PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences

ISSN 2454-5899

Abdul-Kareem M. Jaradat, 2019

Volume 5 Issue 2, pp. 408-418
Date of Publication: 14th September 2019
DOI- https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/pijss.2019.52.408418
This paper can be cited as: Jaradat, A. K. M., (2019). A Comparison of Two Methods for Reducing Test-
Anxiety and Improving Academic Performance. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2),
408-418.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International
License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ or send a
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A COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS FOR REDUCING TEST-

ANXIETY AND IMPROVING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Abdul-Kareem M. Jaradat
Department of Counseling & Educational Psychology, Yarmouk University, Jordan
[email protected]

Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and study skills
training (SST) in reducing test-anxiety and improving academic performance. Eighty one high
test-anxious male students in the tenth grade were randomly assigned to three groups: CBT, SST
and waiting-list control (WLC). CBT aimed to help participants become aware of the anxiety-
producing self-statements they emitted both before and during exams, and to train them to develop
positive self-statements that would facilitate task attending; whereas SST aimed to teach
participants the skills necessary for effective learning, namely SQ3R method of studying,
techniques of time management, note-taking methods, test preparation techniques and test-taking
techniques. All participants receiving treatment met for a total of six 50-minute treatment sessions
spanning over six weeks. The data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA and one way MANOVA.
The results indicated that both treatment groups made significant improvements from pretest to
posttest in test-anxiety when compared to the WLC group. However, only the CBT group was
superior to the WLC group in improving academic performance. Overall, the results were
interpreted as giving support to the interference model of the debilitating effect of anxiety on
performance.

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Keywords
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Study Skills Training, Test-Anxiety, Academic Achievement

1. Introduction
Test anxiety is a common problem among school students. Some students usually find
anxiety interferes with their learning and test taking to such an extent that their achievement is
seriously affected. These students may study hard, but because they may engage in anxiety-
provoking thoughts, such as desire for perfectionism or fear of failure, they perform poorly.
Moreover, these same negative thoughts may result in other consequences such as dissatisfaction
with study that may in turn lead to detrimental academic achievement. On the other hand, test-
anxious students may have poor study habits and skills such as poor time management or reading
without understanding, which may also lead to test-anxiety and low performance as reactions of
the lack of knowledge.
Anxiety has been conceptualized as a response to a stressful condition and as a probability
of a harmful future outcome (Shechter & Zeidner, 1990). The phenomenon of anxiety can be
characterized by feelings of threat, anticipation, danger, uneasiness and distress (Rost & Schermer,
1989). In the following are some of the major attributes of anxiety listed by I. G. Sarason and
Sarason (1990): The anxious person appraises a situation as difficult, threatening, or challenging;
the anxious person perceives himself or herself as being inefficient or inadequate to the task at
hand; the anxious person focuses on undesirable consequences of personal inadequacy or on
undesirable outcomes; the anxious person is preoccupied with self-related thoughts that compete
with cognitive task-related activity; the anxious person expects loss of self-esteem and failure.
The term test in test anxiety refers to the anxiety-producing situation (Rost & Schermer,
1989). The term test anxiety refers to the cognitive, physiological, and emotional responses that
accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar
evaluative situation (Sieber, O’Neil & Tobias, 1977). Thus, test anxiety has manifestations. It may
be reasonable to differentiate between high test-anxious and low test-anxious students through
these manifestations.
Research shows that the cognitive elements of test anxiety may be manifested as worry,
not noting the mistakes, misunderstanding the task, thought blocking, poor concentration,
forgetting, poor listening, unclear thoughts, clinging to the same thoughts, task irrelevant thoughts,
not understanding the questions, reduced attention (Rost & Schermer, 1997), self-focused attention
or negative performance expectations (Deffenbacher, 1980).

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Autonomic arousal is the most dominant response for the expression of anxiety in stressful
situations. It may manifest during testing in a variety of physiological responses, such as rapid
heartbeat, feelings of nausea, sweating, need to pass urine, cold and clammy hands, and shaking
and trembling (Suinn, 1984). Galassi, Frierson and Sharer (1981) found that the most frequently
reported bodily sensations experienced by university students, in descending order, were hands or
body perspiring, dryness in mouth, stomach tense, heart beating fast, and hands or body trembling.
Studies by Holroyd, Wetbrook, Wolf, and Badhorn (1978), and Hollandsworth, Glazeski,
Kirkland, Jones and Van Norman (1979) found that high-compared to low-test-anxious students
did not differ in physiological arousal levels both prior to and during a test, but instead differed in
the appraisal and interpretations made about their arousal (e.g., test-anxious students defined their
arousal as debilitative, whereas low-test anxious students viewed their arousal as a cue to exert
greater effort toward the test).
Emotionality is defined as one’s perception of the physiological-affective elements of the
anxiety experience. This includes awareness of indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant
feeling states such as tension and nervousness (Morris, Harris, & Rovias, 1981). Emotionality rises
sharply immediately before the test and typically wanes as the examinee progresses on the exam
(Doctor & Altman, 1969). It has been found that emotionality is elicited mainly by external cues
(e.g., walking into the exam hall, appearance of examiner, distribution of test booklets), which
indicate the initiation of evaluation (Morris et al., 1981). The emotional elements of anxiety can
be expressed as feelings of restriction, sadness, loneliness, disappointment or helplessness (Rost
& Schermer, 1989).

2. Literature Review
A review of the literature indicates that there are two models for explaining the relationship
between test anxiety and performance: The interference model and the skills-deficit model. From
the interference model point of view, the effect of test anxiety on performance occurs in the testing
situation. That is, anxiety during tests interferes with the student’s ability to retrieve and use
information that is known well (Culler & Holahan, 1980). Accordingly, anxiety hinders the student
from utilizing or developing task-relevant knowledge or skills (Hodapp & Henneberger, 1983).
Wine (1971) suggested that the debilitating effects of test anxiety on performance might have an
attentional explanation. Task performance is impaired by negative self-statements, worry, and
task-irrelevant thoughts. Researchers who support the skills-deficit model (e.g., Culler & Holahan,
1980) assume that poor performance in exams is mainly attributed to inefficient preparation caused

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by poor study-related behavior. Students characterized by poor study habits and skills are well
aware of their poor preparation for the exam, and thus adapt low self-expectations for success.
This increases anxiety relating to the exam, which, in turn, impairs performance.
A wide variety of treatment methods have been developed for test anxiety (e.g., Putwain &
Pescod, 2018; Shen, Yang, Zhang, & Zhang, 2018; Prinz, Bar-Kalifa, RafaeliSened, & Lutz,
2019), some of which were effective in reducing test anxiety and/or improving academic
performance, and some of which were not. However, so far there is no method or program to be
recommended to counselors, as highly effective for achieving both aims. Therefore, there is still a
need for developing new programs to be easily implemented by counselors. As suggested in the
literature of test anxiety, programs developed to teach test-anxious students how to challenge
anxiety-provoking self-statements and/or help them acquire good study skills may be effective in
treating their anxiety and improving their grades.

3. Research Objectives
The purpose of the present study is to compare the effectiveness of a cognitive behavioral
therapy program and a study skills training program in reducing test anxiety and improving
academic performance in high school male students. The following two hypotheses are tested:
(1) Cognitive behavioral therapy is more effective in reducing test anxiety than either study skills
training or a waiting-list control group.
(2) Study skills training is more effective in improving academic performance than either cognitive
behavioral therapy or a waiting-list control group.

4. Method
4.1 Participants
Participants were 81 male students in the tenth grade at a public school in Jordan. The
participants were selected based on their high scores on the test-anxiety scale. The participants’
mean age was 16.03 years (SD= 0.72).
4.2 Instruments
4.2.1 Test-Anxiety Scale
Test anxiety was measured using the test anxiety scale, developed by Rost and Schermer
(1997). This scale consists of three subscales: Cognitive, emotional and physiological
manifestations. Each subscale consists of 8 items. The author translated this scale from German
into Arabic, and used it as a measure of test anxiety in this study. An example item: "When I get

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anxious my hands sweat." Responses were rated along a five-point scale from 1 (almost never true)
to 5 (almost always true). The higher the participants’ scores the higher the participants’ anxiety
levels. In this study, reliability was evaluated in 184 tenth grade students. Cronbach alpha for the
scale was .86. Corrected item total correlations ranged from 0.32 to 0.56.
4.2.2 Grade Point Average (GPA)
Academic achievement was assessed by the GPAs of participants. They were asked to
report their cumulative GPA. It's noteworthy that the grading scale in Jordanian schools is from 0
to 100.
4.3 Procedure
The questionnaire was administered to tenth grade students at a Jordanian school, after
receiving approval from the Jordanian ministry of education. Participants with high scores on the
test anxiety scale were selected to participate in the study. They were then randomly assigned to
three groups: Cognitive behavioral therapy group, study skills training, and waiting-list control
group. Each group consisted of 27 participants. The author served as a therapist for both treatment
conditions. Each group was divided into two sections and each section received six 50-minute
weekly sessions. No participant missed more than one session.
4.3.1 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
The CBT program was designed to help anxious participants become aware of the anxiety-
producing self-statements they emitted both before and during exams, and to train them to develop
new, positive self-statements that would facilitate task attending in stressful situations. The CBT
group members were informed that they could master their anxiety by learning to control task-
irrelevant self-statements that generate anxiety and distract attention from the task at hand. They
learned to replace negative self-statements with positive alternatives.
During the first session, some preliminary questions about test anxiety were asked, such as
why do some students get anxious during exams?, what are the manifestations of anxiety?. Then
the goals of the program were explained, followed by asking the group members about their
expectations related to the program. Additionally, examples were offered to illustrate how our
feelings can be affected by our self-statements. As a homework assignment, the group members
were asked to keep a diary of their self-statements, feelings, and behaviors in stressful situations.
In the second session, anxiety was explained to the group as resulting from their negative self-
statements. Then, the ABC model of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy was presented, and the
group members used it in disputing three anxiety-producing self-statements. Each statement was
discussed first in small groups and then there was a general discussion. Three other self-statements
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were discussed in the third session, and another three in the fourth session. Most of the statements
discussed during the sessions were assigned by the therapist, one of the statements given by one
of the group members is that “my parents will kill me, if I don’t get a good grade.” During the fifth
session, other techniques for inhibiting task irrelevant thoughts were offered, these techniques are:
Using positive self-talk, convincing oneself that test score is not a measure of self-worth,
distinguishing between demands and preferences and practicing thought stopping. In the sixth
session, the group was taught how to develop procedures to attend fully to the task. Handout
entitled “attention-focusing procedures” was given to the group. At the end of the session, there
was a general discussion about the program.
4.3.2 Study Skills Training (SST)
The SST group was informed that test anxiety is often related to poor study skills. In
addition, poor academic performance is not caused completely by an insufficient amount of time
spent in study. It also depends on the quality of the time spent. There is evidence that low
performing students use inadequate, incorrect, and ineffective methods of study. Therefore, they
understand little of what they study and remember little of what they understand. The active
participation in the SST program would lead to more effective study skills and habits, which may
be helpful in reducing test anxiety, considering that test anxiety is probably a natural reaction
resulting from ineffective study methods.
The group members were asked to monitor their study behaviors and record which
problems they experience while studying. Topics covered in the sessions were SQ3R method
(Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review), techniques of time management, note-taking
methods, test preparation techniques and test-taking techniques. Specifically, during the first
session, the goals of the program were explained and a general idea about the training sessions was
given. The group members were taught the SQ3R method of studying. They were informed that
they should first survey the chapter by glancing quickly through the headings, tables and
illustrations. Then, they should question by turning headings into questions to be answered while
reading. They should read actively, focusing on completion of the main ideas of the passage. They
should recite the material in the section they have just finished. Finally, they should review main
points, concentrating on passages not yet completely understood. At the end of the session, the
group was asked to review at home the five steps of the SQ3R method.
It is worth mentioning that the importance of using underlining was emphasized. The group
was told that the purpose of underlining is to reduce the amount of material to be studied for exams.
If one underlines everything, one might as well underline nothing. On the other hand, if one
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underlines almost nothing, it will not be of much help either. It will be sufficient if one indicates
the key words or key phrases within a sentence. Of great importance is that underlining should
follow and not precede understanding.
In the second session, the group applied the SQ3R method to a history textbook chapter.
They were asked to apply the steps of “survey and question” to the whole chapter, and the steps of
read, recite and review only to one or two passages. During the third session, the group members
were taught how to develop a time schedule and were informed that each one of them should
follow their time schedule until they habitually turn from one activity to another. Also, they should
follow the rules of study time. For instance, they should not wait until they are in a suitable mood
before studying. The fourth session was devoted to explain the basic techniques of note-taking, the
group was informed that there are steps to be followed, when taking notes. A student should record
during class as many meaningful ideas as possible, then they should reduce these ideas into key
words listed in the recall column, recite the main ideas, reflect on the material, and periodically
review the notes. During the fifth session, principles relating to the timing of reviews were
discussed. The sixth session was devoted to test preparation and test-taking strategies. First, the
group discussed techniques relating to essay exams, then they turned to objective exams. Handouts
were distributed to the group during the sessions.
With respect to the waiting-list control group, participants received no treatment. They
were seen only at the pre- and post-tests. Posttests were administered to all groups, two weeks after
a six-week treatment period, while final exams began three weeks after treatment had ended.
Participants’ grades were obtained from the registrar’s records for the semester during which
treatment was conducted.

5. Results
To assess differences in students' scores on the subscales of the test-anxiety scale by group
one-way MANOVA was conducted. Additionally, one-way ANOVA was conducted for the
students' total scores on the test-anxiety scale as well as for their GPAs as a function of group.
There were no significant differences (p < .05) between groups on the pretest scores. However,
significant differences (p < .05) were found between the groups on the posttest scores. Posttest
results are presented in Table 1.
Results of the study didn't support any of the two hypotheses. MANOVA indicated
significant main effects of group on the cognitive manifestation subscale, F(2,78) = 17.204, P <

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0.0001, partial η2 = .306; on the emotional manifestation subscale, F(2,78) = 17.893, P < 0.0001,
partial η2 = .314; and on the physical manifestation subscale, F(2,78) = 11.234, P < 0.0001, partial
η2 = .224. With regard to the total scores on the test-anxiety scale, One-way ANOVA showed a
significant main effect of group on test-anxiety, F(2,78) = 22.233, P < 0.0001, partial η2 = .363.
Also, ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of group on the GPA, F(2,78) = 4.829, P <
0.0001, partial η2 = .110. The Tukey post hoc multiple comparison procedure revealed that both
experimental groups had significantly lower scores than the WLC group on all manifestations of
test-anxiety, and that the CBT group had significantly higher academic achievement than the WLC
group.

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations by Group

CBT SST WLC
(n=27) (n=27) (n=27)
___________ ___________ ___________
M SD M SD M SD F η2
Dependent Variables

CM 17.11a 5.55 81.53a 4.18 24.96b 5.71 81.434 .533

EM 83.18a 4.11 81.43a 5.35 24.63b 6.23 81.195 .314

PM 83.11a 5.31 85.53a 5.48 21.96b 5.95 88.454 .224

TA 53.13a 84.83 53.15a 84.59 71.56b 14.93 44.455 .363

GPA 19.45a 83.94 15.18ab 83.58 69.71b 12.11 4.149 .110

Note: CM = Cognitive Manifestation; EM = Emotional Manifestation; PM = Physical Manifestation; TA =
Test-Anxiety; GPA = Grade Point Average. Different superscripts indicate post-hoc significant differences
(p < .05) within rows.

6. Discussion
Cognitive behavioral therapy and study skills training have been widely used for test
anxiety and other academic problems. In this study, these methods were used in two treatment
programs, but with new designs. The components of each program were organized in a way that
was easy for the participants to understand. All procedures, activities and techniques relating to
each program were divided into six weekly sessions to give participants enough time to practice
what they learn during the sessions. The number of sessions was equal for both experimental
groups, so that the differences in the effects between the treatment groups attribute only to the
different methods. The study examined the effects of the treatments not only on test anxiety, but
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also on academic performance. Regarding the effectiveness of these treatments, it was measured
through a test anxiety scale and the GPAs of participants. The results of this study showed that
cognitive behavioral therapy was very beneficial for treating test anxiety and enhancing academic
achievement, while study skills training was only helpful for reducing test anxiety.
Thus, study skills training can help test-anxious students study efficiently, improve their
motivation to study, use their time well, increase their satisfaction with study, and reduce their
anxiety, but since it does not cope with the negative thoughts that interfere with their concentration,
it may not be effective for improving performance. In contrast, cognitive behavioral therapy can
help these students not only be aware of anxiety-evoking thoughts and self-statements, but also
teach them how to focus their attention fully on the task at hand rather than to attend to self-
oriented thoughts. In other words, when the negative self-statements of test-anxious students are
replaced with positive ones, this will help them be relaxed prior to and during exams. Being relaxed
can help them learn the material better, and remember it more easily. Therefore, Cognitive
behavioral therapy can reduce anxiety and increase grades.
The experimental design of the present study did not include follow up tests, and thereby
it is unclear whether the short term effects of the interventions on test anxiety and academic
achievement can be maintained over time. In addition, replication of the study using multiple
therapists would also be highly desirable. Perhaps the treatment programs used in this study have
significant effects on other variables such as self-esteem, general anxiety, obsessive-compulsive
disorder, depression, self-acceptance or locus of control. This is left for future research.

7. Conclusion
These results support the interference model of the effect of anxiety on performance, but
do not support the skills-deficit model of the effect of anxiety. Also, the results give further support
to the general conclusion that almost any type of treatment seems to be effective in reducing self-
reported test anxiety, but changing academic performance is another issue. Hence, counselors
should work on teaching students how to study effectively and how to focus their attention on the
tasks at hand.

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