INTRODUCTION

INDIAN STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is all about arranging rock layers of regions

into successions. Stratigraphical or historical geology h a s , as its

aim, the description and classification of rock layers. The

stratigraphic classification is to u n d e r s t a n d the geological processes

the region has experienced throughout geological time. A

classification of rocks into layers h a s to be based on attributes of

layers. Two attributes are commonly used in stratigraphy.

1. Chronostratigraphy - Time of formation of rock layers.

2. Lithostratigraphy - Physical characteristic of rocks

Out of the three groups of rocks, sedimentary, igneous and

metamorphic, only sedimentary rocks are easily amenable to such

an arrangement, since they have been deposited bed to bed and

contain the remains of organisms which flourished while they were

formed.

Stratigraphic classification helps in defining the layers and

groups of layers also to the layers into sequences a n d matching

layers of different regions. This is known as stratigraphic

correlation. Stratigraphic correlation establishes within a region and

between different regions with the help of following criteria. Order of

superposition. Palaeontology, Geophysics, Structural geology a n d

Petrography.

The historical geology of Indian formation is some what

different t h a n standard stratigraphical scale in s u c h a sense that

1
divisions in the standard stratigraphical scale are based upon the

fossils. While in Indian stratigraphy, these are based on the

unconformities a s majority of the Indian formation are azoic

(Archean system to Vindhyan system - Krishnan M.S., 1960)

Unconformities have been traditionally used in the

classification of rock layers into larger stratigraphic u n i t s and their

correlation. This tool is more important in stratigraphic

classification t h a n correlation.

A new aid to stratigraphy that h a s come with the discovery

of t h a t Uranium a n d Thorium b r e a k u p into other elements through

atomic disintegration, producing a s a final residium lead, the

change taking place at a definite a n d measurable rate, h a s placed in

the h a n d s of the geologist a new weapon for the determination of the

age of that azoic Precambrian systems (Wadia, D. N., 1960).

Recently the radiometric methods of dating the rocks like

Potassium-Argon ratio method and Rubidium-Strontium ratio

method becomes indispensable tool in Precambrian stratigraphy.

Fossil c o n t e n t s

Despite geochronology and geophysical paleontology

remains a popular tool in stratigraphy. The phaenerozoic eon was

characterized by sedimentary rock formation with distinct

petrological characters and typical fossil assemblage. Biological

evolution is irreversible. Therefore life forms that existed once

during some geological time period evolve, b u t do not repeat

themselves.

Fossil groups are therefore characteristically associated

with geological time u n i t s some groups may have existed during

2
longer time periods t h a n others. Some groups have externally

restricted time period of occurrence. Such fossils, if found to occur

fairly commonly in rocks, are known a s index fossils, a s they

indicate the age of rock formations m u c h more accurately t h a n

others. As far a s geology is concerned important u s e of fossil is in

correlation a n d classification of rocks geographically separated.

Besides, index fossil being rare, age is often inferred based on j u s t

one or few index fossils which could be erroneous.

Therefore, total fossil assemblage of rock layers is

considered a s a better tool to assign relative ages. This eliminates

possibility of error in estimation a s ages determined from various

group of fossils can be checked.

Fossils also help in reconstructing geography and climate

of a region during p a s t geologic period. Some fossils indicate more

details about the environment a n d also helps to interprete the

evolution of organic world.

Fossil assemblage of same age are not necessarily identical

for the species in them will depend on the condition of environment

and development in each area of sedimentation. Every rock layer

h a s characteristic geophysical signature. They have different values

for physical properties s u c h a s electrical resistivety, density,

radioactive emission, seismic, reflectivity, magnetism, etc. which are

used in their classification a n d correlation with other rocks.

Petrography is the first tool on defining a rock bed. Its u s e

can be extended in classification of layers in larger stratigraphic

u n i t s and also in correlating layers of separated regions.

The Cretaceous period

The Cretaceous period of the Indian stratigraphy is the

most wide spread a n d at the same time lithologically most complex

period. It includes rock formations under entirely different

conditions during the some geological time and noticed in different

a r e a s of India (Table 1, Plate 4 and 5).

Geological India is divided into three segments (Plate 3)

(Wadia, 1960).

1. Peninsula

2. Extra - Peninsula

3. Indo - Gauge tic Plain

1. Peninsula

Peninsula forms a triangular plateau in South of sub-

continent jutting out in the Indian ocean. It includes Shillong

plateau of Assam at North-East a n d cutch-Kathiawar region at the

West (Dey-1968).

2 . Eixtra-Peninsula

Extra-Peninsula includes the Himalayan mountainous

region and its offshoot on the north-west a n d north-east of

subcontinent.

3 . Indo-Gangetic Plain

Indo-Gangetic plain includes area between Peninsula and

the extra-Peninsula.
Table 1.

Era S y s t e m or Series or Time scale Indian Indian

Period Epoch beginning formation era
in million
year
Coenzoic Quaternary Holocene
(Recent) 1
Pleistocene
Tertiary Pliocene 3
Miocene 25 Aryan era
Oligocene 40
Eocene 60
Palaeocene 70
Deccan
Trap
Mesozoic Cretaceous 135 '
Jurassic 180
Triassic nncz

Palaeozoic Permian 270 |Gondwana

Carbonifero- 350 'System
-us
Devonian 400 1
Silurian 440 Dravidian
Ordovician 500 Era
Cambrian 600
Precambri- Vindhyan Puma
a n or system era
Archaean About Cuddapah Eparchean
or 2000 or system
more
Azoic Unconformity —
Dharwar system
Archaean Archaean
system era
 GEOLOGY OF DECCAN TRAP OF INDIA

The Deccan Traps are one of the largest volcanic provinces

in the world. The term T>eccan Traps' was first u s e d by W H. Sykes

(1833). The term T)eccan' is derived from the vernacular "Dakshin'

meaning South. Medlicott (1873) applied a short term for basaltic

sedimentary rock a s 'Trap'. Now more or less obsolete in geological

terminology h a s been retained partly in conformity with a old

custom a n d partly because it is peculiarly suitable for rock

responsible for the step or terrace like appearance which is

characteristic feature of these beds.

In India, volcanic rock formation occurred in late

Cretaceous or early Eocene period which is known a s Deccan Traps.

It covers a n area of 77,220 sq. kilometers. In the word of Prof. Sahni

"An Episode of Tertiary Era" Deccan Trap is the greatest volcanic

formation in Indian geology. It is thought t h a t towards the end of

Cretaceous period subsequent to the deposition of Bagh and the

Lameta beds, a large part of Peninsula was affected by stupendous

o u t b u r s t of the volcanic energy, resulting in the eruption of lava in

large quantity and associated pyroclastic materials (Pascoe, 1950).

This eruption proceeded from fissures a n d cracks in the surface of

earth, from which highly liquid lava come out intermittently, till a

thickness of some thousand feet of horizontal sheet of basalt of

igneous origin h a d resulted, obliterating all the previously existing

topography of the country a n d converted into large volcanic plateau.

This consists of a vast area, particularly Maharashtra (approx %

region), Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh (1/4 region).

6
This formation of basalts is known a s 'Deccan Traps' in Indian

geology. According to West (1959) the only comparable formation to

the DeccanTirap took place in 1787 in Iceland. Since then no fissure

eruption like Deccan'Erap is known till present time.

While according to Vredenburg (1910) Deccan tap

formation is not entirely of basalts. In some parts, the sheets of

basaltic lava are interbedded with great m a s s of tuft. During

intervals between the two successive volcanic eruption fresh water

lakes were formed in which sedimentation took place. These

sedimentary beds are known a s Intertrappean beds which preserved

fossil flora and fauna.

Origin of volcanic eruption of Deccan Traps

It was discussed by various workers. Newbold (1848) held

a view of its sub-aqueous origin on the basis of following points. -

a) Absence of cones a n d craters a n d cones of elevation.

b) Compact n a t u r e of traps.

c) Want of conformity of t r a p s with lowest level.

d) Occassional intercalation of marine beds.

Therefore, he held the view t h a t Deccan "E-aps were

s u b a q u e o u s in origin. Hislop (1853, 1854-55) a n d Blanford (1867)

gave the following explanation and supported the sub-aerial

eruption hypothesis.

a) Cones and craters might have vanished due to successive

denudation.

b) Rajahmundry is only a n Intertrappean bed showing esturine

habitat and not marine.

c) Many s u b aerial lavas are a s compact a s Deccan Traps.

d) Lava traveled a long distance of the eruptions were s u b -

marine, the lava flow might have cooled very rapidly.

Volcanic eruptions are reported in various p a r t s of world

a s follows.

Columbia, snake river, plains of U.S.A. Miocene

Washington, Oregaon a n d Idabo.
Keweenawan lava of Lake superior U.S.A. Miocene
Stromberg lava South Africa Jurassic
Trap of New J e r s y U.S.A. Triassic
Parana Basalt South America Triassic
West Australia West Australia Tertiary
Scottish Basalt Scotland Tertiary
England

Physical formation and vegetation

D e c c a n l r a p rocks are very hard, tough a n d compact. They

are, however, susceptible to weathering which commences on the

exposed surface a n d along joints a n d cracks. The black cotton soil

of Deccan a n d laterite deposits of Maharashtra a n d Madhya Pradesh

are some of the u s u a l products of prolonged weathering of Deccan

Trap.

Geological structure of the Deccan I r a p s h a s marked

effects on its vegetation. Vegetation is conspicuous a s compared to

the other formation. The difference is due to less rain fall and

texture of soil. Therefore vegetation includes long grass, rarely large

and deciduous trees except in the d a m p district near sea. Scarcity of

trees is d u e to boitic factors. During rainy season there is growth of

 MAP O F INDIA

I Jammu and Kashmii ^J

^ ^ - ^ HinuehiV^
f \ Pr«ile«h I
y^Pni^ab i \ . 1 ^-v^
f^y^\^ f^ y^Uttaranchal^
/ * ^ Delhi 1 ^ ^ f

1 R^atthan S^^^~\ Dttai Pradejh

^ Bihar ^ ^ ^ KZ—--3 r ^
-Aw(—-'1/ Ir liJ*'^'^
JharUiand /^ ) lYipnarl )
^•^^J* Oqjatat T^ MadhyaPiadeth \ \ CS^tBo^ *J l ^ ^ y "

\ J1 Va^~\ J—i^_^^-j^iCliatti»lnarh»

(Maa )
I Maharashtra /"^^^..^^^ \ ^ \

\ \ c^ Aadhra ftadeah j

Goa\ j ^ /"^^
N Kacnataka ( \

• * 1 ^ T Tamil If adu t V
• \ \ f
* >

Plate 1. Map of India

grasses with other weeds and this region becomes green. As the

r a i n s are over there is beginning of diy season a n d soil becomes

bare.

Petrology and chemical composition

Deccan Trap in general belongs to the type called 'Plateau

basalt' (Washington, 1922). It is commonly seen t h a t the rock is

normal augite basalt. It shows variations in colour a n d texture from

place to place. H. S. Washington (1922) gave chemical composition

in terms of minerals a s n o r m s DeccanTraps is a s follows.

Quartz 4.14
Orthoclase 4.45
Albite 22.01
Anorthite 23.07
Diopside 17.41
Hypersthene 17.78
Olivine —

Magnetite 4.64
Ilmenite 3.65
Apatite 1.01

£ ^ e n t and distribution

The D e c c a n T r a p s of India cover a large area of Kutch,

Saurashtra, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra

Pradesh (Plate 5). It comprises one of the largest volume covering a n

area of 200,000 sq. miles (Krishnan, 1960; Wadia, 1961). It today

extends from near Belgaum (Lat 15°, 5 1 ' N) to Goona (Lat 24°,

30' N) a n d from Bombay (Long. 72°, 50' E) to Amarkantak (Long.

80°, 5 0 ' E) (Bianford, 1867) occupying a n area about 52,000 sq.km.

The original extent of this might have been more than a million

square kilometer (Krishnan, 1968 a n d Wadia, 1966) a s part of them

are submerged in Arabian s e a towards the west of Bombay. Deccan

parts are detached along western southern coast d u e to weathering

and denudation. They are scattered near Kutch and Bhuj and some

near Rajahmundry a n d Tamirapat in Sirguja district. The lava flows

of Nagpur a n d Mohgaonkalan are considered a s the earlier pourings

whereas the highest flow is recorded a s Worli Malabar hills of

Bombay.

Oirigin

A very remarkable feature of the lavas of the Deccan

Traps, having a n important bearing on question of its mode of

origin, it is persistant horizontality throughout its wide area

(Krishnan, 1960, Wadia, 1961). Recently, after a close observation it

h a s been noted in some p a r t s of Western Maharashtra that the

basalt flows show considerable irregular tops a n d bottoms, t h u s

deviating from concept of horizontality (Agashe and Gupta, 1968).

A gentle folding of lava sheets is noticeable at Western

Satpuras, Khandesh a n d Rajpipla hills near Broach but these dips

are belived to be due to the effects of late disturbances of level due

to tectonic c a u s e s rather t h a n to a n original inclination of the flows.

Stratigraphic relations

The stratigraphic relation of Deccan traps among

themselves, with overlying a n d underl3dng rocks is given in the table

(Wadia, 1966).

10
Table 2 :

Nummulities of Surat and Broach Eocene of Kutch; lateiite

Unconformity
Upper Traps Of Bombay a n d Kathiawar. Lava flows with
(450 m) n u m e r o u s ash-beds; sedimentary intertrappean
b e d s of Bombay with large n u m b e r of animal
fossils i.e. vertebrata a n d moUuscan shells.
Middle Traps Of Malwa and Central India. Lavas and ash-beds
(1200 m) forming thickest part of the series. No fossiliferous
interrappean beds
Lower Traps Of Madhya Pradesh, Narmada, Berar, etc. Lavas
(150 m) with few ash-beds. Fossiliferous intertrappeans
numerous
S l ^ h t unconformity

Lameta or Infra-trappean series; Bagh beds, J a b a l p u r

beds a n d older rocks.

Dykes

The Dykes have been known to occur in the D e c c a n t a p

area since the earliest days of Indian geology. According to Fermor

(1914) dykes are concentrated in Western India, Rewa, Sirguja and

according to King (1885) in Bilaspur and they are absent from other

p a r t s of DeccanTraps. Sahni (1940) believed that, volcanic eruption

took place simultaneously at m a n y distinct places in the eastern

part a n d then migrated to the West. The lava of Nagpur a n d

Chhindwara districts were certainly among the earlier to be poured

out. While highest flows of series is seen in the Malabar hills and

Worli hills of Bombay. The dykes are found in the forms of

segregated system in which individual members are parallel to each

other or arranged radialy. Dykes of large size, massive irregular

intrusions and a s h b e d s are observed at n u m b e r of places in the

neighbourhood of trap area around its boundiy (West, 1959).

11
\ 2
2
3

m'^^ 7 6

5 (
( ^

1. Himalayan Region
2. Indo Gangetic Planes
3. Central Highlands
4. North Deccan
5. South Deccan
6. Eastern Plateaus
7. Eastern Ghats
8. East Coastal Planes
9. Western Ghats
10. West Coastal Planes

Plate 2. Physiographic sub-divisions of India

 The questions of the origin of the Deccan Trap flows not to

be satisfactorily answered. Earlier Blanford (1867), Foote (1826),

Huges (1887) and Oldham (1893) stated the balance of dykes in

m a n y p a r t s of Deccan Traps, later on it h a s been established that a

large n u m b e r of dykes occur in Western Maharashtra. Auden (1949)

h a s remarked that the lavas of high plateau are free from the dykes.

West (1959) h a s reported that the there are no dykes in the 2 / 3

portion of the Deccan Traps. Agashe a n d Gupte (1971) h a s shown

t h a t a large n u m b e r of dykes oCcur in area, which formerly was

supposed to be dykes free.

Thickness of Deccan Traps

Deccan trap is 2000-3000 m thick along the west coast of

Bombay, 150 m thick at Amarkantak a n d Surguja, 90 m thick at

Chhindwara, 30-42 m at Mohgaonkalan and Palodon (Sahni and

Rode, 1937) and 4 5 m at Nagpur (Pande, Surynarayan and

Deshpande, 1969). While n e a r Belgaum the southern limit of trap is

a b o u t 60 m thick. Sind h a s minimum thickness of 30-60 m.

According to Permor (1926) in Bhusaval region it shows 29 flows.

Each flow h a s 4-30 m thickness.

Magnetic nature

On the basis of magnetic n a t u r e of Deccan Traps, a

possibility of northward movement of subcontinent is pointed out

(Clegg et al, 1956; Irwing, 1957; Deutsch et at, 1958 and Deutsch,

1959). This movement has taken place (Clegg et al, 1959)

sometimes in the late Cretaceous or early Eocene period. The

differences in mean magnetic direction may be d u e to some physical

phenomenon or partial magnetic stability. During Deccan Trap

12
formation in late Mesozoic or in early Coenozoic times, India was
about 34° south of equator and moved northward clockwise through
25°. This has resulted in a linear movement of 5000 kms.

Economic importance

The Deccan"E"ap basalt's are largely used in construction

of building and roads. Some are preferred because of colours as
semi-precious stones. They are also sources of good agricultural soil
formed by the decomposition of basalt containing calcium and
magnesium carbonates, potash, phosphates, etc. This soil is known
as 'Regur' and is used for the cultivation of cotton and wheat.

13
 GEOLOGY OF THE DECCAN INTERTRAPPEAN
FORMATION

The Deccan Intertrappean beds of India are the

sedimentary beds formed u n d e r water, separating the successive

lava flows. The sedimentary beds are fossiliferous containing flora

a n d fauna of t h a t period. Regarding the formation of intertrappean

beds Hislop a n d Hunter (1884) suggested the presence of huge lake

in the central a n d western India in connection with the sea of

Rajahmundry. Hislop (1955) further added that the trap layers lying

above a n d below the intertrappean beds were portions of one and

the same flow. This view was further supported by Newbold (1848).

However, Medlicott (1860) a n d Blanford (1867) were of the view that

there m u s t have been small and shallow lakes because Lymnaea

a n d Physa, the pulmoniferous moUusca were preserved in which

sedimentation took place. According to Blanford (1867) in the many

small lakes shallow sedimentation occurred, with less degree of

lateral extension of intertrappean sedimentary beds. Medlicotts view

was also supported by Foote (1876).

At short intervals traps are separated by sedimentary beds

of small vertical a s well a s horizontal extent of lacustrine or fluviatile

deposition on the irregular surface during eruptive intervals, which

are formed u n d e r water. These sedimentary beds are called a s

Infratrappeans or I n t e r t r a p p e a n beds (Wadia, 1966). These are

fossiliferous, marine or fresh water and are valuable for providing

histor>' of periods of eruptive quiescence that intervened between

14
the successive o u t b u r s t s a n d of flora a n d fauna t h a t migrated again

a n d again to quite centres. The plants and animals got accumulated

at the bottom in the silt which formed the sedimentary bed. The

second eruption of lava took place covering the sedimentary beds

and underlying rocks and thus the sedimentary beds got

intercalated between the two flows of basalts. According to Medlicot

(1860) and Blanford (1867) the intruding lava between two existing

strata could not have travelled to such a long distances covering the

whole of Deccan Traps. Further this would have shifted the whole

overlying m a s s which is again impossibility. However, such a

intrusion might occur locally travelling for few meters only

(Blanford, 1867).

Occurrence and e x t e n t

Intertrappean beds are well exposed in the Deccan Trap

area a s small patches and are treasures of fossil flora and fauna.

Intertrappean beds are sandwiched between u p p e r a n d lower traps

while they are totally absent from the middle traps. These beds

occur a s broken outcrops, contouring the hills, to the extent of 3 m

in thickness a n d about 4-7 km in lateral extent. An exception is

seen in the east of J a b a l p u r where the Intertrappeans are traced to

30 k m s . These beds are found in the form of compact cherts of

brown a n d black colour.

Intertrappean beds are well exposed in Madhya Pradesh

prominently at Mohgaonkalan, Keria, Saucer, etc. in Chhindwara

district, n e a r Sagar in Sagar district; S a m n a p u r and Parapani in

Mandla district. In Maharashtra at Mahurzari, Bharatwada, Phutala

t a n k and Takli in Napgur district; Nawargaon in Wardha district;

15
B u l d h a n a in B u l d h a n a district, Sibla a n d J h a r g a d localities in

Yeotmal district a n d Worli and Malabar hills near Bombay. In

Andhra Pradesh in Rajahmundry area, t h e lower trap contains a

fossiliferous intertrappean bed which extends over 16 k m s and

ranges 1 to 4 km in thickness. Intertrappean b e d s occur below and

above the Deccan Traps. Deccan t r a p s are underlined by Bagh beds

in Narmada Valley.

Near Nagpur the Intertrappean rocks are exposed near

Jaitala, Sitabuldi, 7\mbazari quarries, Laxmi Narayan Technological

Institute, Phutala hills, Seminary hills, Borgaon and Takli gitti

Khadan (Patil G. V., 1971).

Petrology and chemical nature of Intertraps

The Intertraps are compact, irregular in distribution and

composed of black cherty lydite, stratified volcanic detritus, clays

a n d impure limestones. They also show fossiliferous flora and fauna

at places.

Average chemical analysis of black a n d brown chert of

Deccan Intertrappean beds is given by Nambudiri (1967) a s well a s

for Deccan Intertrappean chert of Nagpur by Patil (1971).

Table 3 :

Mohgaonkalan
Sr.
Compound % in black % in brown Nagpur
No.
chert chert
1. Silica Si02 93.51 94.93 73.00
2. Alumina AI2O3 1.26 1.29 9.45
3. Ferric Oxide FeaOs 0.37 0.57 6.80
4. Ferrous oxide FeO 0.30 0.15 N.D.
5. Titanium oxide TiOa Nil Nil N.D.

16
6. Calcium oxide CaO 0.53 0.65 1.30
7. Magnesium oxide MgO Trace Trace 0.05
8. Sodium oxide Na20 0.94 094 0.02
9. S u l p h u r txioxide SO3 0.03 0.03 N.D.
10. S u l p h u r S 0.12 012 N.D.
11. Phosphorus pentaoxide P2O5 0.06 0.09 N.D.
12. Phosphrous P 0.027 0.38 N.D.
13. Loss on Ignition 2.99 1.36 8.90
14. Potassium oxide K2O Nil Nil Traces
Quantity analyzed 110 gms 58 gms 50 gms
N.D. - Not determined

From this chemical analysis it a p p e a r s that with higher

percentage of iron oxide the preservation is proportionately poor.

The Lameta beds

The Lameta beds or Intertrappean beds are named after

the Lameta Ghats of Narmada above Bagh beds (Medlicott and

Blanford, 1879). They are found a s narrow fringe around the trap

country particularly in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Hyderabad,

along Godavari valley to Bhopal a n d Indore a n d western parts of

Narmada valley (Krishnan, 1968).

They vary in thickness from 7-30 m a n d composed of

small groups of limestones, sandstones and clays. Fossils found in

these b e d s are mostly MoUusa, Fishes and Dinosaurs.

A t3T3e-section through a portion of the basalts illustrate

the relation of t r a p s with sedimentary intercalations a s well a s to

the Infra-trappean Lametas.

1. Bedded basalts, thick, Individual flows often marked on lower

a n d u p p e r surfaces by steam holes.

17
Plate 3. Three Segments of India
2. Cherty beds, Lydite with Unio, Paludina, Cypris and Fossil
woods, 1.5 m.

3. Bedded basalts, very thick.

4. Impure limestone, stratified tufts etc., with Cypris, Physca and

broken shells, 2 m.

5. Bedded basalts; thick.

6. Siliceous limestones with sandstone (Lametas) with a few shell

fragments, 6 m.

Fossiliferous localities of Deccan Intertrappean

series of India

Mahurzari

Deccan Intertrappean beds are exposed near a small

village Mahurzai (Lat. 21°, 13' 1 1 " N' Long. 79° 0' E) in Nagpur

district. This locality lies 3 k m east at Phetri which is b u s stop on

Nagpur-Katol road. Number of plant fossils, mostly dicotyledonous

a n d monocotylendonous woods a n d some animal fossils, molluscan

shells are seen lying scattered in the fields at the foot of hills. Some

woods a n d roots are still seen in situ. Bharatwada is also other

locality lying 1 km to the east of Mahurzari.

TakU

Takli Gitti Khadan (Lat. 21°, 1 1 ' N; Long. 79° 0' 4 " E) is the

another locality where sedimentary beds are clearly exposed.

Sausar

These beds are located in Chhindwara district and gave

algae, fungi, Reridophytes, mostly Azolla intertrappea, etc. fossils.

18
Rajahmundry

It is situated (Lat. 17° 5' N, Long. 81°, 8 5 ' E) on the East-

West coast of Andhra Pradesh. The sedimentary beds, exposed here

are estuarine a n d yielded important plant fossils belonging to Algae

and m a n y other woods.

Worli

It lies n e a r Bombay. From this locality Sukeshwala (1954)

described animal a n d plant fossils.

Other Intertrappean fossiliferous beds are Keria (Prakash,

1957), Maragaur n e a r Wardha (Sahni, 1964), near J a b a l p u r (Sahni,

1964), Nawargaon (Shukla, 1949), n e a r Parapani (Bande, 1973), in

Mandla district; Ramakona (Mahabale, 1953), S a m n a p u r (Ingle,

1973) in Mandla district, Saugar (Mahabale and Deshpande, 1963;

Sahni, 1964), Seoni (Sahni, 1943; Shukla, 1946), Sindhi Vihira near

Saugar (Sahni, 1964), Sitabuldi (Sahni, 1964), Sitapuri (Sahni,

1949) Takli (Sahni, 1931); B u l d h a n a (Mahabale and Kulkami),

Umaria (Rode, 1935); Vikarabad (Mahadevan a n d Sarma, 1984),

Yavatmal (Yawale, 1977; Dahegaonkar, 2001). (The approximate

distribution of the Deccan Intertrappean fossiliferous localities of

India shown in Plate 6).

19
 PALAEOCLIBfATIC AND PALAEOECOLOGICAL
CONSIDERATION OF DECCAN TRAPS

The major objective of the Palaeobotanical studies is to

u n d e r s t a n d the vegetation pattern of the entire geological time scale.

Since vegetation of a particular time and space is directly governed

by the climate a n d local environmental conditions, a better

understanding of the subject can provide important information on

Palaeoclimate a n d depositional environmental conditions of the

associated rock a n d sediments.

Palaeoenvironment deals with the environmental, climatic

and ecological conditions of the geological past. Environment is the

surrounding condition by which contemporaneous plants and

animals are influenced and subjected to modifications in their

growth a n d development. Environment of a particular region is t h u s

controlled by climate.

There are several factors to be considered to reconstruct

the palaeoenvironment of particular region. The possibility of

reconstructing past environment depends on the accurate

identification of diverse fossil assemblage. In order to infer the

climate of Deccanfraps a critical analysis of the flora of Deccan"&ap

h a s been m a d e (Uttam-Prakash, 1973). His attention is confined to

spermatophytes including Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. Other

mega a n d micro-fossil have also been taken into consideration.

Palaeoclimates are evaluated on the basis of the presence

of characteristics plants, the composition of communities and by

20
 Earn ^ H Periti Urut: Ma (Mega atunnn)

En ^ ^ 1 ^^1 1 Ma" 10* years ago

PHANEROZOIC

Cenoioic O: OMa
Quarternaiy 1.5-0.0 Ma
Holocetie
Fleistocaiie
Tertiary

NMfeite . , -„„ JS-Uftfa

(PBDcen*
iMiocene
PalteofMM «5-26Ma
{Oligocane
{Eocene
iPakaocene
Mesozaic 230 - 65 Ma
CretacefNis 136-65 Ma
Late(Seniordan}
Eailj^Neocomiaii)
Jurassic 190-136 Ma
La1e(Maim)
MidiiMDogpi)
Earl3rtL4as;
triassic 230-190 Ma
Lat*
Middk
Ea:^
Palaeozak : iij - 2X1 IvLs
F>ermlan 380-230 Ma
M«
iMiddk
Mr
Carboniferous 345 - 2S0 Ma

•
Lata(F«]iH}rtraiuaDn)
EaTly(Mississipian)
Dewotiian 395 - 345 Ma
Late
Middk
fx&y
saurian 430 - 395 Ma
Ordcvician 500-430 Ma
M«
Mr
Cambrian 570-500 Ma
Me
iMiddk
Mr
PREC'.\MBRl!tN ^etxi-yjir.
Prcterozok
NeoprotBrozoic 1000-570 Ma
Mesoprotarozolc 1800 -1000 Ma
Palaeoproterozoic 2500 -1800 Ma
Archaean
Eladcait 4(300 - 3iOCi Ma

Plate 4. Geological Time Scale

morpho-anatomical characters which may change their climatic

affinity with time.

It is difficult for palaeobotanist to say how warm or cold,

dry or h u m i d the climate was in quantitative terms, or to indicate

a n n u a l average for temperature and precipitation. It is possible

though to state the trends of climatic changes, periods of warming

u p or cooling off, oxidization of humidification, increase or decrease

seasonality of climate (Meyan, 1987).

The botanicals components of the fossil flora have been

classified into

i) Extant genera

ii) Exotic genera a n d

iii) Those which are not assigned to any living genus and can be

regarded a s extinct or botanically unidentified.

Out of the three categories of generic groups, the exotic

genera are more significant t h a n the other two with respect to floral

changes a n d the plant migration during the geological time. The

exotic types give u s a better estimate of p a s t environment because

they reflect a different climate t h a n that of native group near the

locality.

Our present knowledge of fossil plants is incomplete and

any of these are yet to be recognized in terms of m o d e m genera and

species, especially those belonging to Palmae. Therefore, the present

interpretations are only generalized and would be supported by

further investigations.

21
 From the fossil studies done so far it seems t h a t the flora

of India during Tertiary was predominantly tropical a n d sub-tropical

in n a t u r e ; the conifers and some other forms (Sparganium) might be

growing on t h e u p lands.

According to C. G. K. Ramanujam the dawn of the Tertiary

period in India witnessed a s u d d e n slump in gjminospermous

vegetation. The decline of Indian Gjntnnosperms started during the

later p a r t of the Cretaceous period which a p p e a r s d u e to extremely

unsuitable conditions created by physical and climatical

cataclysms, the Indian subcontinent experienced during that age.

The only gymnosperms recorded from the Tertiary deposits of India

belong to Conifers. From Deccan Intertrappean series, considered to

Lower Eocene (Palaeocene) a few petrified cones a n d woods have

been recorded, particularly from outcrops around the Nagpur area

by S a h n i i n 1931.

Considering the flora of Deccan Intertrappean series, it

h a s been noticed t h a t only some of the fossils have reliably been

assigned to m o d e m genera, while others are described without any

proper generic affinities. The m o d e m distribution of the living

comparable forms of the Deccan Intertrappean flora, wherever

possible, would indicate a different picture of environment t h a n

w h a t we see today in Nagpur - Chhindwara region of the Trap from

where most of the petrified flowering plants are known.

The presence of Elaeocarpoxylon antiqum, AUanthoxylon

ghiarense, Barringtonioxylon deccanense, B. eopterocarpum,

Tetrameleoxylon prenudiflora, Aeschynomene tertiara, Creiuioxylon

mahurzariense, Palmoxylon cf. Phoenix, Musa cardiosperma,

22
Heliconiaites mohgaoensis (Trivedi a n d Verma, 1971b, 1972) and

Cannaites intertrappea (Trivedi a n d Verma, 1971c) comparable to

m o d e m Blaeocarpus fessuquineus, Ailanthus grandis, Barringtonia

acutangula, B. pterocarpa, Tetrameles nudiflora, Aeschynomene sp.,

Greivia laevigata, Phoenix robusta, P. rupicota, Musa sp., Heliconia

sp. a n d Canna indica respectively indicates a more humid climate

for the Deccan Trap t h a n that of present day. Most of these plants

are presently growing in moist place like Western Ghats, Ceylon,

Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, B r u m a a n d Thailand. Some

of these comparable forms like Barringtonia acxitangula and Gregia

laevigata are generally found in d a m p places along streams or sea

shores. The presence of sea shore in Nagpur-Chhindwara region h a s

already been indicated by the discovery of coastal forms like Nypa,

Sonneratia a n d Coccus from Mohgaonkalan a n d Saugar. These

s u r e s t the presence of estuarine conditions there during the

Deccan Trap formation either d u e to presence of Tethys sea or a n

arm of sea from the gulf of cambay a n d probably this might explain

presence of moisture loving forms in some ever green to semi-

evergreen or monsoon forests, close to the area. The dry deciduous

comparable from of fossils like Maliotus phillipinensis, BoswelUa

serrata, Greuna tiWaefoUa, Terminalia tomentosa and Leea indica

would appear to occupy low dry hills of the Deccan Trap further

away from the watershed. With the rise of Himalayas and

disappearance of Tethys sea, desication followed in the Deccan Trap

country, due to which moisture loving m e m b e r s of evergreen to

semi-evergreen forests were p u s h e d into more favourable climatic

regions like nearby Western Ghats where similar moist conditions

still exist, while the dry deciduous types like Mailotus philippinensis,
23
 Paleocene-Cretaceous

Gondwana

Early Palaeozoic

Late Proterozoic

Early Proterozoic

Archaean

Plate 5. Geological Map of India

Boswellia serrata, TerminaUa tomentosa and Grewia tiliaefolia

remained on the plateau. This h a s a cumulative effect with the

shifting of the Indian sub-continent to the present position from

t h a t of the South of the equator during t h a t period where obviously

there was atmospheric precipitation. Because of the presence of

Palmoxylon in the Intertrappean period, the occurrence of humid

and warm condition in the Eocene period of the Deccan Traps is

strengthened.

The existance of extant angiosperm species in the Eocene

is very u n u s u a l a n d may be attributable in this case to slow

evolutionary rates a n d u n u s u a l evolutionary properties associated

with hydrophily in the g e n u s Ceratophyllum (Patrick et at, 1990).

In Palaeocene with the ability of Cocos to float the evolving

coconut became independent of plate tectonics for its dispersal

whereas other palms, become notoriously endemic.

The presence of more humid a n d warm conditions during

the period of Deccan Trap formation is further strengthened by the

fact that the Intertrappean beds which h a d Palmioxylon are now

relatively poor in palms. Rodeites, a hydropteridian sporocarp h a s

been compared with Regnellidium, a water fern of Brazil and

Cyclanthodendron found in the Deccan Intertrappean beds, h a s

been compared with the tropical American genus Cyclanthus. These

forms provide a link between the flora of the Deccan and m o d e m

flora of tropical America. In the past, these groups had a wide

distribution b u t becamie scanty in recent times.

On the basis of Palaeobotanical evidences, Lakhanpal

(1970) reconstructed Palaeogeography of India during Tertiary

24
period According to him, the Tethys sea began to recede at the end

of Cretaceous and in its stead started the elevation of chain of

m o u n t a i n s . India started acquiring its present position with the rise

of Himalayas a n d recession of the seas during the Miocene time.

Sparganium is another important temperate genus.

Sparganium ramosum and S. simplex are the only two species

occurring in Indian region. Their disappearance from the Trap

country might be due to some tectonic movements which changed

the topography of plateau a n d the environment due to which these

plants could not survive there a n d moved north wards to suitable

places. The occurrence of this temperate genus a s well a s the South

Amierican tropical elements in the Deccan flora during the early

Tertiary of India is quote enigmatic and needs further check u p with

m o d e m plants before a true picture of their systematic position is

known (Uttam-Prakash, 1973).

In addition to the above mentioned forms, some fossil

Algae a n d Fungi are also described from the Deccan Intertrappean

beds of India. From the study of fossil algae, it seems t h a t the semi-

tropical rain forest type of climate was prevailing at t h a t time in the

Deccan Trap areas. Some of the Algae were found in reproductive

stages viz., Mougeotiates deccani a n d Spirogyrites deccanii described

by Barlinge a n d Paradkar (1979). The fact t h a t these fossils

occuring in the reproductive stages confirms the findings of Prof.

Sahni, t h a t process of fossilization took place in a u t u m n as

evidenced by the reproductive structures of Azolla intertrappea.

Deccan Intertrappean exposures have revealed a n u m b e r

of Fungi (Jain, 1974) that grew luxuriandy. These varied fungal

25
 •I? f

31* 2*8
1*1
• 18

2 If

2S»7^

( 1 Bombay 17. Wardha

^ 2. Sagar 18. Vikarabad
S 3. Jabalpur 19. Sitapuri
J ^• Ramakona 20. Kateru
1 ^•
Sausar 21. Rajahmundry
\ 6. Chhindwara 22. Gowripattam
J 7. Umaria-Isra 23. Dudulcur
/* 8. Paladon 24. Pangidi
\ f 9. Palatwara 25. Parapani
N-^ 10 M ohgaonkalan 26. Samnapur
11. Jhiria 27. Buldhana
12. Keria 28. Nawargaon
13. Seoni 29. Slither
14. TaMi 30. Maragsur
15. Mahurzari 31. Yavatmal
16. Nagpur

Plate 6. Approximate distribution of the Deccan

Intertrappean localities of India
fonns indicate a warm a n d humid palaeoclimate for the Deccan

Intertrappean period in which these cherts were formed.

Chitaley (1974), Prakash (1974), Lakhanpal (1974) have

published excellent review on fossil plants of Deccan Intertrappean

beds. Fungal spores a n d microfossils have been recovered from oil-

bearing sediments. Palaeoecological studies of fungi m u s t deal

interaction with the biotic environm^ent provided by plants and

animals. The interaction of fungi with higher plants with reference

to palaeobotanical evidences need to be documented in appropriate

m a n n e r by exploring more fossil fungi a n d chemical and geological

aspects.

It is, therefore, clear t h a t with well preserved material we

can learn m u c h about the climate of the past, a s well as rates of

evolution a n d factors regulating the appearance of major group of

kingdom fungi (Stewart, 1985).

The Early Teritary outcrops exposed at Mohgaonkalan,

Mandala, Sagar (M.P.), Nawargaon, Maragsur, Mahuzarl

(Maharashtra), Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh), Kutch (Gujrat),

Kapurdi, Banner (Rajasthan) S u b a t h u sediments in Simla hills

(Himachal Pradesh), Bengal Basin and Assam have yielded

mangroove a n d other coastal plants. Fossil mangroove and other

coastal plants discovered so far from these beds have been reviewed

a n d attempted by S. D. Bonde (1991).

The Palaeobotanical evidences are in favour of a tropical to

sub-tropical climate throughout the Tertiary era in Indian region.

The fossil plants are suggestive of evergreen, estuarine forests in

parts of peninsular and extrapeninsular region. The forests could

26
grow luxuriantly a n d thrived for a considerable length of time

because of the favourable climate (Bonde, 1991).

Occurrence of Acrostichum along the coastal palms,

mangrooves a n d m a r s h plants described earlier from Deccan

Intertrappean b e d s of India suggests that it was linked to the

equatorial ocean (South Western Tethys Sea) probably through

Narmada Valley during the deposition of Intertrapean sediments.

Acrostichum is hydropterid fern occurring in marsh swamp

environment or on m u d flats of back water areas of the coastal

environment which can be referred to a s a component of mangroove

ecosystem for all ecological consideration. So presence of

Acrostichum at Nawargaon is a n indication of deposition at the sea

level. Its occurrence in the Intertrappeans is ph5rtogeographicaIly

significant a n d also implies a considerable coastal advance during

Late Cretaceous. T h u s , the occurrence of Acrostichum signals the

existence of mangroove ecosystem and prevalence of a humid

tropical climate, when the peninsular India occupied a n equatorial

position during Late Cretaceous (Bonde a n d Kumaran, 2002).

From the above discussion it is clear that most of the

megafossils occurring in the Deccan Interrappean flora h a d a warm

humid tropical or sub-tropical climate for the Deccan Traps. In

addition to megafossils, survey of microfossils referable to or

affiliated with m o d e m taxa also helps in determining the possible

palaeoclimatic or palaeoenvironmental pattern of the Deccan Traps

(Ramanujam, 1974). Microfossils are not reliable because in most

cases pollen a n d spores described from the Deccan Intertrappean

27
beds of India have been classified artificially a n d their relationship

with the m o d e m plants is not yet certain (Uttam Prakash, 1973).

Some of the microfossils still deserve special mention in

this regard. The occurrence of pollen grains referable to Palmae,

Caesalpiniaceae, Myrsinaceae, Sapotaceae, Araliaiceae,

Santalaceae, Hippocrataceae, Meliaceae, Symplocaceae and

Thymeliaceae in the South Arcot lignite (Ramanujam, 1966)

indicates a moist-humid-tropical to sub-tropical climate during the

Upper Tertiary of South India along the east coast. Occurrence of

poUen grains related to Palmae, Barringtonia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia

a n d Pelliceraia in Eocene of Kutch, clearly indicates a warm-humid-

coastal swamny environment (Venkatachala a n d Kar, 1968; Sah a n d

Kar, 1969). Fossil records helps to draw at least roughly the

coastline of old Tethyan sea and accordingly, a n arm which m u s t

have washed the northern shores of the Deccan. The older marine

beds of Narmada valley confirm existence of the sea arm in and

around Central India prior to the initiation of Deccan volcanism

(Acharya and Lahari, 1991).

Now a days Palaeoecology and Palaeoclimate have been

studied by using Palynology a s a tool. The mangroove vegetation

produces large quantity of pollen grains, which are small and with

highly resistant exine, these are a b u n d a n t plant remains in the

sediments. On the basis of this vegetation the reconstruction of p a s t

vegetation a n d changes in environmental conditions can be studied

(Kumaran, 2005). According to K.P.N. Kumaran (2005) mangroove

deposits can be excellent indicators of Palaeoclimatic events such a s

rainfall variations. Anjum Farooqi (2005) is also of opinion that

28
fossil pollen assemblage of mangrooves can be used to reconstruct

past environment by the u s e of transfer functions, which relate

present day environment to p r e s e n t day pollen assemblages.

Singh (2005) stated t h a t during late Cretaceous due to the

Deccan Volcanism warmer conditions reappeared, eliminating some

plants including few angiosperm groups and introducing new or

more diverse angiosperms. Many angiosperms modified their floral

structure to facilitate pollination by insects.

Rashmi Srivastava (2005) is of opinion t h a t some of the

anatomical features are influenced by ecological conditions and

s u c h characters always do not depict evolutionary trends. Since,

Indian Cretaceous Palaeocene flora is distinctly tropical, growth

rings a n d ring porosity are a b s e n t due to non-seasonality. Likewise

according to her some characteristic features of dicotyledonous

woods of trees from Decan Intertrappean beds suggests that these

woods are of trees of tropical evergreen to semi-evergreen forest.

The Deccan Intertrappean flora is unique in the sense that

it includes a large n u m b e r of plant fossils, representing almost all

groups of plant kingdom. This flora can be considered as the

parental stock of the m o d e m Indian flora. The recorded fossil flora

was inhabitant of tropical forests a s most of the genera exist in the

evergreen to semi-evergreen forest of Western Ghats - North-East

India. The a b u n d a n c e of p a l m s and plants s u c h as Barringtorda,

Calophyllum, Cocos, Nypa, Sonneratia along with other moist

tropical taxa indicating swampy, littoral, tropical condition with

close proximity of sea (Guleria, 2005).

29
 The fossil record to Deccan Intertrappean beds helps to
infer strongly that Palaeoposition of Indian landmass during the
deposition of these beds was within the equatorial zone south of the
equator (Guleria, 2005).

It can be inferred that the Deccan Trap beds are enjoying a

warm, humid, tropical or subtropical climate.

30
 AGE OF DECCAN TRAPS

The Deccan Traps are one of the largest volcanic provinces

in the world. The Deccan Trap formation was a remarkable event of

the geological past. Regarding the age of the Deccan Traps

information is some what vague a n d inconclusive b u t there are

indications a n d certain a m o u n t of fossil evidences that disturbances

persisted for a protracted period.

The different views regarding the age of Deccan Traps

formation putforth by different workers are a s follows.

1. Cretaceous origin of entire Deccan"&aps.

2. Deccan Traps belonging to Tertiary period.

3. Deccan "Eraps formed towards the Late Cretaceous period and

continued till Early Eocene.

The study of fossils from Deccan Traps dates back to 1 9 *

century when H. H. Voysey (1819) reported some land shells at

Sagar. Malcolmson assisted by Sowerby (1837) described some land

shells a n d several species of Cypridae a n d Chara from Nagpur and

Hyderabad. However, he first expressed the opinion on the age of

the Deccan Traps considering them a s belonging to Tertiary epoch

(period).

Malcolmson (1837) expressed the view that, the Deccan

Traps were of Tertiaiy age of Chara, Physca, Lymnea reported from

the Intertrappean b e d s were not found in any deposits older than

Tertiary.

31
 Carter (1857) described fossils from Bombay Intertrappean

and Rajmahal Intertrappean beds. After comparing the flora with

t h a t of India coal-fields he expressed the view t h a t the Deccan

Intertrappean flora was of younger age.

Hislop and Hunter (1855) a n d Oldham (1871) were also

the supporters of early Tertiary age of Deccan Traps. Hislop

described some fossil shells from Rajahmundiy some of which were

of fresh water a n d estuarine. Hislop a n d Hunter (1855) described

flora and fauna associated with the trap in Central provinces (now

Madhya Pradesh). Hislop considered Deccan "frap flora similar to

Eocene flora of London clay described by Bowerbank (1840).

Blanford (1851) firmly pointed out slight unconformity at

Bagh (reported by Keatings, 1856) and a well-marked Intertrappean

dipping below the Eocene (Middle Nummulitic). He concluded t h a t

the Lower Traps differ less in age from the Cretaceous beds of Bagh

t h a n the highest Trap do from the Lower Eocene formation of Surat.

He further states, a part atleast of the Trap is of Upper Cretaceous

age.

Blandford a n d Medlicot (1879) expressed Cretaceous age

for the Deccan Traps, a view later supported by R. D. Oldham.

Blanford (1879) described Fedden's discovery of Traps at Bor-hill in

Western Sindh and considered the Deccan Trap flows as mid-

Cretaceous.

King (1880) described marine a n d estuarine forms from

fossiliferous localities near Rajahmundry of Infratrappeans and

Intertrappeans, respectively. He favoured a Late Cretaceous age for

both.

32
 Smith Woodward (1906) described some fossil fishes from

Dongargaon a n d suggested a Tertiary age for the Intertrappeans.

Bonnema (1859) considered these to be more allied to the Tertiary

t h a n to Cretaceous forms since ostracod remains occurred in the

neighbourhood of Nagpur (Sahni, 1940). In 1921, Matiey published

his report on the stratigraphy, fossils and geological relationships of

Lameta beds of J a b a l p u r . J a b a l p u r Lametas are, however, of

Maastrichtian (Cretaceous) age according to Huene and Matiey

(1921). Wadia (1926), Holland (1926) considered that the

intertrappeans, a s a whole are Cretaceous on the basis of presence

of BuUinus (Physa) prinsepii in Maastrichtian of Baluchistan.

Hemchandra Das G u p t a (1933) described Cordita beumonti

from Infratrappeans of Rajahmundiy and fixed their age very high in

the Cretaceous. Sahni (1934, 1937), on the basis of palaeobotanical

evidences firmly suggested Tertiary age for the Deccan Traps. The

fossil evidences cited by him are.

1. Presence of large n u m b e r of palms.

2. Presence of AzoHo.

3. Occurrence of Rodeites, Gyrogonites and Chara.

4. Acicularia and essentially Tertiary genus of algae.

However, he considered the earliest Deccan Traps flows

ushered during Eocene, in India a n d there is no reliable evidence

available a s to how long the volcanic activities lasted.

S. L. Hora (1937) reported fossil fishes from Takli, and

supported a Tertiary age for the Deccan Traps.

33
 According to Ramarao (1937) the Deccan Trap eruptions

began at the close of Cretaceous and continued not only throughout

the Eocene b u t probably extended even to the later periods. His

statement is based on the palaeobotanical discoveries in the

Intertrappeans of Nagpur, Chhindwara and Rajahmundiy areas.

Dubey (1937) examined the rocks from Deccan Traps in

Western India at Cutch a n d Kathiawar. The Helium ratios give

Lower Tertiary age to the basalts. West (1937), said that the age of

atleast, the greater p a r t of the Deccan Trap, m u s t be assigned to

early Tertiary.

Wadia (1949) is not very decisive about this problem a n d

proposed t h a t from the external evidence, it is quite apparent that

the Deccan Trap c a n not be older t h a n the Upper Cretaceous

whereas, from internal evidences of fossil fishes, palms, etc., they

could not be m u c h younger t h a n the Eocene.

Ramarao (1950) reported about the problems of

Cretaceous-Eocene boundry. In most p a r t s of the world the dividing

line between the Cretaceous a n d Eocene is clearly indicated by

stratigraphical a n d Paleontological break in the succession revealing

a n unconformity a n d there is no difficulty here in defining where

one system e n d s a n d the other begins. But there are some beds

which cover the Cretaceous-Eocene transition period with rapidly

varying lithological a n d ecological facies. There is t h u s much

difficulty in defining their classification and assigning the beds a s

Cretaceous or Eocene. These transitional beds are grouped in

Danian a n d the Montian. These passage beds are clubed together a s

composite group to which the term Creocene may be applied.

34
 Pascoe (1950) in its publication states that the

Intertrappean fauna throws no definite light on the age of beds, but

the flora, however, h a s distinct Tertiary affinities. He expressed the

view that the older t r a p s are classed a s u p p e r Cretaceous but the

latest may be Lower Eocene age, the rest and probably, the bulk,

belong to Palaeocene.

Sukeshwala (1954) from the studies on the radioactive

properties of lava flows, suggested that the Deccan Traps range in

age from Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene.

Rama (1968) made five K-Ar age-determinations on

Deccan Trap flows and dykes. A basalt from Mount Pavagarh and

trachyte flow from near Bombay gave 4 3 , 4 5 , 42 million years and

60 + 3 million years age respectively.

WeUman a n d McElhinny (1970) m a d e four K-Ar age

determinations on samples were from critical localities (supplied by

Verma). The samples were from Mount Pavagarh near the base

(basalt) and near the top (rhyolite) a n d from the top of Mount Gimar

(diorite). They used the method a s described by Cooper (1963) and

Mc Dougall (1964, 1966) a n d concluded t h a t the age ranges between

59 a n d 64 million year. The Mount Pavagarh n e a r Baroda (Gujrat)

h a s rhyodacite and rhyolite rocks. The basal basalts measured 62 +

2 m y in age compared with 6 5 + 5 m y m e a s u r e d by Rama (1968).

The upper rhyolite gave 61 + 1 m y compared to 4 3 + 2 m y

measured by Rama. They described this younger age of loss of

radioactive Argon. The G i m a r Hills gave on age of 64 + 1 m y .

Heirtzler et at (1968) extrapolated geomagnetic time scale

with polarity reversals for last 70 m y based on the study of data

35
 ^ 0
Moliadeo ^
Hills S
D £ S

A. Section A-A Across t h e district roughly W.N.W.-E.S.E.

Passing through Chhindwara Town Umria Isra and Mohgaonkalan
Horizontal Scale 1" = 16 miles
Vertical Scale 1" = 4 , 0 0 0 Ft.

z
CO

^
» , « ' > ' > « A ' > A A / > A A A A / . A A A * « A A A A A

A « < « A » » , > ^ ^ A A A A A A A > A ) S A / « ( > A » A ^

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B. Section B-B of t h e Hills near Umaria Isra

Horizontal Scale 1" = 1 miles
Vertical Scale 1" = 4 0 0 Ft. llntertrappean Beds
b'

C. Section C-C Roughly N.W.N.-S.E.S

Through Mohgaonkalan INDEX
Horizontal Scale 1" = 1 miles E3 Deccan traps
Vertical Scale 1" = 4 0 0 Ft.
t^ Upper Gondwanas
f=jLower Gondwanas
m Pre-Cambrian
Metamorphics

Plate 10. Stratigraphic Map of Mohgaonkalan and Umaria

isra Intertrappean Beds (After Sahni and Rode,
1937)
from magnetic anomaly p a t t e r n s in the oceans a n d supposedly

constant spreading rates of oceanic crust.

Study of fossil plants from the Deccan Intertrappean beds

of India was done u n d e r the valuable guidance of Dr. (Mrs.) Chitaley

(1975). She suggested t h a t the Deccan Trap flora, on the whole, is

not comparable in toto with the m o d e m plants. It is unique having

m a n y characters not comiparable to any known plants, fossil and

living. This would mean that the age of Deccan Traps, particularly in

Central India, may not be Tertiary Eocene-Lower Eocene, b u t it is

very likely that these flows in Central India were poured in

Cretaceous, may be the Uppermost Cretaceous, a view already

propounded by Medlicot a n d Blanford.

According to Hemmady (1977) unless the study of Deccan

t r a p s is modernized by Palaeomagnetic approach a n d radiometric

dating, we are apt to gather j u s t a little more t h a n what is already

b u t role of lithological mapping a n d we will have to be content with

streching this little more into expertise. The geophysical studies of

Courtillor et al. (1986), Venkatesan et at (1993, 1996) of the Deccan

Trap associated sedimentary rocks also favour of Late Cretaceous

rather t h a n Eocene age. Kar and Srinivasan (1998) recovered

assemblage of palynofossils from Deccan Intertrappean beds of

Mohgaonkalan, M.P. suggested its Late Cretaceous age.

Khubalkar (1982) supported Chitaley's view of Upper

Cretaceous age, for atleast, Central Indian flow of Deccan Traps, on

the basis of his critical palaeobotanical studies on MarsUea and

Azolla from Deccan Intertrappean b e d s of Mohgaonkalan. He firmly

criticised Sahni's view about no report of Azolla from the beds older

36
t h a n tertiary, on the basis of his discovery of Azolla intertrappean

supraspore with single float, which is character of many Upper

Cretaceous species reported from other p a r t s of the world.

Bajpai and Prasad (2000) reported t h a t fossil assemblage

occurring between middle a n d u p p e r Ir levels is indicative of Late

cretaceous, probably Maastrichtian age. Several additional Ostracod

taxa described recently from the shales also favour Maastrichtian

age.

Morphological and anatomical features of fossil fern

reveals t h a t Acrostichum which grows in niarsh swamp environment

or coastal environment prevailing in tropical humid climate when

the Deccan region was almost at a n equatorial position during the

Late Cretaceous period (Bonde a n d Kumaran, 2002).

The Deccan Intertrappean flora has largely been

considered to be basal Tertiary (Late Maastrichtian - early

Palaeocene) a n d is well preserved from Intertrappean beds of

Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat and Andhra Pradesh

(Guleria, 2005).

West (1937) is of the opinion t h a t major part of the Deccan

trap m u s t be assigned to early Teritary. Wadia (1949) is not very

decisive about this problem and proposed that from the

experimental evidences it is clear t h a t the Deccan trap can not be

older t h a n the u p p e r cretaceous whereas, from internal evidences of

fossil fishes, palms, etc. they could not be younger t h a n the Eocene.

Pascoe (1950) in the publication of geological survey of India,

expressed the view that the oldest traps were Cretaceous, the

37
youngest as lower Eocene and the rest of which constitute the most
part of the Deccan traps were assignable to Palaeocene period.

Study of fossil plants from the Deccan intertrappean beds

of India was done under the valuable guidance of Dr.(Mrs.) Chitaley
(1975). She suggested that the Deccan trap flora, on the whole, is
not comparable in toto with the modem plants. It is unique having
many characters not comparable to any known plants, fossil and
living. This would mean that the age of Deccan Traps particularly in
central India, may not be Tertiary Eocene-Lower Eocene but it is
very likely that these flows in Central India were poured in
cretaceous, may be uppermost Cretaceous, a view already
propounded by Medlicot and Blanford.

At the end with the above discussion I feel personally that

the subject is still vague and controversial and needs a modernized
deliberation both in geological and paleobotanical sapeota for its
conclusion.

38
 OBSERVATIONS ABOUT DECCAN INTERTRAPPEAN
BEDS OF MOHGAONKALAN

I have visited the Deccan Intertrappean exposures of

village Mohgaonkalan which is unique one a n d its surrounding

areas m a n y times. This village is located in Chhindwara district of

Madhyapradesh (Lat. 21 "31' - 20''50' N a n Long. 78° 15' - 79°20'E).

The Deccan 'B"ap occupy a b o u t 70 per cent area of this district

(Plate 7). I reached this locality by hiked vehicle a n d the route was

Amravati - Morshi - Warud - P a n d u m a - Rajna - Sausar -

Chhindwara - Chaurai-Palatwada - Mohgaonkalan. The

Mohgaonkalan is a b o u t 12 k m s from Chaurai. While on way to this

locality one hardly forgets to notice the brown cherts from the

bunding of fields which contains fossil shells a n d angiospermic

woods and at some places some fossils in situ (Plate 12). After

crossing the Palatwada village while on way to Mohgaonkalan

n u m e r o u s brown cherts are seen strewn in the fields and at the

bottom of small hillocks (Plate 11). These cherts contain

angiospermic fossil fruits, wood a n d leaves.

The fossiliferous sedimentary beds are situated roughly

0.5 k m west of the village Mohgaonkalan (79''11E : 2 2 ° ! N). The

samples of black cherts were collected from the d u m p dug out of

small creek flowing at the foot of a hills (Plate 11). During

observations of the intertrappean sediments some interesting facts

have been noticed t h a t plants are found to be poorly preserved in a

brown chert while preservation is good in a black one. These are

39
 a) Field near Mohgaonkalan
showing number of
'^ fossiliferous cherts

'LiM.

b) Brown chert in situ near

Mohgaonkalan

c) Brown cherts showing

exposed fossil fruits

d) Brown chert showing

exposed fossil wood

e) Counterparts of
Tricoccites fruit observed
after breaking the chert

11. Collection of Fossiliferous c h e r t s fro

Mohgaonkalan, Dist. Chhindwara, M.P., India
 »

a) Exploration of the creek flowing n e a r Mohgaonkalan

b) Dr. G. V. Patil in t h e creek flowing near Mohgaonkalan while exploration

c) Dr. B. V. Upadhye and Dr. M. B. Bobade while exploring t h e bunding of

flelds on t h e way to Mohgaonkalan

d) P. S. Kokate in the fleld near Mohgaonkalan while exploration

Plate 12. Visit to Fossiliferous locality, Mohgaonkalan,

Dist. Chhindwara, M.P., India
mostly the petrifactions, compressions a n d impressions and rarely

casts of plant a n d animal fossils. These fossiliferous intertrappean

exposures are discontinuous towards Keria, J h e r i a and Paladum

side.

During my visit to Mohgaonkalan, renouned

Palaeobotanist and Ex-Vice Chancellor of Amravati University,

Dr. G. V. Patil and supervisor Dr. E. V. Upadhye were also with me.

Dr. G. V. Patil explained about sediments represented by Lameta

a n d Intertrappean beds. We also visited the creeke flowing near the

Mohgaonkalan (Plate 12). While observing the fossiliferous locality,

m a n y fossiliferous brown cherts were found in situ (Plate 11). We

also came across the fossiliferous cherts exposed at Mohgaonkalan

showing pertified fructification like Tricxtcdtes, Enigmocarpon,

Sahniocarpon, etc. Many petrified woods were also observed during

visit (Plate 11).

We have also collected some leaf impressions, casts and

molds from the fossiliferous locality. The boundries of farm show the

rich fossil assemblage of flora and fauna. The presence of

Ostracodes, Gastropods, Shells of MoUusca were very common with

the fossil woods.

Our visit to rich fossiliferous locality Mohgaonkalan was

realy informative a n d helped u s to u n d e r s t a n d and interprete the

views regarding the formation of Deccan Intertrappean beds.

40
 SURVEY OF LITERATURE PUBLISHED AND
UNPUBLISHED ON FLORA OF THE DECCAN
INTERTRAPPEAN BEDS OF INDIA

Study of the Deccan Intertrappean flora started after the

collection of fossils by Hislop a n d Hunter, Malcolmson, Crookshank,

Oldham, Morris, Carter a n d other more t h a n a century ago.

However, after a long gap, research work in Palaeobotany of these

beds was accelerated by Sahni (1931-1940). And 1929 onwards

m a n y workers took interest in this b r a n c h of Botany and reported

the plants from Algae to Angiosperms.

Chitaley (1962) published a synopsis of literature

including the plants studied during 1928-1960. Prakash (1960,

1965a a n d 1972) h a s given the review of gymnospermous and

angiospermous flora of Deccan Intertrappean beds. Lakhanpal

(1973) reviewed the literature of the flora of Deccan trap country

from Algae to Angiosperms. Patil (1988) also reviewed

Angiospermous fruits and flowers reported from the Deccan

Intertrappean beds.

As I got the collection of fossils from G3annosperms and

Angiosperms, I have tried my best to give the upto date review of

concerned groups of plant remains in the Intertrappean beds of

Mohgaonkalan from 1928 to 2 0 0 5 . I have mentioned here the

concerned plant fossils worked out fromi different exposures of

Intertrappean beds by various authors and arranged them

groupwise.

41
 GYMNOSPERMS
CONES

Authors Years Locality Name

Chitaley and 1973 Mohgaonkalan Harrisostrobus

Sheikh intertrappea

Karanjekar 1982 Pinaceostrobilites

triovulites

Prakash, U. 1956, Mohgaonkalan Mohgaostrobus sahnii

1977

Sahni 1931 Takli Takliostrobus alatus

Sahni 1931 Takli Pityostrobus crassitesta

Sahni 1931 Unknown locality Indostrobus bifidalepis
Upadhye 1979 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaostrobus sahnii

OVULES

Authors Years Locality Name

Ainapoore 1994 — Dioouulites mexicani
Mistri 1989 Mohgaonkalan Podocarpoaulties
intertrappea
Paradkar 1976 Mohgaonkalan Gymnoimlites deccani

Patil a n d 1987 Mohgaonkalan CycadovuUtes deccani

Upadhye
Sheikh and 1978 Mohgaonkalan Podocarpoovulites
Kolhe chitaleyii
Shukla 1948 Mohgaonkalan Gymnovulites
Singh 1977 Mohgaonkalan Podocarpoovulites
triiuingatus
Singhai 1975 Mohgaonkalem Cycadoxmlites
mohgaoense
Yawale 1975 Mohgaonkalan Coniferoomdites deccanii

42
 ANGIOSPERMS
DICOTYLEDONS

FLOWBRS
Authors Years Locality Name

Ainapore 1994 Mohgaonkalan Martynianthus

intertrappea

Channe 1998 Phutali Cochloanthus phutali

Chitaley 1955 Mohgaonkalan Sahnianthus parijai

Chitaley a n d Patel 1974 Mohgaonkalan Raoanthus intertrappea

Dixit 1986 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaonthus deccanii

Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Sheikhanthus shuklai

Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Chenopodianthus
mohgaonU
Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Hydnoanthus rodei

Paradkar 1971 Mohgaonkalan Chitaleypushpam

mohgaoense

Paradkar a n d 1984 Mohgaonkalan Sahnianthus parijai

Senad Shukla
P r a kash 1956 Mohgaonkalan Sahnipushpam
glandulosum
P r akash a n d J a i n 1963 Mohgaonkalan Sahnipushpam shukla
Shukla 1944 Mohgaonkalan Sahnianthus parijai
Shukla 1950 Mohgaonkalan Sahniipushpam sps.
Shukla 1958 Mohgaonkalan Sahnianthus dinectarium
Shukla and 1956 Mohgaonkalan Sahnipushpam
Verma intertrappea
Verma 1956 Mohgaonkalan Sahnipushapm shuklai
Yawale 1977 Mohgaonkalan Chitaleypushpam
dilecherii
Yawale 1977 Mohgaonkalan Telianthus benasonii

43
 FRUITS

Authors Years Locality Name

Adhao 1986 Mohgaonkalan Burseraceocarpon
ramanujami
Adhao 1986 Mohgaonkalan Ceratocarpon spinosa
Adhao 1986 Mohgaonkalan Juglanicarpon agashii
Ainapore 1994 Mohgaonkalan Martyniocarpon spinosi
Barlinge 1977 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaocarpon
dicotylespemui
Barlinge 1979 Mohgaonkalan Juncaginocarpon
mohgaonsis
Bhowal Mausmi 1998 Singhpur Schizocarpon aliformi
Bhowal Mausmi 1998 Singhpur Bicarpelocarpon singhpuri
Bhowal Mausmi 1998 Singhpur Baccatocarpon sharmae
Biradar a n d 1976 Mohgaonkalan Enigmocarpon parijai
Mahabale Sahni
Channe 1998 Jhargad Agashocarpon
intertrappea
Channe 1998 Jhargad Orygiocarpon jhargadi
Channe 1998 Jhargad Apricarpon jhargadi
Chauhan 1987 Mohgaonkalan Mahabalecarpon deccanii
Chitaley 1977 Mohgaonkalan Enigmocarpon parijai
Chitaley a n d Kate 1975 Mohgaonkalan Cremocarpon aquatica
Chitaley a n d Kate 1977 Mohgaonkalan Enigmocarpon sahnii
Chitaley a n d Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Kremocarpon aquatica
Chitaley a n d 1973 Mohgaonkalan Harrisocarpon sahnii
Nambudiri
Chitaley a n d Patil 1973 Mohgaonkalan Sahniocarpon harrisii
Chitaley a n d 1973 Mohgaonkalan Daberocarpon gerhardii
Sheikh
Chitaley a n d 1977 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaoncarpon eyedei
Yawale
Chudiwale 1990 Mohgaonkalan Gordonicorpon m.ohgaonse
Contd...

44
 Authors Years Locality Name
Chudiwale 1990 Mohgaonkalan Nicardocarpon
ramanujami
Chudiwale 1990 Mohgaonkalan Ficardocarpon
ramanujami
Dahegaokar a n d 2003 Mohgaonkalan Anacardwcarpon sahnii
Kapgate
Dahegaokar a n d 2003 Mohgaonkalan Spinocarpon intertrappea
Sheikh
Dahegaonkor 2002 Mohgaonkalan Hexaloculocarpon
intertrappea
Dhabarde, a n d 2005 Singhpur Singhpurocarpon sahnii
Sheikh
Dixit 1984 Mohgaonkalan Harrisocarpon sahnii
Dixit 1984 Mohgaonkalan Trilata malphigia
Dixit 1984 Mohgaonkalan Tiliceocarpon intertrappea
Dwivedi 1956 Bharatwada Enigmocarpon parijai
Gedam, Kolhe a n d 2003 Mohgaonkalan Achenoarpon mohgaonii
Kapgate
Jain 1964 Mohgaonkalan Indocarpa intertrappea
J a i n and Dayal 1966 Mohgaonkalan CarpolUhus striatus
Juneja 1993 Singhpur Nautiyalocarpon
singhpurii
J u n e j a and Sheikh 1993 Singhpur Triloculerocarpon
singhpurii
Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Hydnocarpon sahnii
Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Podostemoncarpon
mohgaonse
Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Loculocidocarpon
intertrappea
Kapgate 2001 Mohgaonkalan Chitaleyocarpon
intertrappea
Kapgate 2003 Mohgaonkalan Lytherocarpon mohgaonse
Kapgate, Patil and 2005 Mohgaonkalan Rodeocarpon mohgaonse
Jamkar
Kapgate, Sheikh 2003 Mohgaonkalan Wingospermocarpon
and Kapgate arilies
Contd

45
 Authors Years Locality Name
Karanjekar 1982 Mohgaonkalan Cremocarpon deccani
Karanjekar 1982 Mohgaonkalan Utriculariocarpon chitaleyii
Karekar 1990 Mohgaonkalan Mahabalecarpon
interrappea
Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Uttamocarpon mohgaonse
Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Biloculaire intertrappea
Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Ribire intertrappea
Kubalkar 1982 Mohgaonkalan Erythroxylocarpon
intertrappeans
Kolhe 1980 Mohgaonkalan Ranvanujamocarpon
indicum
Kumar 1985 Mohgaonkalan Piperocrpon sps.
Kumar 1985 Mohgaonkalan Chitalecarpon deccani
Mahabale a n d 1957 Bharatwada Enigmocarpon parijai
Deshpande
Mahajan 1987 Mohgaonkalan Papillinoarpon kajalei
Mahajan 1987 Mohgaonkalan Arilocarpon sheikhii
Mehrotra 1983 Mohgaonkalan Euphorbiaceocarpon
drypetecides
Mistiy 1989 Singhpur Singhpurocarpon biradarii
Mistiy 1989 Mohgaonkalan Gyrocarpsocarpon
intertrappea
Mistiy 1989 Singhpur PhyUanthocarpon
singhpuri
Nambudiri 1968 Mohgaonkalan Indocarpa mahabalei
P a r a dkar 1975 Mohgaonkalan Deccanocarpon amoldi
Paradkar a n d Dbdt 1984 Mohgaonkalan Gretuia mohgaonensis
P a r a dkar a n d Patki 1987 Mohgaonkalan Trapa mohgaonensis
Parveen a n d 2003 Mohgaonkalan Malvaceocarpon deccanii
Narkhede
Qurashi a n d 2005 Singhpur Hydrocarpon
Narkhede mohgaonkalaense
Sahni 1943 Bharatwada Enigmocarpon parijai
Sakundarwar 1987 Mohgaonkalan Mahabalecarpon deccani
Sakundarwar 1987 Mohgaonkalan Carthemus deccani
Sakundarwar 1987 Mohgaonkalan BUoculocarpon deccani
Contd....

46
 Authors Years Locality Name
Senad 1984 Mohgaonkalan Chitaleycarpon
paleocenum
Sheikh a n d 1980 Mohgaonkalan Exospermocarpon
Kapgate mohgaoense
Sheikh a n d 1984 Mohgaonkalan Wingospermocarpon
Kapgate mohgaoense
Sheikh and 1982 Mohgaonkalan Centrospermocarpon
Kubalkar chitaleyi
Sheikh a n d 1987 Oleaceocarpon
Mahajan nagpurensis
Sheikh, Saxena 2003 Mohgaonkalan Capsulooarpon
a n d Kapgate intertrappea
Upadhye 1979 Mohgaonkalan Euphorbiaceocarpon
deccani
Upadhye 1979 Mohgaonkalan Kremocarpon indicum
Yawale 1977 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaoncarpon eyedi
Yawale 1979 Mohgaonkalan Leguminocarpon eocenum
Yawale 1978 Mohgaonkalan Biloculacorpon
mohgaoenese
Yawale 1979 Mohgaonkalan Lomentocarpon eocenum

SEEDS
Authors Years Locality Name
Bonde 1993 Mohgaonkalan Unonaspermum comeri
Juneja 1993 Ramakona Ramakonaspermus
chitaleyensis
Juneja 1993 Ramakona Mahabalespermum.
minutum
Juneja 1993 Ramakona Deccanosperma arillata
Juneja, Sheikh, 2003 Ramakona Ramakonacarpus
Chituleyensus J u n e j a
Kubalkar a n d
Gupta
Kumar 1984 Mohgaonkalan Clusiocarpus deccanii
Sheikh a n d Bhowal 2003 Singhpur Ramukonaspermus
singhpurii
Wazalkar 1990 Mohgaonkalan Clusiocarpus indicum

47
 MONOCOTYLEDONS
LEAVES

Authors Years Locality Name

Achutn 1968 Mohgaonkalan Palmophyllum
dakshinense
Bhowal and Sheikh 2003 Mohgaonkalan CarexophyUum
mohgaonse
Chitaley a n d Patil 1977 Mohgaonkalan AerophyUites intertrappea
Dwivedi 1961 Mohgaonkalan Petrified monocot leaf
Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Mohgaonphyllum
ramanujamu
Mahajan 1987 Mohgaonkalan CyperceophyUu m
ramanujanii
Nambudiri 1966, Mohgaonkalan Smiladtes mohgaonsensis
70
Paradkar 1975 Mohgaonkalan Culmites decxxxnensis
Patil 1971 Mohgaonkalan AerophyUites suranga
Patil and Singh 1978 Mohgaonkalan Eichhomia intertrappea
Patil and Upadhye 1990 Mohgaonkalan Crinum eocenum
Patil and Upadhye 1990 Mohgaonkalan Palaeophylloides acadea
Prakash, Bande 1980 Mohgaonkalan Musophyllum indicum
and Ambawani
Rode 1935 Mohgaonkalan Phyllites mohgaonse
Singh 1977 Mohgaonkalan Festucophyllites
intertrappeansis
Singh 1977 Mohgaonkalan Achlyphilla mohgaonse
Singh 1977 Mohgaonkalan Elymus interrappeansis
Singh 1977 Mohgaonkalan AerophyUites mohgaonse
Trivedi a n d 1971 Mohgaonkalan Palm leaf (Borossoid type)
Chandra
Trivedi and Verma 1972 Mohgaonkalan HeUoconiaties
mohgaonensis
Trivedi a n d Verma 1971 Mohgaonkalan Cannites intertrappea
Upadhye a n d 2005 Mohgaonkalan Scitaminophylum indicum
Bobade

48
 FLOWERS

Authors Years Locality Name

Bonde 1996 Nawargaon Arecoideostrobus moarei
Bonde and 1993 Mandala Liliaceous inflorescence
Kumaran
Carter 1952 Worli, Malabar Stem and flower of
Hill Bombay Scirpus
Chitaley a n d Kate 1974 Mohgaonkalan Deccardthus savitrii
Chitaley a n d Patil 1971 Mohgaonkalan Shuklanthus superbum.
Verma
Kar, Ambawani
2003 Mohgaonkalan Flosfema intertrappea
Sahni, A., S h a r m a
FlosouiruUs deccanensis
Lakhanpal,
1982 Mohgaonkalan Monocotyledonous
Prakash and
Bande inflorescence

Verma 1958 Mohgaonkalan Shuklanthus superbum

FRUITS

Authors Years Locality Name

Bonde 2000 Mohgaonkalan Rhodosphathodendron
tomlinsonii
Bonde 1985 Mohgaonkalan Tricoccites trigonam
Bonde 1990 Mohgaonkalan Arecoidocarpon kulkamii
Bonde 1990 Umaria Pandanusocarpon
umariense
Bonde et at. 2005 Nawargaon Arecoidocarpon
nawargaoensis
Carter 1950 Nagpur Nypadaites
Carter 1854 Takli Nipadaites
Chitaley 1960 Mohgaonkalan Nypa spp.
Chitaley 1954 Takli Viracarpon hexaspermum
Chitaley 1958 Mohgaonkalan Viracarpon hexaspermum
Chitaley 1956 Mohgaonkalan Tricoccites trigonum
Contd....

49
 Authors Years Locality Name
Chitaley a n d 1960 Mohgaonkalan Nipadaites compressum
Nambudiri
Chitaley a n d Patel 1974 Mohgaonkalan Trilocularie lakhanpalii
Chitaley a n d Patil 1971 Takli Viracarpon elongatum
Chitaley a n d 1971 Mohgaonkalan Graminocarpon
Sheikh mohgaonese
Chitaley, Shallom 1969 Mahurzari Viracarpon sahnii
and Mehta
Chudiwale 1990 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon deccanti
Jain 1964 Mohgaonkalan Musa cardiosperma
Jain 1960 Mohgaonkalan Musa cuschiformis
Juneja 1993 Singhpur Palmocarpon deccani
Kapgate 1988 Mohgaonkalan Trilocukxcarpon mahabalei
Karanjekar 1982 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon intertrappea
Karekar 1990 Mohgaonkalan Nipadaites mohgaonsis
Kolhe 1980 Mohgaonkalan Cocosccarpon
mohgaonense
Mahabalae 1950a Mohgaonkalan Floarl axis of
Cyclathaceae
Mahabale 1950 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon insigne
Mahabale 1950 Mohgaonkalan Palmostrobus sps.
Mahabale 1953 Mohgaonkalan Sparganium sps.
Nambudiri 1966 Mohgaonkalan Nypa spp.
Paradkar a n d 1980 Mohgaonkalan Jucaginocarpon
Barlinge mohgaonsis
Patel 1974 Mohgaonkalan Tricoccites trigonum
Patel 1971 Mohgaonkalan Sparganium
Patki 1980 Mohgaonkalan Phoenix intertrappea
Patil 1972 Mohgaonkalan Viracarpon chitaleyi
Patil 1973 Mohgaonkalan Viracarpon sahnii
Patil and Singh 1978 Mohgaonkalan Nipa semizonate
Contd...

50
 Authors Years Locality Name

Patil and Upadhye 1983 Mohgaonkalan Cocos intertrappeansis

Prakash 1960 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon indicum

Prakash 1955 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon mohgaonse

Prakash 1960 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon sulcatum

Puranik a n d Kolhe 2005 Mohgaonkalan Borasseacarpon

mohgaoens

Rode 1933 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon compressum

Sahni 1950 Mohgaonkalan Cyclanthodedron

Sahni 1934 Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon bracteatum
Sahni 1940 Takli Palmocarpon takliensis
Sahni 1934, Takli Viracarpon hexaspermum
1944
Sahni 1944 Takli Viracarpon elongatum
Sahni a n d Rode 1937 Mohgaonkalan Nipadaites Hindi
Sahni a n d Rode 1937 Mohgaonkalan Tricoccites trigonum
Sahni a n d Surange 1953 Mohgaonkalan Cyclanthodedron
Sahni, Srivastava 1934 Takli Palmocarpon sps.
a n d Rao
Senad 1983 Mohgaonkalan Areca intertrappea
Shete a n d Kulkami 1985 Wrdha district Palmocarpon coryphoidum.
Shukia 1950a Mohgaonkalan Tricoccites trigonum
Trivedi and 1971a Mohgaonkalan Palmocarpon splendidum
Chandra
Wazalwar 1990 Mohgaonkalan Borasseocarpon
mohgaoense

51