is an application of this solubility principle. A salt such as ammonium
nitrate is dissolved in water after a sharp blow breaks the containers for each. The dissolving reaction is
endothermic - requires heat. Therefore the heat is drawn from the surroundings, the pack feels cold.

SOLUBILITY OF GASES VS TEMPERATURE:

The variation of solubility for a gas with temperature can be determined by examining the graphic on the left.

As the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas decrease as shown by the downward trend in the graph .

More gas is present in a solution with a lower temperature compared to a solution with a higher temperature.
The reason for this gas solubility relationship with temperature is very similar to the reason that vapor pressure
increases with temperature. Increased temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy. The higher kinetic
energy causes more motion in molecules which break intermolecular bonds and escape from solution.

This gas solubility relationship can be remembered if you think about what happens to a "soda pop" as it stands
around for awhile at room temperature. The taste is very "flat" since more of the "tangy" carbon dioxide bubbles
have escaped. Boiled water also tastes "flat" because all of the oxygen gas has been removed by heating.

GAS PRESSURE AND SOLUBILITY:

Liquids and solids exhibit practically no change of solubility with changes in pressure. Gases as might be
expected, increase in solubility with an increase in pressure. Henry's Law states that: The solubility of a gas in a
liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of that gas above the surface of the solution.

If the pressure is increased, the gas molecules are "forced" into the
solution since this will best relieve the pressure that has been applied.
The number of gas molecules is decreased. The number of gas molecules
dissolved in solution has increased as shown in the graphic on the left.

Carbonated beverages provide the best example of this phenomena. All carbonated beverages are bottled under
pressure to increase the carbon dioxide dissolved in solution. When the bottle is opened, the pressure above the
solution decreases. As a result, the solution effervesces and some of the carbon dioxide bubbles off.
Deep sea divers may experience a condition called the "bends" if they do not readjust slowly to the lower
pressure at the surface. As a result of breathing compressed air and being subjected to high pressures caused by
water depth, the amount of nitrogen dissolved in blood and other tissues increases. If the diver returns to the
surface too rapidly, the nitrogen forms bubbles in the blood as it becomes less soluble due to a decrease in
pressure. The nitrogen bubbles can cause great pain and possibly death.

To alleviate this problem somewhat, artificial breathing mixtures of oxygen and helium are used. Helium is only
one-fifth as soluble in blood as nitrogen. As a result, there is less dissolved gas to form bubbles.