SPE 168449

Mangrove Restoration in the Vicinity of Oil and Gas Facilities: Lessons

Learned from a Large Scale Project
Eric Dutrieux, Creocean; Christophe Proisy, IRD-UMR AMAP; François Fromard, and Romain Walcker, CNRS,
Ecolab, University of Toulouse ; Muhammad Ilman, School of Geography Planning and Environmental
Management, the University of Queensland; Frédéric Pawlowski, ECO-MED; Henry Ferdiansyah, Total E&P
Indonesie; Olivier Ponthieux, Total

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and Environment held in Long Beach, California, USA, 17–19 March 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract

Mangroves are critical ecosystems given their key role in conserving biodiversity, protecting coastlines from erosion and
supporting coastal resources. They may be impacted by oil and gas activities, either directly or indirectly. Restoring them is
therefore of prime importance. In the Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia), oil and gas exploration and production
have been conducted for more than 40 years. This industry has operated in a quasi-pristine area barely affected by human
activities until the mid 80’s. Toward the late 1980’s and until 2000, the delta was subject to massive and rapid development of
shrimp farming and by 2001, 85% of the delta mangroves were destroyed and most of it replaced by ponds used for
aquaculture. By the end of 1990’s, shrimp farm productivity in the delta decreased due to a lack of nutrients in ponds and the
occurrence of shrimp diseases. Numerous ponds were abandoned in the delta. This economic situation generated social
instabilities that could threaten the oil and gas industry in the region. Therefore, in order to better protect mangroves and
optimize restoration of damaged areas, Total E&P Indonesie embarked on a mangrove restoration initiative of the Mahakam
Delta aimed at understanding and contributing to the restoration processes through both natural recolonization and planting
techniques. The general methodology implemented has been to i) describe the land cover using satellite imagery, interpreting
aerial photos, conducting field work, and establishing GIS maps, ii) inventory the fauna and flora (including mangroves, birds,
mammals, reptiles), iii) monitoring the naturally re-colonized areas, replanted areas and original forest in selected areas.
Results show that natural recolonization of a mangrove area can be very quick under certain conditions (subject to availability
of seeds and easy access of seeds to the area to be recolonized). But in areas where seeds cannot easily move, or where seed
supply is scarce, replanting remains the best option. Social aspects have also to be taken into account given that replanting can
promote the local commitment to sustainable environmental conservation.

Introduction

Mangroves can be defined as an association of trees and shrubs forming the dominant vegetation in tidal, saline wetlands,
along equatorial, tropical and subtropical coasts (Tomlinson 1986, Ricklefs and Schluter 1993). Mangroves are important
coastal ecosystems. They can protect shorelines, store carbon, facilate the trophic chains and be directly linked to coastal
fisheries (Odum and Heald 1975, Lugo et al. 1980, Snedaker et al. 1998, Saenger 2002). Several authors and international
organisations have demonstrated their ecological, social, cultural and economical values (Field 1996). Today, the ecological
and economic roles of mangrove ecosystems are widely recognized (Primavera 1998; Ewell et al. 1998; Valiela et al 2001;
Saenger 2002). For instance, under natural conditions, 1 ha of mangrove forest supports an average sustainable shrimp
production about 350 kg .yr-1 (Hambrey 1996, De Graaf and Xuan 1998).

Indonesia is the world's greatest mangrove nation with about 30,000 square kilometres of mangrove forests (Spalding et al.
2010) and one of the highest biodiversities in mangrove trees. As these ecosystems develop best in tropical and equatorial
estuaries receiving heavy rainfall evenly distributed throughout the year (e.g., Ganges, Amazon, Orinoco, Niger), the delta of
2 SPE 168449

the Mahakam located in Indonesia

(Figure 1), East Kalimantan, Borneo
island -0°21’-1°10’S and 117°15’-
117°40’ E) is one of the most
suitable sites for natural mangrove
development. Before the early
eighties, the Mahakam Delta was
practically unaltered by
anthropogenic activities (Dutrieux,
1989; Dutrieux et al., 1990;
Dutrieux, 1991). The fate of these
mangroves suddenly changed during
the early nineties with the beginning
of the conversion of these wetlands
to shrimp farms. By 1999, over half
of the mangrove forests of the delta
were clear felled or already converted
to shrimp ponds. The extremely rapid
and chaotic degradation occurred
without any governmental control in
the Mahakam Delta. Such
degradation was also simultaneously
recorded in south Sumatra and on
other Indonesian islands (Wolanski et
al. 2000). By 2001, the total
mangrove area destroyed reached
75,000 ha, approximately 85% of the
total surface of the delta (Roussel,
2008).

Here we present the results of a three

year long Research and Development
project, the purposes of which were
to describe the status of the delta in
terms of vegetation cover changes
Figure 1 : Location map of the Mahakam Delta, Indonesia
(including natural colonization in
shrimp ponds, success/failure of re-plantations, decay processes, natural regeneration on newly formed mud or sand banks),
plant species composition, forest structure, and avifaunal composition. During the course of the project we could also assess
the natural and human-generated processes conducive to restoration. Knowledge of restoration processes within the Mahakam
Delta could likely be applied to habitats facing similar challenges. The basis of the work was an update of an existing
biological database (Sulistiyono et al., 1998; Creocean/Sce, 2001) and an interpretation of vegetation changes.

Study site and previous research

Main factors that shaped the current status of the Mahakam Delta are the geomorphology, hydrology, primary productivity of
mangrove forests, and socio-economics. A general account of physico-chemical parameters is given by Allen et al. (1979) and
some broad ecological features are reported in Soemodihardjo et al., (1993). Neither bioclimatic factors nor soil conditions
limit the luxuriant mangrove development in the Mahakam Delta. Prevailing ecological conditions of the delta are those of
moist equatorial climates, with a mean annual rainfall exceeding 2,000 mm. The fan-shaped Mahakam Delta is of the "tide
dominated allochthonous" type following the Thom (1982) classification scheme.

The catchment area of the Mahakam River is about 75,000 km2.River flow is approximately 1,500 m3 s-1 (Allen et al., 1979).
The total surface of the delta is about 5,000 km² part of which is submerged, including the prodelta (2,700 km²), a delta front,
shallow at low tide and devoid of vegetation (1,000 km²), and a delta plain over which the mangrove develops. This
floodplain, which encompasses mainly an intertidal area, covers a 1,300 km² area including 300 km² of channels. The mean
tidal amplitude is about 2.5 m. The delta can be arbitrarily divided into three major parts. In the southern and the northern
parts, distributary channels facilitate the Mahakam River flow, which produces a high renewal rate of its water. In the center of
the delta, an inter-distributary zone is crisscrossed by numerous tidal channels which are not directly connected to the main
river, but play an essential role in draining huge quantities of brackish water that accumulate in the floodplain. The constant
interplay between marine water and freshwater discharge from the main river generates a complex salinity gradient.
SPE 168449 3

As described in Dutrieux (1991), there are several zones within the delta: a peripheral area, with a rather stable salinity,
varying between 20 and 35‰; a central zone, with highly variable salinities (5 to 25 ‰), where the majority of the marine and
fresh water masses merge; and an upstream zone, where salinity usually varies between almost fresh water to about 10 ‰.
Further upstream, the marine influence is almost indiscernible. A dense network of natural channels creates numerous islets
that constitute the delta plain stricto sensu. Most of them are located in the inter-tidal zone. Prior to 1990, these islets were
covered by dense mangroves forests (about 1,000 km²). A vegetation map of the delta published in 1990 (Dutrieux et al.
1990), which was revised a few years later (Dutrieux et al., 1996; Gayte and Dutrieux, 1996), shows that the various
vegetation zones and plant communities, distinguishable by their structural properties and floristic composition, match
hydrological features (Figure 2).

Figure 2 : Vegetation map of the Mahakam Delta prior to shrimp pond development (1980)

The peripheral zone, located at the mouth of the river, is covered by large stretches of Avicennia spp. communities, either as
monogeneric stands, or mixed with other species such as the landward Nypa fruticans palm vegetation. In the interdistributary
zone, Rhizophora spp. is scarce, related or unrelated to Avicennia spp., indicating a sufficiently constant salinity in an area
hardly affected by the voluminous freshwater discharge. The associated fauna is noticeably rich as exemplified by the 30
species and 17 families of avifauna (Eve and Guigue, 1989). Parts of the two major islands have a slightly higher topography
with some areas remaining permanently dry. Coconut trees have been grown in these areas for decades. These areas are also
partly covered with salt marshes and degraded mangrove, where the fern Acrostichum aureum is dominant.
4 SPE 168449

The central zone of the delta was occupied by an extended monospecific community of N. fruticans palm vegetation with a
580 km² cover. The extent of this low diversity formation, was probably related to the great amplitude of salinity (5 to 25‰).
Here, the avifauna is conspicuously poor (six species) according to Eve and Guigue (1989). Upstream, Nypa communities
were mixed along riverbanks and/or gradually Surface in % of total surface
replaced by dicotyledons (Heritiera littoralis, Type of vegetation km2 of the delta
Cerbera manghas) and monocotyledons (i.e. the
palm tree Oncosperma tigillarum) less tolerant to Mixed fresh-water forest 42 4,1
elevated salinity. These transitional communities, Ferns and herbaceous 47 4,6
between mangroves and freshwater swamp forests, Low salinity mangrove 183 17,9
were found in areas where salinity ranges between 0 Pure Nypa 551 53,9
and 5‰. At the apex of the delta, salinity was very
Dense Avicennia 83 8,1
low and most of this area was not flooded at high
tide. This area hosted the same species as in the Dense Rhizophora 7 0,7
transitional communities, along with freshwater Sonneratia 1 0,1
species such as the Livingstonia sp. and riparian Nypa and dispersed Avicennia 77 7,5
vegetation in which Pandanus sp., Hibiscus Nypa and Rhizophora 7 0,7
tiliaceus, Thespesia populnea, Aglaia cucullata,and
Cultures, mainly coconut 24 2,3
Gluta renghas were dominant. Some degraded
secondary grassy types and some paddy fields also Aquaculture 0 0
occurred in this area, particularly along channels Total delta 1022
and water ways. Coverage of each category of Table 1 : Types and amounts of vegetation cover prior to 1986 in the
vegetation is presented in Table 1. Mahakam Delta (Creocean, 2002)

Between 1986 and 2001, aquaculture caused a dramatic increase in the

% of the total clearing of vegetated areas and damaged vegetation (Dutrieux, 2001).
Surface areas of
Year surface area of the Table 2 presents the amount of clearing as a function of time. The
ponds (Km2)
delta clearing was exponential between 1992 and 1996. Further we observed
1986 2.92 0,3% that the clearing plateaued after 2001. Each category of vegetation was
1992 29.51 2,9% impacted in a different way. Table 3 shows the percentage of
1996 136.88 13,4% deforestation by type of vegetation as a function of time. In 2002, all
areas significantly influenced by saline waters were occupied by
1998 386.96 37,8% aquaculture ponds (Creocean, 2002). A 750 km2 area was deforested
1999 563.63 55,1% which corresponded to approximately 85% of the total surface of the
2001 748.43 73,2% delta. Areas that were rich with Avicennia and Rhizophora were nearly
Table 2 : Evolution of cleared areas as function completely destroyed while the less diversified Nypa zones disappeared.
of time (Mahakam Delta) (Dutrieux, 2001) The low salinity mangrove is now partly deforested while the freshwater
forest is still preserved from aquaculture development.

Vegetation type 1986 1992 1996 1998 1999 2001

Mixed fresh-water forest 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 90%
Low salinity mangrove 100% 100% 100% 97% 76% 59%
Pure Nypa 100% 99% 90% 62% 36% 19%
Nypa and dispersed Avicennia 98% 96% 71% 31% 31% 18%
Nypa and Rhizophora 100% 100% 94% 40% 40% 8%
Dense Avicennia 99% 91% 72% 34% 34% 16%
Dense Rhyzophora 100% 100% 92% 50% 48% 26%
Ferns and herbaceous 99% 97% 66% 26% 26% 27%
Sonneratia 100% 100% 100% 86% 86% 33%
Cultures, mainly coconut 100% 47% 32% 16% 16% 10%
Table 3 : Status of surface areas for each type of vegetation from 1986 to 2001 (Mahakam Delta) (Dutrieux, 2001)
SPE 168449 5

Maps in Figure 3 illustrate the extension of the deforested areas through the years. In parallel with aquaculture development,
there was significant oil and gas activity particularly during early 2000 resulting from the installation of a cluster of wells.
Some of the installations took place in the water area of the delta and others inside the mangrove area. These clusters are
linked together and to remote wells by pipes. A given pipe installed on land causes the clearing of a corridor that is 20 to 30 m
wide in the vicinity of a given installation. As part of its commitment to restore these deforested areas, Total E&P Indonesie
has implemented a large replantation programme since 2000.

a b

c d

Figure 3 : Extent of shrimp ponds (in blue) in the Mahakam Delta between 1986 and 2001.
a. Interpretation of SPOT images taken on 14 November 1986 and 21 February 1987 (Dutrieux, 1989); b. Interpretation of
SPOT images taken on 25 March 1992 (Dutrieux et al. 1996); c. interpretation of SPOT images taken on 30 March 1998
(Dutrieux, 2001); d. Interpretation of Landsat 7 images taken on 27 February 2011 and ERS radar images taken on 5
September 2001 (Creocean, 2002).
6 SPE 168449

Materials and methods

We assessed changes of land and vegetation cover using cartographic methods based on satellite imagery, terrestrial and aerial
surveys, and local environmental knowledge and data. We examined the structure and species composition of the mangrove
forest to distinguish pristine areas from locations altered by human activities. The update of the existing biological data base
was done by conducting inventories of flora and fauna.

Vegetation cover

The spatial distribution of mangroves of the Mahakam delta was investigated using satellite images and validated by site
surveys. These data were compared with GIS maps produced for Total E&P Indonesie before 2010. Digital mapping required
the use recent satellite images. We selected a scene from the AVNIR (Advanced Visible and Near Infrared) instrument
acquired in May 2010. This image from the satellite ALOS, covers the entire delta. Clouds are present in the more distal part
of the delta and onland leaving the northern part with a quite good cloud-free view. Consequently almost 75% of the delta
could be observed. We could extract vegetated and water surface using the green to very near infrared (NeIR) spectral bands ,
but the medium pixel resolution (10m) proved to be quite restrictive considering the mean dimension of ponds. The AVNIR
images were not adapted to adjust and correct the pond and Right of Ways GIS layers and could not be considered as a
reference data for ortho-rectification.

With four TerraSAR satellite radar images we could obtain a cloud-free view of the entire Mahakam Delta. The radar
instrument of TerraSAR operated in the X-band (9,65 Ghz – 3cm) and had several acquisition modes and related products. We
chose the strip-map acquisition mode providing a ground resolution of 1.25m. The dates of acquisition ranged between 22
June and 14 July 2010, close to a month after the AVNIR image was taken. The SAR images were orthorectified using satellite
metadata assuming the absence of relief. We also verified the final geometry using the SRTM Digital Elevation Model (90m).
The AVNIR images were projected using the SAR image as a geographic reference. We used the UTM50S system with
WGS84 datum for final projection of images in the metric system.

Using both optical and radar datasets, we mapped vegetation and mangroves distibution at a 1/10000 scale. This distribution is
representative of 2010. The generated maps allowed to plan ground truthing, an important validation step of our interpretation
before producing final maps.

A 10-day field survey included onwater, onland, and aerial observations. For each day trip and route several target areas were
selected by comparing 1999 and 2010 maps with a focus on specific topics such as replantation/deforestation, shrimp ponds
that were abandoned or being developed, and areas undergoing accretion or abrasion. The field effort was concentrated in the
downstream areas, the primary areas of interest of this study. We used computer-assisted GPS navigation and recorded survey
routes.

For each survey area, we gathered data on the flora, took photographs, and interviewed members of the local community
including fishermen, villagers, and fishermen at shrimp ponds. We could answer the questions we raised during the
interpretation of satellite images. During the fieldwork, we could also gather data available from Total E&P Indonesie such as
geographical data on shrimp ponds.

Mangrove species composition and forest structure

For this project, a first inventory of the mangrove species was focused on the downstream area of the Mahakam Delta to
concentrate on main areas of the delta impacted by anthropogenic activities. We identified mangrove species by boat within
the middle and lower parts of the delta. Vegetation was assessed using rapid surveys conducted during stops at different places
including riverbanks, shrimp ponds, replanted areas, and young to mature mangrove stands. In all, it was nearly 50 sites were
assessed. Yet due to the complexity of the study area, it is likely that our inventory and analyses of the flora were not
comprehensive. Even so we believe to have observed most of the mangrove species and facies characterizing the Mahakam
Delta.

Further to assess the physiognomy of mangrove forests, we conducted detailed forest inventories in areas ranging from
abandoned shrimp ponds with evidence of natural mangrove (re)colonization to plantations areas and natural forests. All
surveyed plantations consisted of Rhizophora spp. which resulted from initiatives by Total E&P Indonesie and/or local
authorities. A total of eight sites were monitored from 27 January to 8 February 2013.

Each forest inventory included species identification, tree counting, measurement of diameter at breast height (noted hereafter
DBH) for all living individuals (i.e., 130 cm above the ground or above the aerial roots for Rhizophora species) which are
SPE 168449 7

structural parameters of a mangrove forest, and salinity measurements of the upper mud layer and water. Observations and
assessment of the community structure were done using 25 x 25 meters (m) forest plots delineated using tape, stakes (left
onsite for future surveys), and hand-held laser measurements (Figure 4). From DBH measurements, we computed the basal
area of each plot as the sum of trunk sections per hectare (in m²/ha). Tree heights were also estimated using a graduated stake
for pioneer mangrove individuals or using a hand held lasermeter for adult trees. Salinity was measured using a handheld
refractometer. For Nypa formations, we described several palms (after cutting them) by counting number of leaves and
measuring the diameter of the main axis at different heights. We also measured width, height, and insertion angles of the
largest leaves. This forest dataset cannot be considered as sufficient for a complete overview of all the forest types found
across the region. However, they clearly contrast plantations from natural vegetation.

Figure 4 : Plot and subplots, marked stakes and a biodegradable line used for subplot delineation

Inventory of fauna

We examined bird population dynamics between 1987 and 2013. A baseline assessment of bird populations (primarily water
birds) had been done in 1987 (Eve and Guigue, 1989) before the delta was altered by aquaculture. Birds are the best well-
known group of animals of the delta and are arguably the easiest group of animals to use in order to monitor ecological
change. Furthermore, there are relatively few bird species when compared with the number of invertebrates or fish. Birds are
also more easily observed, monitored and identified than reptiles or mammals. Several inventory techniques can generate an
overview of the bird populations in large areas at a low cost and with minimal human investment (e.g., Blondel, 1975; Bibby
et al., 2000; Borchers et al., 2004). Inventory methods, such as simple observations on fixed points and along transect, can
easily be implemented. Inventory of birds using distance sampling technique is impossible in mangrove (just a few meters
visibility) as well as the quadrats technique (usually several kilometres) given the excessive surface delta.

In 2013, observations were made from boat transects. Daily survey tracks and locations where observations were made were
recorded using GPS. However, this surveying technique only allowed us to observe birds in flight, living on the banks or in
trees along the edge of the river. At the same time, we opportunistically recorded the position of ponds and locations where
monkeys and reptiles were observed. Most of the time, the edges of the Nypa prevented us from observing birds living in the
shrimp ponds. Yet, when we observed birds in these habitats, we could record and georeference the GPS location of the
observation point. The team most often disembarked using farmers' pontoons and houses to reach shrimp ponds to observe
birds. At each observation point we recorded the abundance of each species, and the age categories and behaviours in a
standardised way following state of the art methodologies (Reynolds et al., 1980; Goldsmith, 1994; Braun, 2005). Birds were
identified and counted and pictures taken to illustrate reports and help with further identification. When possible, the behaviour
data (reproduction, feeding, transit) were noted as well as age categories (juvenile, immature, subadult and adult). Specific
areas were targeted to be overflown by helicopter in order to take more pictures and make observations on the evolving
mangrove cover. Considering the speed of flight of the helicopter (about 100 km/h) and the altitude (46 m), it was only
possible to detect the largest or most easily detectable species (such as the Javan pond-heron).

Results: Understanding the restoration processes

Vegetation cover

Overall, all vegetation categories showed the same trend of increasing in cover with time, with the exception of the mixed
freshwater forest which was probably in the process of being deforested. From the vegetation maps we could estimate the
various types of land cover. The shrimp ponds were individually identified by digitizing the berms of each pond. In 2011, the
total cover of shrimp ponds was 63,000 ha while the total footprint of Total E&P Indonesie within the delta was 2,760 ha
representing slightly more than 4% of the total extension of cleared soils.
8 SPE 168449

When the GIS layer of deforested areas

(cleared soils) based on 2011 data (Figure
5) was overlain with the pre-1990
vegetation cover (see Figure 2), we found
that 45,000 ha were occupied in 2011
either by original or secondary vegetation
(i.e., re-growth following the initial
deforestation). By overlaying the 2001
and pre-1990 data, we found a 27,000 ha
vegetation cover. Hence, despite the
growth of shrimp pond farming, many
ponds were subject to reforestation over
time. By superimposing the positions of
the ponds on the original vegetation map,
we could differentiate the vegetation
outside of ponds (mostly original
vegetation) from the vegetation inside of
ponds (including vegetation not yet cut
and secondary vegetation). The
vegetation cover inside of ponds was
about 18,000 ha including 7,000 ha of
original vegetation (not yet deforested)
and 11,000 ha of secondary vegetation
(new colonized areas). Further by plotting
replanted areas and natural secondary
vegetation within the Total E&P
Indonesie footprint we found that
replanted areas were estimated at 620 ha.
This was probably an underestimate of
the actual total replanted area given the
data on the Total E&P Indonesie
plantation program (Bengen et al., 2012).
The re-vegetation with Rhizophora in
some places seems to provide favorable
conditions for the natural occurrence of
Avicennia. Given that Avicennia grows
faster than Rhizophora, viewed from the
river vegetation appears to consist of
naturally-occurring vegetation. Figure 5
shows the 2011 vegetation cover of the Figure 5 : Mapping of the vegetation cover of the Mahakam Delta in 2011. Dark
Mahakam Delta, and differentiates the green represents the remaining original vegetation cover while light green is the
remaining original vegetation from the secondary vegetation.
secondary vegetation. Figure 6 shows
Note to reader: When printing this document, there may be no difference
how cleared areas evolved with time
between light and dark green in figure 5 which can be seen on the screen.
through 2011.
hectares
100000
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1980 1986 1992 1996 1998 1999 2001 2011
Figure 6 : Evolution of cleared areas 1980-2011 (ha) in the Mahakam Delta
SPE 168449 9

Plant diversity and forest physiognomy

We found that mangrove forests of the downstream area of the Mahakam Delta comprise 15 true mangrove species that
dominate local plant communities, six less frequent species, and about 11 associated or introduced species. This inventory (see
appendix 1 for the species list) compares favorably with previous surveys in other areas of the Mahakam Delta.

Data on forest structure and species composition collected at eight forest sites (Table 4) highlight some general trends in forest
growth. Table 4 presents the growth stage and the vegetation type (natural versus planted). The first inventoried area (Plot #1;
salinity ~5‰) was a N. fruticans formation. The Nypa mangroves in the Mahakam Delta occur naturally, are very
homogeneous and can cover large areas. Our data show that these palm trees reach 11 m in height with approximately 2,500
individuals per hectare. They are monospecific within the upstream area of the delta and remaining substrata of natural tall
mangrove trees in the downstream part of the delta. We could not include the data of the Nypa formation into the following
analysis since DBH measurements were non significant.

Table 4 : Main characteristics of the forest plots inventoried in the Mahakam Delta. Diameter at breast height (DBH) values
correspond to a median value computed over the 10 trees of a given species presenting the highest value of DBH. Latitude and
longitude of plot centers are given in decimal degrees.

We also assessed a juvenile Rhizophora mucronata plantation (Plot #2; salinity ~17-25‰) which was growing on a site
outside a shrimp pond area (we did not observe evidences of pond berms). The area was clearly and directly submerged during
high tides. Data collected showed a dominant population of R. mucronata trees (84% of the basal area) but also, several
Avicennia officinalis (16%) as natural regeneration. All trees were of about 1 m high. In the future, the evolution of dominance
between planted and naturally-occurring trees should be interesting to follow.

Plots in natural forests (plots#3, 4 and5) showed various species composition at different growth stages. A. officinalis was
found as a pioneer species able to recolonize an abandoned shrimp pond (Plot#3; salinity ~17-22‰). In Plot#4, the area close
to the seaward margin (salinity~27‰) was mainly composed of Sonneratia caseaolaris trees, representing nearly 60% of the
plot basal area. The average DBH was greater than 25 cm. Sonneratia alba (30% of the basal area) and Avicennia alba (10%)
were observed as co-occuring species. Individuals of others species such as Avicennia officinalis, N. fruticans, Bruguiera
cylindrica were also found. The beautiful and mature R. apiculata area (Plot#5) was nearly monospecific probably due to the
quasi permanent flooding with average trunk diameters (measured above the aerial roots) greater than 30 cm. Salinity of
superficial water was around 15‰.

Surveys in plantations pointed out different forest physiognomy and species composition. In the abandoned shrimp pond area
of Plot#6 (salinity ~19-22‰), R. apiculata trees had been planted (49% of the basal area). However, the significant presence
of A. officinalis (51% of G) indicated that the area was also subject to natural regeneration since, to our knowledge, Avicennia
seeds are not used for plantation. The basal area for the plot remained close of the natural growth trajectory highlighted in
Figure 7. This area has to be further monitored to see how competition for light between Avicennia and Rhizophora species
will modify the species composition. We think that plot#7 was a plantation of both R. apiculata (49% of G) and R. mucronata
(35%). Salinity of superficial water and sediment were 19 and 26‰, respectively. We found a significant presence of two
others species i.e., A. officinalis (12%) and Xylocarpus granatum (4%), this suggesting that local hydrology allowed natural
colonization by other species. The canopy was closed as indicated by the high basal area value of 14.7 m² ha-1. The plot#8 was
10 SPE 168449

a R. mucronata plantation that was approximately seven years old. The area was not an abandoned shrimp pond but a
mangrove area cut by Total E&P Indonesie for the installation of infrastructure. A very high number of evenaged and
evensized small trees (>3200 trees/ha for DBH of 6.5 cm) was noted. The basal area was 22.6 m² ha-1 and other mangrove
species did not occur (Figure 7). Salinity of superficial water and sediment ranged from 19 to 22‰.

Figure 7 : Variation of the forest plot basal area G in function of the diameter at
breast height (DBH) of dominant trees of dominant species (Mahakam Delta).

Tree mortality may appear soon as a consesquence of a natural self-thinning process resulting from the competition for light
and nutrients. As all trees have the same height and same dimensions, the risk of a general collapse could take place. The
renewal of nutrient by way of unconstrained hydro-sedimentary processes will probably largely influence of the long-term
sustainability of the plantation.

The impression we get is that the recovery capability of mangroves over cleared areas remains high as supported by previous
experiments related to the growth of Avicennia and Sonneratia (Dutrieux et al., 1990; Martin et al., 1990). Consequently, an
alternative to 'plantations in every man-made degraded area' may be to facilitate 'flooding everywhere'. Berms of abandoned
shrimp ponds can be easily removed by local people and natural recolonization observed (e.g., an educational program). In
pipeline corridors or in cleared areas inside large mangrove forests, the need for planting has to be discussed while considering
the importance of recovering the initial mud elevation and hydrology. Preservation of substantial mangrove areas is probably
necessary to seed the delta.

Bird population diversity and trends

The considerable modification of delta habitats resulted in a very substantial increase in populations of some species
associated with open wet areas, such as egrets. From some hundreds of individuals counted in 1987, the local populations of
egrets currently amount to nearly 15,000 individuals. Likewise, some species of heron have seen their population sizes
increase considerably, such as the purple heron or the Javan pond-heron. This also happened for another large species, the
lesser adjutant, which saw its numbers rise from about 30 individuals to over 120. Ducks also seem to have used the habitats
created by the clearings to considerably increase their populations. The Sunda teal, observed for the first time in Borneo during
the 1987 survey (Eve and Guigue, 1989), now has a local population probably nearing 1,000 individuals. The wandering
whistling-duck also experienced the same change increasing its numbers from less than 70 individuals in 1987 to nearly 1,000
individuals in 2013.

The populations of these species have benefited of new feeding areas when the shrimp ponds were developed. Indeed, egrets,
ducks, and waders use the shrimp ponds in high numbers on cyclical basis when shrimp ponds are emptied for shrimp
harvesting. The presence of pristine areas, with large trees or dense copses of smaller species (Nypa) removed from human
presence, is also favorable for the reproduction of these species. Here they find quiet conditions for reproduction or gatherings
(dormitories). Amongst the species observed in 2013 and those not observed in 1987, eight dwell in an aquatic environment
and directly depend on the shrimp ponds: darter, stilts, grey heron, black-crowned night-heron, intermediate egret, western
marsh-harrier and the Garganey. In 1987, the delta was not very favourable for these species as there were not many suitable
habitats. The opening of shrimp ponds was the obvious factor leading to the growth of all these bird populations.
SPE 168449 11

The growth of populations of proboscis monkey and long-tailed macaque may have also coincided with the habitat changes
within the delta. Yet, variations of the sizes of their populations are less well known. We have observed these two species now
and then over the past two decades while travelling by boat in the delta (Dutrieux, pers. obs.). Overall we observed more
individuals in 2013 than during previous years. Does this reflect a real increase in local populations or the consequence of
diminishing habitat and the concentration of individuals among the plant-covered edges of streams?

The presence of five land-based species newly observed in 2013 seems to have been influenced by the increased human
presence in the delta: the sooty-headed bulbul; the Javan myna; the paddyfield pipit; the edible-nest swiftlet; and the black-nest
swiftlet. The first three species were only observed on low and maintained lawns of Total E&P Indonesie bases where these
species came to feed. Another species, the eastern crimson sunbird was observed on a Total base, but seems less linked to
human presence, even if this species is known to frequent farming areas (Phillipps and Phillipps, 2011).

Discussion: Lessons learned

Human-induced changes

During the early 1970s, two important changes led to marked human population and environmental changes in the Mahakam
Delta: the development of the oil and gas activity and the opening of cold storage facilities to preserve and export shrimp
(Tarumadevyanto et al., 2006). The development of the oil and gas activity by Total E&P Indonesie, generated significant
employement opportunities causing many people to move from Makasar in Sulawesi to work for Total. At the same time, the
opening of two cold storage facilities for shrimp opened the international market for products from the Mahakam Delta. The
source of the shrimp production changed from fishing to aquaculture as developed by inhabitants oringinating from Sulawesi.

In the mid 1980s, there were no shrimp farms within the delta (Dutrieux et al., 1990; Dutrieux, 1991). The first shrimp ponds
appeared in the swamp area of the delta in 1986 (Dutrieux, 2001). Between 1990 and 2000, 75,000 ha of shrimp ponds
replaced pristine mangrove cover (Creocean/Sce, 2001; Creocean, 2002). Large areas were cleared without any planning for
water circulation, disease management, or production sustainability. As a consequence Cirad (2002) had predicted a total
destruction of the natural environment of the delta.

While the shrimp production was at first limited to subsistence fishing, without any need for the addition of food, oxygen or
larvae supply, farmers began to face loss of production and income. At the onset, shrimp ponds could produce 100 to 300
kg/ha/year. Yet, after four of five years, production decreased to less than 50 kg/ha/year (Bosma et al., 2012). This forced
farmers to abandon many ponds given the lack of financial resources needed to transform their ponds for an efficient and
profitable activity.

In the late 1990’s various stakeholders including Total E&P Indonesie pointed out the anarchic development of aquaculture in
the delta. Various actions and plans to restore the integrity of the delta were undertaken (Suripno et al., 1998; Madéo, 2001).
Most of them consisted in plantation programs. They were conducted by Total E&P Indonesie and local authorities as part of
social action. All of the replanting was conducted with the active participation of the local villagers. However, these actions
which are still ongoing (Asmaradewi et al., 2012; Bengen et al., 2012), were not coordinated to address the delta as a whole.
The replanted areas were concentrated near Total E&P Indonesie facilities or villages participating in the restoration.
Replanting was supported by Total E&P Indonesie or conducted by villagers on their own initiative. Moreover, the species that
were being planted were neither part of the original species assemblage, nor were they the most adapted to the area. The
chosen species were mainly Rhizophora spp. which is the least abundant species in the delta but the easiest one to plant. The
objective of the replantation was clearly based on a social decision rather than on science. We noted that the planting of
Rhizophora appeared to provide in some places favorable conditions for natural growth of Avicennia. The Avicennia will
normally grow faster than the Rhizophora and give the impression from seen from the outside that the areas have recovered
naturally.

Trends in vegetation cover and species composition

Here we could assess trends in vegetation cover within the downstream part of the delta. There were few areas that had been
recently destroyed (at least 7,000 ha). However, many areas were being recolonized either naturally or through replantation.
Some parts of the delta were under erosion (loss of lands) while some were under the process of sedimentation (accretion and
gain of new land). Consequently, the Mahakam Delta vegetation was under the influence of destructive and colonization
processes. As such, the status and distribution of the vegetation was the result of a complex combination of these two
processes. The initial destructive processes of the vegetation were linked with the mangrove deforestation caused by shrimp
pond development. However, while such destruction was very common 10 years ago it was rarely observed during this recent
study.
12 SPE 168449

Erosion appears to have substantially increased in some areas following the construction of shrimp ponds. Indeed, once a
shrimp pond is built behind a green belt, the green belt is quickly degraded followed by the flooding of the shrimp pond.
Conversely, erosion is not very active in areas supporting remaining initial vegetation.

There are three main ways colonization by the vegetation takes place in the delta: colonization of newly created lands during
accretion processes; secondary colonization of areas that were cleared (by shrimp pond construction or Oil & Gas
developments), and plantations. Within the two distributary areas, the islands show some land progression towards the sea
through accretion processes. These areas are concentrated in the southern and northern peripheral parts of the delta, not in the
central part. The large inputs of sediments carried by the Mahakam River are deposited at the river mouth, where the widening
of the channel slows down the current. Once a suitable amount of sediments has accumulated, plants, mainly Sonneratia and in
some cases Avicennia colonize the newly formed sand-banks (Figure 8).

Figure 8 : Different stages of colonization in the Mahakam Delta. A: very young seedlings of Sonneratia (less than 1 year);
B: young Sonneratia (1 to 3 years); C: pure Avicennia (probably 10 years old); D: old Avicennia mixed with Nypa (more
than 20 years).
SPE 168449 13

Some areas were cleared from their original vegetation and are being secondarily re-colonized, either because humans
abandoned the areas, or vegetation is allowed to make a come back. Plantations in the delta are conducted either by local
villagers (through local authorities or by individuals), or by Total E&P Indonesie. Villagers replant mangrove in abandoned
shrimp ponds or even in active ones on their
own initiative or with the support of Total E&P
Indonesie. There are more and more shrimp
ponds where the central part is planted leaving
the surrounding area free of vegetation acting as
a peripheral channel. In collaboration with local
inhabitants, Total E&P Indonesie planted
vegetation in areas such as pipeline routes
where vegetation had been cleared for
development and in other areas Total E&P
Indonesie acquired.

Figure 9 illustrates what typically occurred

throughout the delta from 1988 to 2011 in terms
of erosion and accretion. It presents an area
found within the lower parts of the delta. The
red polygon and the black arrow are
geographical references to help the reader orient
the photograph. In 1988 the photographed area
was subject to naturally-occurring slow
accretion (south of the delta). Avicennia grew
on the accreted mud-bank. Between the
Avicennia band and land, there was a small
channel which would eventually become filled
with mud and then be rapidly colonized by
Sonneratia as seen at the bottom of the
photograph taken in 1988. On the landside, only
the shoreline was colonized by large trees with
the last Avicennia having colonized the area
probably some tens of years before. The land
beyond the shoreline was occupied by ferns (A.
aureum), grasses, and some scattered trees.

Between 1990 and 2000, most of the shrimp

ponds of the delta were developed, leading to
the active destruction of the vegetation cover,
with the exception of the green belt. However,
the green belt was not large enough to be self-
protective. The shrimp ponds, once formed,
were regularly filled with water and then
emptied. This water movement, running
perpendicular to the shoreline was a new
phenomenon. The combination of this water
movement with the tidal action of seawater led
to the destruction of the mud berms of shrimp
ponds. As a result the green belt vanished and,
simultaneously, ponds were filled with the
seawater during each tidal cycle. The intruding
water also transported sediments, given that this
is an area of naturally-occurring accretion.
Sediments were deposited both in the ponds and
in front of them which was followed by
colonization by mangrove. The photograph
taken in 2001 shows that the absence of the
initial green belt of Avicennia and a new stand Figure 9 : Typical succession of erosion and accretion processes in the
of Sonneratia on a new mud bank. southern part of the Mahakam Delta
14 SPE 168449

In 2011 the entire area outlined in the photograph was colonized by mangrove trees. Most of the reference area was covered
with trees, probably a mixed formation comprising Sonneratia and Avicennia. Consequently the density was even much higher
than it was before. The land was very well protected by these trees. As such sand banks formed in front of the land would be
easily recolonized. Here, only the fast growing Sonneratia species colonized the sand bank. The forest was obviously
progressing toward the middle of the channel, and at a faster pace than before.

Hence the damages caused by the pond development to the vegetation cover were only temporary. However, the
erosion/accretion sequence generated a different habitat. The mixed habitat of ferns and scattered trees was replaced by a
dense forest of Sonneratia and Avicennia. It is probable that this community may evolve to become dominated by Avicennia
and maybe some Nypa. Consequently the vegetation of the delta has faced substantial structural changes for more than 20
years resulting from human activity. These changes can be summarized as having taken place in two main phases:

Phase 1: Between 1990 and 2000, the vegetation clearing was active resulting in a huge loss of vegetation. Approximately
85% of the delta vegetation was destroyed. In the downstream area of the delta, only a narrow band of vegetation was left
along the banks of the rivers or the shoreline, but this green belt was quickly destroyed by water movement.

Phase 2: Between 2000 and 2011, water infiltrated many shrimp ponds located close to the shoreline. As a result, they were no
longer used for aquaculture and were recolonized by vegetation following a rapid process. In 2011 through naturally-occurring
recolonization, more than 10% of the delta recovered from the initial deforestation. This process will probably continue unless
there are no major changes in shrimp pond management.

From 2001 to 2011, vegetation regained a 10,000 ha area (10% of the delta), most of it in abandoned shrimp ponds. Of this
total area, only 620 ha are made of replanted trees. We also noted, especially in the northern part of the delta, plantations
inside active shrimp ponds indicating that a dedicated management procedure was implemented. However, many abandoned
shrimp ponds were recolonized naturally by the vegetation. This recolonization was very fast (a parcel can be covered by
vegetation in a few months) and the diversity of the species was quite high. In many cases Avicennia naturally occupied
abandoned lands and in some cases with Sonneratia and Rhizophora. The forest development was then quite diversified and
the vegetation structure complex (macrorugosity). Interestingly, areas initially supporting Nypa rarely recovered with the same
species. The only places where the Nypa could grow back, were areas where stems of the original vegetation had not been
destroyed (i.e., clearing limited to cutting of leaves). In most other situations, original Nypa was naturally replaced by other
mangrove tree species generating a significantly more diversified environment compared to its original condition (i.e., before
any human action) (Denis and Dutrieux, 1993).

The general trend in vegetation cover is toward a reforestation of the delta, provided that external influences remain the same.
Yet, the use of shrimp ponds within the delta will probably continue into the future. Badly managed ponds are abandoned and
new and better managed ponds are being developed probably involving more investments. Mangrove replanting was
considered on areas cleared by the industry, on some shrimp ponds belong to villagers and adjacent purchased ponds. Yet,
only the permanent industrial facilities remain as deforested areas which cover relatively small surfaces.

In areas where vegetation recovered naturally, two observations can be made: First the new vegetation (secondary) will not be
the same as the initial vegetation. This does not mean, however, that the new vegetation is less “valuable” in terms of
biodiversity or structure. In many places, Nypa will be replaced by Avicennia or other species. Secondly, and as a
consequence, habitat diversity may exceed the original conditions. This situation can lead to an increase or at least a change in
biodiversity of the other ecological groups such as birds.

In the future, human action could be directed to ensure that soil elevation will still be adapted and seeds available in most
places. Plantation of mangroves should be focused in areas where these conditions do not exist assuming that soil condition,
the right species, and planting density are assessed beforehand.

Approach of Total to this project

Deltas and mangrove are considerd in Total Group’s Biodiversity Policy (dated January 2005) as rich and fragile environment
requiring particular care and attention.

Total Group has a specific approach to biodiversity that is divided into 3 main stages. The first one is to know the biodiversity
present at its sites and assess the potential impacts to biodiversity from the sites’ activities. To achieve it, environmental
baseline studies and regular biodiversity surveys in the delta have allowed Total to witness progressive changes occurring in
the Mahakam delta from mid 1980s through the years, and also assess the impacts of its activities and other human activities
surrounding its facitilies and on a wider scale in the whole delta.
SPE 168449 15

The Mahakam delta where Total E&P Indonesie has been operating for years is a sensitive environment supplying
employment and livelihoods for local communities. Despite impacts of its activities on the delta and therefore on biodiversity
was much lower than shrimp ponds activitiers, reducing significant impacts and protecting biodiversity of the Mahakam delta
are considered by Total as a corporate social responsibility, regulation compliance, and project support activity. To
demonstrate its commitment to protect the Mahakam delta, that is the second stage of Total approach, Total E&P Indonesie
has launched over years sustainable development programs including minimization of land clearance, implementation of an
offset policy, a mangrove replanting program in cleared and eroded areas in cooperation with local villagers, Environment
Authority (BAPEDALDA) and local NGOs, and a sustainable program of shrimp pond farming (Chaineau et. al, 2010).

Contributing to scientific knowledge of biodiversity through scientific surveys and research programs is of mutual interest to
both science and industry. By scientifically understanding the restoration processes of mangrove at a large scale, in a delta,
could help in the future, in the Mahakam delta but also in similar environment, stakeholders to develop a coastal zone
management plan.

Conclusion
The study demonstrates that, in the case of the Mahakam Delta, mangrove can recover rapidly by itself long as the physical
environment of the delta is not destroyed. Every year, hundreds of hectares of cleared areas in the Mahakam Delta are
naturally recolonized by diverse and well adapted vegetation. This naturally-occurring recolonization requires, however, that
the soil elevation be still adapted and that there is an efficient supply of seeds from preserved areas.

Plantation of mangrove (mainly Rhizophora spp) represents more than 6% of natural regrowth area and requires a substantial
effort. But it is proved to be very efficient and successful in terms of survival rate and growth rate.

In 2014, the last step of the project will be devoted to revisiting the recolonizing parcels and producing an updated cartography
based on new images. This will be conducted to gain greater insight into the processes and dynamics of the re-colonization.
Tentatively, vegetation should naturally recolonize abandoned ponds. Our expectation is that future experimental studies will
tell us whether re-plantations are really needed or if there are cases where natural re-colonization is efficient enough.

From a more general standpoint, it is clear that human-induced changes have altered the dynamics of the local fauna and flora.
Increased plant diversity, as well as an increased diversity and abundance of birds contrast with the original (pristine) status of
the delta. Economic and ecological value of the Mahakam delta has therefore been modified. Today the delta is reaching a
kind of new equilibrium between ecological value and economic development (aquaculture, oil and gas activity). That
situation was reached through individual initiatives, without any global environmental or development plan. Is the end result
acceptable in terms of ecological value? Will it be sustainable? Are current human activities paradoxically contributing to the
long-term environmental quality of the Mahakam Delta? And what about the social dimensions of the restoration program (e.g.
employment and sustainable livelihoods, health and nutrition, demographic growth, etc.)? Hopefully studying and monitoring
of the delta during the coming years should provide a sound basis to answer these questions. For considering an ecological
value index, other parameters should be considered, for instance hydrological features, physico-chemical water and sediment
quality, level of pollution... Vegetation maps considered in this study could also be converted into biomass maps and therefore
in carbon stocks and relationships between shrimp pond development, mangrove surface decrease, carbon stock and dynamics
could be discussed in order to evaluate impacts on ecological services provided by mangrove.

Surely the lessons learned over the past 20 years could steer all stakeholders toward a science-based approach to ensure the
long-term planning of environmental sustainability. Thanks to the results of this project, oil companies have now learned that
replantation is not the only or even the best way to help a mangrove to restore around their installations. A good scientific
knowledge allows implementing measures just there to help the natural processes to take place (protection of remaining
original forests, soil preparation for instance). In case of plantation, when there are no other possibilities, finding alternative
species to Rhizophora is also an issue in order to keep the landscape and the biodiversity at its best possible level. Stakeholders
have the opportunity to use these lessons learned to substantiate an integrated environmental management tool such as a
coastal zone management plan acceptable to all parties for the good of the Makaham Delta.

Acknowledgments
Many people have contributed to this project over the years and, whilst the following list is not comprehensive, it is
representative of the diversity of these contributions. The authors would therefore wish to thank: Claude-Henri Chaineau,
Jacques Miné and Frédérique Michaud from Total for having launched and supported this programme; Leslie Bissey from
Creocean, Orig-Setianto Hartoyo, Arif Suprapto, Riana Rahmaningrum, Pratiwi Utamiputri, Didik Widiarso, Basri, Satrian
Affan, Dian Safitri, Krishna Ismaputra and Benyamin Argubie from Total E&P Indonesie, Christelle Jennet from Total S.A.
for their contribution to the project and their fruitful cooperation; and Ken Deslarzes from Creocean for his editing and help
with revisions.
16 SPE 168449

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18 SPE 168449

Appendix 1: Flora from the downstream area of the Mahakam Delta

This appendix presents the results of the first detailed inventory of the mangrove species of the Mahakam Delta. This survey
conducted in 2010 yielded:

 15 major components, true mangroves dominating the flora communities:

 Nypa fruticans (Areacaeae family)

 4 Avicennia species (Avicenniaceae family) : Avicennia officinalis, A. alba, A. lanata, A. marina
 3 Sonneratia species (Sonneratiaceae family) : Sonneratia caseolaris, S. alba and S. ovata
 2 Rhizophora species (Rhizophoraceae family) : Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata
 4 Bruguiera species and 1 Ceriops species (Rhizophoraceae family): Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B. cylindrica, B.
parviflora, B. sexangula and Cerius tagal.

 6 minor components including less frequent species:

 Excoecaria agalocha ,
 Heritiera littoralis,
 Xylocarpus granatum,
 Aegiceras corniculatum
 Acrostichum aureum
 Scyphophora hydrollycaea

 About 11 associated species or introduced ones:

 Capsicum frutescens (Cabai rawit)

 Ipomoea aquatic (Kangkung)
 Jatropa curcas (Jarak pagar)
 Pandanus amaryllifolius (Pandan wangi)
 Solanum melongena (Terung)
 Aglaia cucullata, of Meliaceae
 Uncaria spp. of Rubiaceae
 Scirpus litoralis of Cyperaceae
 Flagellaria indica of Flagellariaceae
 Hymenachne acutigluma of Poaceae
 Allophylus cobbe, of Sapindaceae