A brief review of chemistry

Protons – positively charged protons along with

neutrons are found in an atoms nucleus
Electrons – negatively charged electrons orbit
around nucleus
Element – pure substance that consists only of
atoms with the same number of protons
Isotopes – forms of an element that differ in the
number of neutrons
Radioisotope – isotope with an unstable nucleus
A brief review of chemistry
A brief review of chemistry
An outermost shell filled
with electron are most
stable
Valence - relating to or
denoting electrons
involved in or available for
chemical bond formation
A brief review of chemistry
An outermost shell filled with
electron are most stable
Valence - relating to or
denoting electrons involved in
or available for chemical bond
formation
Octet rule – atoms are stable
when their outer shell is full
- For many, but not
all, types of atoms, their shell
is full when it contains eight
(8) electrons
A brief review of chemistry
Free radicals – Solitary atoms that have unpaired
electrons
Ions – unequal number of protons and electrons, carry a
net charge
A brief review of chemistry
Valence electrons – participate in a chemical bond with
another atom
Molecules – formed when a chemical bond is made with
another atom
A brief review of chemistry
Electronegativity – electrons are not always evenly
shared between atoms!
- is a measure of an atoms ability
to attract electrons in a bond with another atom
- atoms with different
electronegativity form a covalent bond the shared
electrons are more likely to be closer to the atom
with a higher electronegativity
- such bonds are called polar
covalent bonds; molecules with more polar
covalent bonds are polar molecules
A brief review of chemistry
A brief review of chemistry
Ionic bond – strong mutual attraction links ions of
opposite charge
- Ions retain their respective charges when
participating in an ionic bond
A brief review of chemistry
Ionic bond – strong mutual attraction links ions of
opposite charge
- Ions retain their respective charges when
participating in an ionic bond

Covalent bond – two atoms share a pair of electrons

- Formed between atoms with a small or
no difference in electronegativity
- Covalent bonds are often stronger than
ionic bonds (But not always)
A brief review of chemistry
Hydrogen bond – bonds that form and break much more
easily
- bonds that stabilize DNA and protein
structure
- hydrogen bonds among water
molecules are collectively stronger
than an ionic bond
A brief review of chemistry
Dihydrogen monoxide
- Substances that dissolve
easily in water are hydrophilic
- Ionic solids, such as
sodium chloride (NaCl), dissolve
in water
A brief review of chemistry
Dihydrogen monoxide is a powerful solvent!
- Solute: a dissolved substance
- Solution: uniform mixture of solute
completely dissolved in solvent
- Chemical bonds do not form between
molecules of solute and solvent
- Substances that resist dissolving in water are
hydrophobic (e.g., oils)
A brief review of chemistry
Properties of Dihydrogen monoxide
- Cohesion is the tendency of molecules to
resist separating from one another
- Water has cohesion because hydrogen
bonds collectively exert a continuous pull on its
individual molecules
- Stabilizes temperature due to hydrogen
bonding; it takes more heat to raise the
temperature compared with other liquids
- Is less dense in its solid state than its
liquid state
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
- acids give up hydrogen ions
acid is a substance that can release a proton
Lowers pH levels
- bases accept hydrogen ions
base is a substance that can accept a proton
Raises pH levels
pH – The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a
solution
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
- acids give up hydrogen ions

- bases accept hydrogen ions

pH – The measure of concentration of hydrogen ions in a

solution
A brief review of chemistry
Acids and Bases
 Carbon based life
Biomolecules: Carbohydrates and Lipids
Six
Carbon
4 unpaired electrons in its outer shell

Octet rule – atoms are stable when

their outer shell is full
The most important list
you have to know
Functional groups
– specific groups of atoms within
molecules that have very characteristic
properties regardless of the other atoms
present in a molecule
- in biological molecules play an
important role in the formation of
molecules like Nucleic Acids, proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
- Have the general formal Cn(H2O)n
- Hydrated Carbon containing compounds
- Carbons that are linked by a hydrogen atom and
a hydroxyl group
• Three main types of carbohydrates in living
systems
• Monosaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
Single Sugars

Pentose – Five
carbon sugars e.g.
Ribose
Hexose – Six carbon
sugars e.g. Glucose
Monosaccharides
Enantiomers – exists as a pair of molecules that
are mirror images of each other
- Four different atoms can bind to a
single carbon atom in Two ways: Left handed and
a Right handed structure
- identical chemical properties, such
as solubility and melting point, However due to
the different orientations of atoms in space,
noncovalent interactions maybe very different
- D- glucose biologically active
- L- glucose biologically inactive
Monosaccharides
Two traditional ways in depicting the bonds
between atoms in monosaccharide Linear
structure & Ring structure

Ring structures better approximate the true

shape of the molecule as it mostly exists in a
solution

The Ring is from the linear structure by an oxygen

atom which forms a bond that bridges carbon 1
and 5 in glucose
Monosaccharides

Fischer Projection Haworth Projection

Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides can form a
Glycosidic bond through a
Dehydration reaction to create a
Disaccharide e.g. Sucrose (Table
sugar), Lactose (Milk)
Polysaccharides
Two monosaccharides can form a
Glycosidic bond through a
Dehydration reaction to create a
Disaccharide e.g. Sucrose (Table
sugar), Lactose (Milk)

When Many monosaccharides are

linked together, they form
Polysaccharides
Polymers of glucose

Cellulose

Starch Glycogen
Metabolic Reactions involving Carbohydrates
Photosynthesis

Glycogen
Lipids
Lipids
- Are Fatty, Oily, Waxy Organic Compounds
- Great variety of structures, But all are
hydrophobic!
- Insoluble in polar compounds (e.g. Water),
Soluble in non polar compounds (e.g.
Methanol, Hexane)
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids have their carbon
“tails” saturated with hydrogen
Fatty Acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids
- Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or
more double bonded carbon-carbon
atom (C=C)
Fatty acids
- Contains Carboxyl group at its “head” and
a long hydrocarbon chain for a “tail”
- Saturated fatty acids
- Unsaturated fatty acids contain one or
more double bonded carbon-carbon
atom (C=C)
- Free fatty acids are relatively scarce in
biological systems. Instead, they are
usually esterified to glycerol
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
Triglycerides (Fats)
- Fats and Oils found in animals and plants
- “Tri”-”acyl”-”glycerols”
- This is as close as lipids come to forming polymers as other biomolecules
can
Cis vs. Trans
Cis vs. Trans
Phospholipids
- Contains Hydrophilic head and two
Hydrophobic tails
- The opposing characteristics of this
molecules gives rise to the cell membrane
Phospholipids
- The opposing characteristics of this molecules gives rise to the cell membrane
aptly called the lipid bilayer
Aqueous (“watery”) Extracellular Environment

Aqueous (“watery”) Intracellular Environment

Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids with long fatty
acid tails bonded to alcohols or carbon rings
- Plants secrete waxes to restrict water loss and
keep out parasites and other pests
- Other types of waxes protect, lubricate, and
soften skin and hair
Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids with long fatty
acid tails bonded to alcohols or carbon rings
- Molecules that pack tightly, so waxes are firm
and water repellent
Steroids
- Lipids with rigid backbone of four carbon rings and no fatty acid tails
- Cholesterol, the most common steroid found in animal tissue
- Functional groups attached to the rings define the type of steroid
- Tiny differences in chemical structure can lead to profoundly different
biological properties

Cholesterol
Steroids
- Tiny differences in chemical structure can lead to profoundly different
biological properties
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